C - fakepathEM Lecture
C - fakepathEM Lecture
C - fakepathEM Lecture
General
The transformer is a static device which, by electromagnetic
induction, transforms electric energy from one circuit to another circuit
at the same frequency, but usually at different voltage and current
values.
Transformers have found very wide practical applications for the
transfer of electric energy over large distances, for the distribution of
this energy among users, and also in various rectifier and amplifier
arrangements, and other devices.
In transmission of electric energy from a generating plant to users of
much importance is the value of current passed through the line wires.
The value of current determines the cross section of wires of the power
line and hence the cost of wires and the power load in the line.
The transmission of the same amount of energy at a higher voltage
and, accordingly, at a lower current allows us to employ the line wires
of a smaller cross-sectional area and thus to effect savings in
nonferrous metals and to reduce the power loss.
Thus, assuming that the power delivered to the consumer is the same,
the cross section of a conductor and the power lost. in the line are
inversely proportional to voltage.
At power plants, synchronous generators produce electric energy at
11 to 18 kV and sometimes at 30 to 35 kV. These voltages are very
high and unsuitable for operating the consumer’s loads, but they are not
high enough for economical power transmission over long distances.
Step-up transformers make possible the transmission of energy at very
high voltages.
The loads consuming electric energy, such as lamps and motors, are
designed for low voltages, 110 to 380 V, from the consideration of
safety of the personnel handling these loads. Also, high voltages call
for enhanced insulation of current-carrying parts which makes the
designs of machinery and devices very complex. This explains why the
energy transmitted at high voltages cannot be directly used at the
receiver end of the line, but must be delivered to loads through step-
down transformers.
Transmission lines supplying energy from power plants terminate in
step-down transformers of substations, which step down the voltage to
a value suitable for secondary transmission and for loads.
A transformer has two insulated windings arranged on a steel core:
one is a primary connected to a source of power and the other is a
secondary connected to a load. Any winding of a transformer can be
used as primary or secondary. In a step-up transformer the primary
voltage is lower than the secondary voltage. A step-down transformer
uses the reverse connection, in which the primary voltage is higher than
the secondary voltage. Any transformer can operate as a step-up or a
step-down transformer.
In general, the equilibrium equation for the circuit of the first side
winding in the no-load mode is as follows:
U1 =I0r1 + (-e1)
U1 + e1 =0 olar
It seems that the voltage applied to the first side winding is balanced by
the e.h.q. induced in the winding. Given that the voltage U1 applied to
the winding changes by a sinusoidal law, then the magnetic flux
remains at 900 degrees in space and changes by the law of F = Fms
(t- / 2), the expressions of the induced e.h.qs in both windings are
as follows:
The effective value of both e.h.q. is:
(8)
(9)
Pel1=I02r1, and the other part is used to repel steel losses Pm=I02rm.
Given that the power losses are very small during no-load operation,
the no-load operation of the transformer is as follows:
F1=I1W1 ; F2=I2W2
zigzag connection
1) The first and second side voltages of the transformers must be equal
to each other. This means that the transformation coefficients are equal;
When the short-circuit voltages of the transformers are not equal, the
load current is unevenly distributed between them. A transformer with
a small short-circuit voltage is overloaded: Thus, in order to meet this
condition in practice, the difference in short-circuit voltages must not
exceed orta10% of their average value.
Autotransformers
4
Construction Features of an Induction Motor
The slip of the rotor when running under load is usually small. In
modern induction motors, the slip at full load reaches 3 to 5%. i.e. the
rotor speed insignificantly differs from the synchronous speed. At no
load, i.e. when the load on the shaft is absent, the value of slip is
negligible and may be taken equal to zero.
As the rotor gains speed. the slip goes down and causes the rotor emf
and current to drop off with the result that the stator current falls
accordingly. A high starting current is
objectionable both for the motor and for the source that supplies it. At
frequent starts, the high starting current heavily heats up the motor
winding and can lead to a premature aging of the insulation. Large
starting currents are responsible for a dip in voltage of the power line,
which affects the operation of other machines run off the same power
line. Therefore, “across-the line” starting is permissible only if the
motor power is much lower than the power of the voltage source. If the
motor power is comparable with the power of the source, it is necessary
to reduce the current supplied to the motor at starting.
Wound-rotor motors exhibit good starting characteristics. To reduce the
starting torque, a wound-rotor motor is started on full-line voltage but
with an external resistor called the starter rheostat connected to the
rotor winding (Fig. 2.8). The resistor reduces the rotor current. for
which reason both the stator current and the current drawn from the
line become low in magnitude. This increases the active component of
the rotor current and thus allows the motor to deliver a high starting
torque at a low current.
Starter rheostats operate for a short time that is sufficient to enable the
motor to accelerate and are designed for a short-time action.
connects the stator winding in star to allow the motor to come to speed
and then transfers it to delta for running. The star-delta starting reduces
the starting current drawn by the motor to one-third its full value. This
method of starting is applicable for a motor which normally runs with
its startor winding closed on delta.
When the motor carries the rated load, the slip is small and hence, the
rotor frequency is also small, f2=0. The inductive reactances of the
windings are now of no importance and the currents in A and B are
inversely proportional to RA and RB. 1n the running conditions, the
current thus largely flows through the bars of inner winding B having a
lower resistance. The winding B is an operating winding. This rotor
design makes it possible to increase the rotor winding resistance at
starting and, hence, to reduce the starting current and to increase the
starting torque in the same way as is done with the aid of a starting
rheostat.
In a deep-bar rotor motor, the cage winding is built of thin and high
strips, or bars (Fig. 2.10b). In such a rotor design, the current is forced
toward the upper part of the her because the lower part is linked with a
larger leakage flux than the upper part.
The effect of displacing the current toward the upper portions of bars
shows up most strongly at the instant of starting the motor, when the
rotor frequency is equal to the power line frequency. Consequently, this
effect affords an increase in the resistance of the rotor winding with the
attendant increase in the starting torque. As the rotor continues to
accelerate, the rotor frequency gradually decreases and the current
spreads more uniformly over the cross section of bars. At the rated
speed, the current distribution over the bar cross section is almost
uniform.
The current flowing through the coils produces a magnetic field with
four poles. Connecting one of the coils in opposition to the other to
reverse the direction of current in it enables the winding to produce a
two-pole magnetic field (Fig. 2.11b). A change in the number of poles
of the stator winding changes the rotational speed of the stator field
and, hence, the speed of the rotor. This method of speed control is
economical, but. presents the drawback in that it (changes the speed in
a stepwise manner. Besides, the motor with Such a speed control is
rather costly because of a complicated stator minding and increased
size of the machine.
An external force applied to the motor accelerates the rotor from rest,
which then develops the torque. The inability of a single-phase motor
to produce the starting torque is its substantial drawback. As noted
above, the motor needs an auxiliary device for starting.
The starting winding is held connected to the supply only during the
starting period. At the instant when the rotor is up to speed, this
winding is disconnected from the line by a switch or a suitable relay
and the motor operates as a single-phase machine.
The stator consists of a core, windings and a body. The stator core
is assembled from electrotechnical steel sheets. The slots are opened to
place the curls on the sheets. The shapes of the slots are in the form of
different geometric shapes, depending on the power of the machine
(Figure 28).
The stator windings are made of copper, are mainly three-phase and are
placed in openings in the stator core.
The beginning and end of each phase winding are C1-C4, respectively;
It is marked with C2-C5 and C3-C6 and is attached to the clamps on
the plate attached to the engine body. The loops are connected either in
a star or triangular pattern.
The short-circuited rotor consists of a core, a coil and a shaft. The rotor
core is assembled from 0.35 0.5 mm thick electrical steel sheets.
3.2 Rotating magnetic field in a three-phase system
demolition.
The phase coils are located at an angle of 1200 to each other in space,
and the ends are connected in a star pattern. When voltage is applied to
the winding, a three-phase current flows through it and a magnetic flux
is generated around each phase winding. The expressions for phase
currents and magnetic fluxes flowing through the loop are as follows:
iA=Imsint FA= Fmsint
The relative value of the speed difference between the stator area and
the rotor is called the slip:
S= v S%=
This method is not used when the network capacity is small, as the
voltage drop in the network is large, which has a negative impact on
the work of other operators.
To reduce the voltage applied to the stator winding, a reactor, an
autotransformer or a method of switching the stator winding connection
circuit from a triangle to a star is used.
commissioning scheme.
frequency regulation.
From this expression, it can be seen that the rotational speed can be
adjusted by changing three quantities: the slip, the frequency of the
stator current, and the number of even poles of the motor.
The windings of the rotating anchor are connected to the load by means
of three contact rings.
Figure 54. Synchronous machine structure
a ) fixed anchor;
b) rotating anchor