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Transformers

General
The transformer is a static device which, by electromagnetic
induction, transforms electric energy from one circuit to another circuit
at the same frequency, but usually at different voltage and current
values.
Transformers have found very wide practical applications for the
transfer of electric energy over large distances, for the distribution of
this energy among users, and also in various rectifier and amplifier
arrangements, and other devices.
In transmission of electric energy from a generating plant to users of
much importance is the value of current passed through the line wires.
The value of current determines the cross section of wires of the power
line and hence the cost of wires and the power load in the line.
The transmission of the same amount of energy at a higher voltage
and, accordingly, at a lower current allows us to employ the line wires
of a smaller cross-sectional area and thus to effect savings in
nonferrous metals and to reduce the power loss.
Thus, assuming that the power delivered to the consumer is the same,
the cross section of a conductor and the power lost. in the line are
inversely proportional to voltage.
At power plants, synchronous generators produce electric energy at
11 to 18 kV and sometimes at 30 to 35 kV. These voltages are very
high and unsuitable for operating the consumer’s loads, but they are not
high enough for economical power transmission over long distances.
Step-up transformers make possible the transmission of energy at very
high voltages.
The loads consuming electric energy, such as lamps and motors, are
designed for low voltages, 110 to 380 V, from the consideration of
safety of the personnel handling these loads. Also, high voltages call
for enhanced insulation of current-carrying parts which makes the
designs of machinery and devices very complex. This explains why the
energy transmitted at high voltages cannot be directly used at the
receiver end of the line, but must be delivered to loads through step-
down transformers.
Transmission lines supplying energy from power plants terminate in
step-down transformers of substations, which step down the voltage to
a value suitable for secondary transmission and for loads.
A transformer has two insulated windings arranged on a steel core:
one is a primary connected to a source of power and the other is a
secondary connected to a load. Any winding of a transformer can be
used as primary or secondary. In a step-up transformer the primary
voltage is lower than the secondary voltage. A step-down transformer
uses the reverse connection, in which the primary voltage is higher than
the secondary voltage. Any transformer can operate as a step-up or a
step-down transformer.

Principlle Of Action and Construction

The action of transformers depends on the principle of


electromagnetic induction. If the transformer primary connected to an
ac circuit of the power source carries an alternating current, the varying
magnetic flux (set up by the current) in the transformer core links the
turns of the secondary and induces an emf in the secondary. The emf
forces the current to flow in the secondary circuit connected to loads.
So electromagnetic induction enables the transformer to
transfer energy from the primary to the secondary circuit, but at the
other voltage that is suitable for the loads supplied from the secondary
circuit.
The steel core of a transformer provides a magnetic circuit for the
primary and the secondary and thus improves the magnetic coupling
between them. To reduce eddy-current losses, transformer cores are
made up of an assembly of thin steel laminations 0.50 and 0.35 mm
thick, coated with a heat-resistant insulating vanish. Transformer steel
used for cores comes in the cold-rolled and hot-rolled types. The cores
for low-power transformers are built up of III- or II-shaped laminations
punched from hot-rolled sheet steel.
Depending on the form of the core used and arrangement of windings
on it, transformers fall into two groups, core type and shell type. The
magnetic circuit of a core-type single-phase transformer is in the form
of a single ring which consists of two legs surrounded with windings
and two yokes at the top and bottom. So the magnetic flux closes on
itself entirely along the steel path (Fig. 1.1a). The magnetic circuit of a
single-phase shell-type transformer consists of the core such as
illustrated in (Fig 1.1b) . The windings entirely encircle one leg of the
core and the two extreme legs (yokes) surround the windings thus
partially
protecting them from mechanical damage.
Both core-type magnetic circuits (Fig. 1.1c) and shell-type magnetic
circuits (Fig. 1.1d) are made from cold-rolled steel laminations.
High-power transformers produced today are essentially of the core
type since they require a simpler insulation of the high-voltage winding
from the core than is the case for the shell-type counter-parts. In Iow-
power transformers the winding voltages are low, so the insulation
problem does not present difficulties. These transformers often come in
the shell-form design, which has one set of low-voltage and high-
voltage coils, whereas the core-form design calls for two sets of coils.
In the shell-type core, the magnetic flux that leaves the coil-carrying
leg divides into two equal parts, so one of its parts closing through one
of the free legs is half that through the coiI-carrying leg. For this
reason, each of the interlinked free legs has half the cross section of the
coil-carrying leg.
To enable a better removal of heat from a high-power transformer, the
cores (and the windings too) are made complete with cooling vents in
the planes parallel and perpendicular to the planes of steel laminations.
The nameplate data on a transformer give its power rating P and also
voltage and current ratings V1, V2, I1 and I2 for the primary and the
secondary respectively at full (rated) load.
The rated power is the total power transferred to the secondary at the
rated load. The rated power is expressed in volt-amperes and kilovolt
amperes. The active power, expressed in watts and kilowatts, is the
power drawn from a transformer and consumed by a useful load such
as a lamp, motor, or any other device.
The cross sections of winding conductors and current-carrying parts
of machines and devices are chosen proceeding from the total current
or total power rather than from the active component of current or
active power.
Low-power transformers have a large specific heat-exchange surface,
so natural air cooling is quite sufficient for them. High-power
transformers are oil-immersed devices mounted in steel tanks filled
with insulating oil.

2.3 Transformer no-load mode.

Such a regime is created mainly for experimental purposes. If the rated


voltage is applied to the first side winding with the ends of the second
side winding open, a load-free operating mode is obtained for the
transformer.

Let's first consider the ideal transformer.

The ideal transformer is a transformer in which the magnetic flux is


completely closed to the core and there are no losses.

Assume that a sinusoidal variable voltage is applied to the first side


winding (Figure 6.)
Figure 6 Unloaded mode of single-phase transformer.

In general, the equilibrium equation for the circuit of the first side
winding in the no-load mode is as follows:

U1 =I0r1 + (-e1)

Given that r1 = 0 in an ideal transformer,

U1 + e1 =0 olar

It seems that the voltage applied to the first side winding is balanced by
the e.h.q. induced in the winding. Given that the voltage U1 applied to
the winding changes by a sinusoidal law, then the magnetic flux
remains at 900 degrees in space and changes by the law of F = Fms
(t- / 2), the expressions of the induced e.h.qs in both windings are
as follows:
The effective value of both e.h.q. is:

(8)

(9)

During no-load operation, the transformer receives active and reactive


power from the mains. Part of the active power is used to heat the coil,
ie electrical losses

Pel1=I02r1, and the other part is used to repel steel losses Pm=I02rm.
Given that the power losses are very small during no-load operation,
the no-load operation of the transformer is as follows:

2.5. Transformer short circuit mode and experience

When the rated voltage is applied to the transformer during operation,


the short-circuit mode is dangerous for the transformer, which is an
emergency mode.

In the event of a short circuit of the second winding, the voltage


applied to the first side can be reduced to a value so that the currents
flowing through both windings are nominal. The voltage at which the
rated current can flow through the windings in the short-circuit mode is
called the short-circuit voltage.
The short-circuit voltage in a transformer is one of the main quantities
and is denoted by Uq and given as a percentage:

Uq% = (Uq / Un)100% = 515%

In the short-circuit mode, the currents I1 and I2 flowing through the


windings create magnetic forces, respectively:

F1=I1W1 ; F2=I2W2

An experiment is performed according to the scheme in Figure 15 to


determine the short-circuit parameters.
2.9 Three-phase transformers

Three groups of single-phase transformers or three-phase, three-phase


transformers can be used to transform three-phase current (Figure 21).
Figure 21 Three-phase transformer
The magnetic circuit of such a transformer is obtained asymmetrically,
as the lengths of the magnetic field lines of the middle and outer phases
are different. In the no-load mode due to the small magnetic resistance
of the middle phase
Iao becomes Iao IcoIbo Since the proposed voltages are symmetric,
FA = FB = FC. Since the currents are the same, the no-load current of a
phase with a small magnetic resistance must also be small. In load
mode, the effect of asymmetry is negligible.
The windings of three-phase transformers are connected according to
four schemes: star (Y), star with zero point (Yo), triangle (), zigzag
with zero output. Zigzag connection is used in special purpose
transformers (Figure 22).
Figure 22 Transformer second side winding

zigzag connection

Figure 24. Connection of windings of a three-phase transformer


group

2.11 Parallel operation of transformers.

In order to increase the reliability of the power supply, several


transformers are connected in parallel during the transmission of large
powers (Figure 25).

Figure 25. Diagram of parallel operation of a transformer


The following conditions must be met for transformers to operate in
parallel.

1) The first and second side voltages of the transformers must be equal
to each other. This means that the transformation coefficients are equal;

2) connection groups of transformers connected in parallel must be the


same;

3) short-circuit voltages should be equal to Uq1 = Uq2.

4) the ratio of rated voltages of transformers operating in parallel


should not exceed 3: 1.

When the short-circuit voltages of the transformers are not equal, the
load current is unevenly distributed between them. A transformer with
a small short-circuit voltage is overloaded: Thus, in order to meet this
condition in practice, the difference in short-circuit voltages must not
exceed orta10% of their average value.

Autotransformers

The autotransformer is a device in which parts of one winding are


common to both the primary and the secondary made from conductors
of a different cross section and wound on the common steel core. İn a
step-down autotransformer, for example, the two windings electrically
connected in series form a common HV winding. One of the two
windings that is a part of the HV winding serves as a LV winding. So,
unlike an ordinary transformer, an autotransformer has both inductive
and conductive coupling between its windings.
The circuit diagram of a step-down autotransformer is shown in Fig.
1,6. As seen, the primary (HV) winding comprises all the ω1 turns
between the terminals A and X, and the secondary (LV) winding has
ω2 turns between the tap and terminal X.
At no-load, when İ2=0, if the voltage drop across the primary
impedance is left out of consideration, the equilibrium emf equations
for the primary and secondary can be written in the
form :V1=E1=4.44ω1fФm and V2=E2=4.44ω2fФm.
The transformation ratio here is Vl/V2 = ω1/ω2 = n. If the secondary
supplies a certain load, the current İ2 flows in the secondary circuit.
Neglecting the energy loss, the power drawn by the autotransformer
from the supply circuit can be taken equal to the power delivered to the
secondary circuit, P=V1İ1=V2İ2, whence I1/İ2=ω2/ω1= 1/n.
Thus, the basic relations for an ordinary transformer are also valid for
an autotransformer.
İn the common section a-X, the primary current İ1 and the secondary
current İ2 flow in opposite directions. If we disregard the open-circuit
current whose value is very small we may assume that the currents I1
and I2 are out of phase by 180° and the current I12 in the common
section a-X is equal to the difference between I2 and I1: I12 = I2-I1 =
I2(1-1/n).
In a step-down autotransformer the current I12 flows in the same
direction as I2. In a step-up autotransformer, I12 is opposite in
direction to I2.
The advantages of the autotransformer over an ordinary transformer
of the same capacity are a smaller amount of the winding wire and steel
used, a lower power loss, a higher efficiency. and a lower variations in
voltage with changes of the load on the device.
The autotransformer requires a smaller mass of wire than an ordinary
transformer of the same capacity that carries current of the same
density. The thing is that the latter has two windings of which the
primary comprises w1 turns of wire of one cross section and the
secondary w2 turns of wire of another cross section for the current I1
and I2 respectively. The autotransformer also has two A-a and a-X, the
conductors of which differ in cross section. But the first winding
comprises w1 - w2 turns of wire designed for current I1 and the second
consists of w2 turns of wire intended to carry the current difference I12
= I2 - I1.
The core of the autotransformer is also smaller in cross section and
mass than that of an ordinary transformer. The autotransformer requires
a less amount of electromagnetic power to transfer energy from the
primary to the secondarv.
Power output of the autotransformer supplying useful load is P2 =
V2I2. Considering that I2 = I1 + I12, we get P2 = V2I1 + V2I12 = Pe +
Pm, where P2 is the electric power and Pm is the electromagnetic
power that determines the required magnetic flux, the magnetic-core
cross section, and its mass. This power P2 is the rated capacity of an
autotransformer.
But this type of a transformer presents substantial drawbacks: a small
short-circuit full resistans which results in a heavy short-circuit current.
Three-phase autotransformers employed in three-phase networks
usually have their windings connected in star.

4
Construction Features of an Induction Motor

Encircling annular core 1 of the stator is built of laminated sheet-


steel punchings 0.33 or 0.50 mm thick (Fig. 2.3). The sheets are
punched with slots, Insulated from one another with a varnish scale to
reduce eddy-current losses, clamped together into separate stacks, and
fastened in frame 3 of the machine. The frame is made complete with
end shields housing the bearings to support the rotor shaft. The frame is
also fitted with feet for supports. In the longitudinal slots of the stator,
conductors 2 of the winding are laid and interconnected so as to form a
three-phase system. Terminal box 4 of the machine contains six
terminals, of which three terminals connect the motor to the supply
network. The other three serve for connection of the three-phase
winding either in star to enable it to operate at a higher voltage, say,
220 V or in delta for its operation at a lower voltage of 127 V. The
motor can thus operate from a supply circuit of 220 V or 380 V. The
plate on the terminal box indicates the two rated values of voltage, i.e.
220/127 V or 380/220 V.
For connection of the stator winding in delta, each pair of the upper
and lower terminals are joined together with jumpers and connected to
the corresponding line wires L1, L2 and L3 (Fig.2.4a). To provide for the
star-connected circuit, the lower three terminals are shorted out with
jumpers, the upper three terminals being left free for connection to the
three-phase supply (Fig. 2.4b).

As illustrated in Fig. 2.5a. rotor core 1 is also built of laminated


sheet-steel punchings 0.51 mm thick, insulated with a varnish or scale
to minimize the effect of eddy currents. The laminations are punched
with slots, assembled into stacks, and fastened on the shaft to form a
cylindrical core with parallel slots which receive conducting bars 2 of
the rotor winding. Depending on the type of winding used, the rotors
can be of the phase-wound type and squirrel-cage (short-circuited)
type. The cage winding is shown in Fig. 2 5b. It consists of thick bars
embedded in the rotor slots and solidly joined at each end to copper and
rings 3 as illustrated in Fig 2.5b. The cage winding is often cast from
aluminum. In the casting process, liquid aluminum forced into the dies
fills the slots and forms the desired cage configuration after its
solidification. Such a winding is always electrically closed on itself
(short-circuited) and

cannot be connected to a resistive load. The polyphase winding of a


wound rotor is similar to the stator winding. Lt consists of conductors
forming a three-phase star-connected network. The starts of the phases
of the three-phase winding are connected to three copper slip rings
mounted on the shaft and insulated from each other and from the shaft.
Stationary carbon or copper brushes bearing on the revolving slip rings
provide means for connecting the rotor winding to an external circuit or
shorting out it.
Squirrel-cage motors are simpler, more reliable, and much cheaper
than wound-rotor motors. But the latter, as will be clear from the text
below, display better starting and torque-control characteristics.

At present, the induction motors available on the market are


essentially of the squirrel-cage type and only special designs and high-
power motors are made with wound rotors.

Industry produces induction motors ranging in power from tens of


watts to 15 000 kW at stator winding voltages up to 6 kV.

But the induction motor is not free from shortcomings. A


substantial drawback is that its power factor cosф= is relatively low,
0.85 to 0.90 at full load. It sharply diminishes at underload and drops to
0.2 or 0.3 at no load. A low power factor stems from the fact that the
motor consumes a large amount of reactive power required to induce
the magnetic field. The magnetic flux has to pass through the air gap
between stator and rotor, which considerably increases the reluctance
and, hence, the reactive power absorbed.

A common approach to increase the power factor is to reduce as


much as possible the air gap between stator and rotor. In motors of low
power, in the range of 2 to 5 kW, the air gap is brought down to 0.3
mm. In high-power motors, the air gap has to be larger from design
considerations, but yet it does not exceed 2.0-2.5 mm.

Running Conditions of an Induction Motor

As noted earlier, the running speed n 2 of the rotor of an induction


motor is always less than the synchronous speed n1 of the stator field
revolving in the direction of the rotor. The revolving field thus slips
with respect to the rotor and travels relative to it at a speed differential;
ns = n1 -n2, called the slip speed, or slip.
Slip is commonly expressed as a fraction of the synchronous
speed , that is, as the ratio of the slip speed ns to n1:

S = ns/n1 = (n1 – ns)/n1

At standstill when n2 = 0, the per unit slip is equal to unity, or the


percentage slip is equal to 100%. If the rotor revolves in synchronism
with the field, n2 = n1, the slip is equal to zero. Thus, the higher the
rotational speed of the rotor, the smaller the slip.

The slip of the rotor when running under load is usually small. In
modern induction motors, the slip at full load reaches 3 to 5%. i.e. the
rotor speed insignificantly differs from the synchronous speed. At no
load, i.e. when the load on the shaft is absent, the value of slip is
negligible and may be taken equal to zero.

Starting an Induction Motor

When started on full-line voltage, an induction motor draws up an


increased current that can be a few times the rated load current flowing
in the stator and rotor windings. The thing is that at standstill, the
rotating magnetic field threads the rotor winding at a high rate equal to
its rotational speed and induces a large emf in this winding. The emf
produces a high current in the rotor circuit accompanied by a
corresponding increase in the stator current.

As the rotor gains speed. the slip goes down and causes the rotor emf
and current to drop off with the result that the stator current falls
accordingly. A high starting current is
objectionable both for the motor and for the source that supplies it. At
frequent starts, the high starting current heavily heats up the motor
winding and can lead to a premature aging of the insulation. Large
starting currents are responsible for a dip in voltage of the power line,
which affects the operation of other machines run off the same power
line. Therefore, “across-the line” starting is permissible only if the
motor power is much lower than the power of the voltage source. If the
motor power is comparable with the power of the source, it is necessary
to reduce the current supplied to the motor at starting.
Wound-rotor motors exhibit good starting characteristics. To reduce the
starting torque, a wound-rotor motor is started on full-line voltage but
with an external resistor called the starter rheostat connected to the
rotor winding (Fig. 2.8). The resistor reduces the rotor current. for
which reason both the stator current and the current drawn from the
line become low in magnitude. This increases the active component of
the rotor current and thus allows the motor to deliver a high starting
torque at a low current.

A starter rheostat has a fun contacts by which it is impossible to reduce


in steps the resistance introduced into the rotor circuit. As the motor
accelerates and picks

up speed, the rheostat is completely brought out of the circuit by short-


circuiting it and, hence, the rotor winding. When the rotor runs at the
rated speed, the slip is small and the emf induced in the rotor winding
is insignificant. And so, there is no need [or the added resistance after
the motor has started.

Starter rheostats operate for a short time that is sufficient to enable the
motor to accelerate and are designed for a short-time action.

A rheostat will become inoperative if it is left connected in the circuit


for a long time.

A squirrel-cage motor whose power is low in comparison with the


power of the line is usually designed for across-the-line starting.

A high-power motor, however, is started on reduced voltage by


connecting it to the line through compensator (stepdown
autotransformer starter) or a starting reactor. When the motor
accelerates nearly to full speed, the starting lever is thrown to the
running position, thereby transferring the motor to full voltage.
A disadvantage of this method of starting is a sharp reduction in the
starting torque. A decrease of the starting current by a factor of N
requires a proportionate reduction in the line voltage. The starting
torque then decreases in proportion to the square of the voltage
impressed on the motor, namely, by a factor of N2. Since the starting
torque is small, the motor should carry no load at starting.

The star-delta switching of the stator winding is quite a common


method of starting (Fig. 2.9). The starter illustrated in the figure

connects the stator winding in star to allow the motor to come to speed
and then transfers it to delta for running. The star-delta starting reduces
the starting current drawn by the motor to one-third its full value. This
method of starting is applicable for a motor which normally runs with
its startor winding closed on delta.

Motors with Improved Starting Characteristics

As mentioned above, squirrel-cage motors are simple in design and


reliable in operation, for which reason they have gained wide
acceptance. Unfortunately, they show poor starting characteristics.
Some designs, however, are available which employ modified rotors to
reduce or avoid this disadvantage. These are double-cage rotors and
deep-bar rotors. The double-cage rotor, first suggested by I.O.Dolivo
Dobrovolsky in 1839, consists of two cage windings (Fig. 2.10a). The
number of slots for the outer winding A can be equal to or different
from the number of slots for inner winding B. The outer winding A is
made from bars of small cross section, and the lower winding B from
bars of large cross section, so the resistance of A is much higher than
that of B, RA > R B. Since the bars of B are deeply embedded into the
rotor body and enclosed by steel, the inductive resistance of B is much
greater than that of A, X, B* X A.
The motor operates on the following principle. At the instant of
connecting the motor to the supply line. the rotor remains stationary
and the rotor frequency is equal to the line frequency. F2 = f1‘. The
current in windings A and B distributes itself inversely as the full
resistance of these windings. Since the inductive resistance of windings
in induction machines are much higher than their active resistances, the
current, at starting, divided between the windings A and B is found to
be approximately in inverse proportion to X A and X B. The current
thus mainly flows through the bars of outer cage winding A that has a
lower inductive resistance and higher active resistance. The winding A
is a starting winding.

When the motor carries the rated load, the slip is small and hence, the
rotor frequency is also small, f2=0. The inductive reactances of the
windings are now of no importance and the currents in A and B are
inversely proportional to RA and RB. 1n the running conditions, the
current thus largely flows through the bars of inner winding B having a
lower resistance. The winding B is an operating winding. This rotor
design makes it possible to increase the rotor winding resistance at
starting and, hence, to reduce the starting current and to increase the
starting torque in the same way as is done with the aid of a starting
rheostat.

In a deep-bar rotor motor, the cage winding is built of thin and high
strips, or bars (Fig. 2.10b). In such a rotor design, the current is forced
toward the upper part of the her because the lower part is linked with a
larger leakage flux than the upper part.

The effect of displacing the current toward the upper portions of bars
shows up most strongly at the instant of starting the motor, when the
rotor frequency is equal to the power line frequency. Consequently, this
effect affords an increase in the resistance of the rotor winding with the
attendant increase in the starting torque. As the rotor continues to
accelerate, the rotor frequency gradually decreases and the current
spreads more uniformly over the cross section of bars. At the rated
speed, the current distribution over the bar cross section is almost
uniform.

The starting torque developed by these types of motor is Ts(1.0 to 1. 5)


TT and the starting current is Is: (4 to 5) I,, where T is the rated full-
load torque and I, is the rated full-load current. Thus, double-cage rotor
motors and deep-bar rotor motors have higher starting torques and
lower starting currents than ordinary squirrel cage motors. But the
former are somewhat inferior to the latter in performance
characteristics such as cos Q), efficiency, and breakdown torque due to
a higher leakage flux. i.e. higher inductive reactance of rotor windings.
6

Speed Control of Three-Phase Induction Motors

The rotational speed of a rotor per minute is given by the expression n2


= n1 (1 - S) = 60f1 (1 -S)/p. It is apparent from this expression that the
motor speed can be controlled by adjusting any of the three parameters
that determine the speed, namely, supply frequency f1, number of pole
pairs p, and slip S.

Control by changing the frequency of the supply system is complex


because this method necessitates an adjustable frequency converter or a
generator. Control by changing the number of poles
can he made if the stator carries a few (commonly two) windings which
are wound for different numbers of poles or a single winding arranged
for reconnection to form the desired number of poles, or two windings
each of which can be connected to form a different number of poles.

Figure 2.11m illustrates two coils of one phase, connected in series.

The current flowing through the coils produces a magnetic field with
four poles. Connecting one of the coils in opposition to the other to
reverse the direction of current in it enables the winding to produce a
two-pole magnetic field (Fig. 2.11b). A change in the number of poles
of the stator winding changes the rotational speed of the stator field
and, hence, the speed of the rotor. This method of speed control is
economical, but. presents the drawback in that it (changes the speed in
a stepwise manner. Besides, the motor with Such a speed control is
rather costly because of a complicated stator minding and increased
size of the machine.

Speed control by changing the number of poles applies to squirrel-cage


motors. For wound-rotor motors this method is impractical since it calls
for reconnecting both the stator winding and the rotor minding [or the
desired number of poles, which makes the circuit arrangement rather
complex.

Industry produces four-speed two-winding motors adjustable for


synchronous speeds of 500, 750, 1000, and l 500 rpm. Each of the two
stator windings can be reconnected for one of the two speeds.

Speed control by changing the slip relies on an adjustable resistor


(rheostat) introduced into the rotor circuit. The slip can also be changed
by varying the voltage of the power line. The line voltage adjusted for
the desired value causes the rotor torque to vary to proportional the
square of the impressed voltage. As the torque decreases. the rotor
begins to slow down, i.e. the slip grows. An
adjustable resistor is inserted into the wound-rotor circuit in the same
way as a starting rheostat, but the former is designed to carry to carry
the current for a long time. The adjustable resistor connected to the
rotor circuit decreases the rotor current. This, in turn, reduces the motor
torque and, hence, the rotor speed, or increases the slip. An increase in
the slip mf and current to grow. The speed and slip will vary until the
torques come to equilibrium, i.e. until the rotor current reaches its
initial value. This method of speed control is only applicable to wound-
rotor motors and finds wide uses despite the fact that it is open to the
objection because the adjustable resistor increases the copper loss and
reduces the efficiency.

Single-Phase Induction Motors

Single-phase induction motors enjoy wide application where power


demnands are low, up to l or 2 kW. This type of motor differs from a
three-phase counterpart in that it has a single-phase stator winding. The
motor comes in the squirrel-cage and wound-rotor types. The crux of
the single-phase motor problem is that the motor requires auxiliary
means for starting because it cannot develop the starting torque and
remains at standstill when connected to the power line.

An external force applied to the motor accelerates the rotor from rest,
which then develops the torque. The inability of a single-phase motor
to produce the starting torque is its substantial drawback. As noted
above, the motor needs an auxiliary device for starting.

The simplest starting device consists of two windings carried on the


stator and spaced half the polo pitch apart (90 electrical degrees). These
windings draw power from a balanced two-phase network, so that the
voltages applied to the windings are equal and 90 out. of phase. At such
voltages the currents through the windings are also shifted in phase by
quarter period, which feature coupled with the shift of the windings in
space makes it possible to produce the revolving magnetic field and
hence, the required starting torque.
In actual fact, the two-phase network is commonly absent, and the
single-phase motor is started by connecting its two windings to the
common single-phase line. To provide for the phase shift between the
currents in the windings, which is equal to about +- n/2 (one-fourth the
period) the main (inducing) winding A is connected directly across the
line or through a starting resistor, and the auxiliary (starting) winding
[3 in series with a coil L (Fig.2 .120) or capacitor C (Fig. 112(7).

The starting winding is held connected to the supply only during the
starting period. At the instant when the rotor is up to speed, this
winding is disconnected from the line by a switch or a suitable relay
and the motor operates as a single-phase machine.

Any three-phase induction motor can be set up for single-phase


operation. For this, its main winding consisting of two phases in series
is put directly across the single-phase line, and the auxiliary winding
(the third phase) indirectly through a starting element such a resistor,
coil, or capacitor.
A capacitor (two-phase) motor is a single-phase induction motor with
two windings arranged on the stator and a cage winding on the rotor.
The auxiliary winding is designed to carry current for a long time and
is left in the circuit during the motor operation. The revolving magnetic
field appearing in the capacitor motor in operation improves its
performance as against that of an ordinary single-phase motor. An
increase in capacitance leads to an increased starting torque of the
motor. But this increase in the capacitance at speed is objectionable
because the capacitor (capacitor bank) tends to decrease the speed and
efficiency of the motor. Capacitor-run motors are made with two
capacitor banks, starting and running capacitors. to improve their
operating characteristics.

3.1 Task of asynchronous machines, application

areas and structure.

Asynchronous machines are widely used in all sectors of the economy,


mainly as electric motors. This is due to the simplicity of its structure
and reliable operation. The field of application of asynchronous motors
is very wide. They are used in automation devices, in the transmission
of household appliances, in the transmission of large equipment in the
range from a few watts to thousands of kilowatts. The most widely
used are industrial frequency 3-phase asynchronous motors.

Structurally, an asynchronous machine consists of two main parts - a


stator and a rotor. The stator is a stationary part of the machine and the
rotor is a rotating part.

The stator consists of a core, windings and a body. The stator core
is assembled from electrotechnical steel sheets. The slots are opened to
place the curls on the sheets. The shapes of the slots are in the form of
different geometric shapes, depending on the power of the machine

(Figure 28).

The stator windings are made of copper, are mainly three-phase and are
placed in openings in the stator core.

The beginning and end of each phase winding are C1-C4, respectively;
It is marked with C2-C5 and C3-C6 and is attached to the clamps on
the plate attached to the engine body. The loops are connected either in
a star or triangular pattern.

Depending on the structure of the rotor, asynchronous motors are made


with short-circuited, phase or solid (mass) rotor.

The short-circuited rotor consists of a core, a coil and a shaft. The rotor
core is assembled from 0.35  0.5 mm thick electrical steel sheets.
3.2 Rotating magnetic field in a three-phase system

demolition.

The principle of operation of three-phase AC motors is based on a


rotating magnetic field. Consider the formation of such a field in the
example of a three-phase and a bipolar circuit (Figure 31).

The phase coils are located at an angle of 1200 to each other in space,
and the ends are connected in a star pattern. When voltage is applied to
the winding, a three-phase current flows through it and a magnetic flux
is generated around each phase winding. The expressions for phase
currents and magnetic fluxes flowing through the loop are as follows:
iA=Imsint FA= Fmsint

iB=Imsin(t -1200) FB = Fmsin(t -1200)

iC=Imsin(t +1200) FC =Fmsin(t +1200)

The direction of the rotating magnetic flux is clockwise from phase A


to B. To change the direction of this field, it is necessary to change the
ends of any two phases.

In a three-phase machine, if the stator phase windings are


asymmetrical, if an asymmetric voltage is applied to the windings, then
the resulting rotating magnetic field is elliptical, not circular. Such a
field can be represented as the geometric sum of two circular spheres
rotating in straight and opposite directions

3.3 Working principle of three-phase asynchronous motor.

The principle of operation of an induction motor is based on the laws of


electromagnetic induction and electromagnetic force.

When the stator winding is connected to a three-phase current source, a


rotating magnetic field is created. The rotational speed of this field is
determined by n1 = 60f / p. The field is closed by the stator, the air gap
between the stator and the rotor, and the rotor (Figure 33).
The stator field rotates synchronously. The rotating field cuts the rotor
winding and induces ehq here. As the winding is closed, current flows
from there. Due to the interaction of the rotating field with the rotor
current, a force is applied to the rotor wires and an electromagnetic
moment is generated. The rotor rotates in the direction of field motion
at a speed of n2. But n2 <n1. It seems that the rotational speed of the
rotor is different from the rotational speed of the field.

The relative value of the speed difference between the stator area and
the rotor is called the slip:

S= v S%=

The operating modes of an induction motor are characterized by


sliding. When the engine is running at rated load, Sn = 0.01-0.06. If n2
= n1, the magnetic field does not cut the rotor winding, no ehq is
generated, and no electromagnetic moment is generated.

If n2> n1, 0>S>- then and corresponds to the machine's generator


mode. If 0>n2 >- -1<S< hence the hand-electromagnetic braking
mode is obtained.
3.8 Starting asynchronous motors

The following basic requirements must be met during the


commissioning process:

a) the operating current Iis should be as small as possible;

b) starting torque Copper should be as large as possible;

c) the start-up scheme should be as simple as possible;

d) start-up time should be short;

e) the commissioning process should be smooth and cost-effective;

There are different ways to start asynchronous motors:

1. Small and medium power asynchronous motors are often started by


connecting directly to the network. In this case, the voltage supplied to
the motor is equal to the mains voltage: U1n = Ush. Start-up is
performed when there is no load or mechanical load on the shaft. Since
n2 = 0 and S = 1, the starting current is very large:

Iis = (47) In.

This method is used in cases of electrodynamic forces and heat


resistance caused by direct starting current.

This method is not used when the network capacity is small, as the
voltage drop in the network is large, which has a negative impact on
the work of other operators.
To reduce the voltage applied to the stator winding, a reactor, an
autotransformer or a method of switching the stator winding connection
circuit from a triangle to a star is used.

2. Starting with the reactor is carried out according to the scheme


shown in Figure 39.

Figure 39. Reactor of asynchronous motor


commissioning scheme

The engine is started as follows. When switch 2 is open, switch 1 is


closed and current is supplied to the stator winding through the reactor.
In this case, the voltage drop in the reactor U=IisXD occurs and a
reduced voltage is applied to the stator winding:

3. The starting scheme with autotransformer is shown in Figure 40


Figure 40. Asynchronous motor with autotransformer

commissioning scheme.

The engine is started in the following sequence. First 1 key is


connected, then 2 keys. The voltage applied to the engine clamps is
reduced:

4. The start-up diagram with the transition from star to triangle is


shown in Figure 41.

Figure 41. Star to triangle of asynchronous motor

switching start scheme


The design of a phase rotor asynchronous motor allows the activation
rheostat to be connected to its rotor circuit.

The addition of additional active resistance to the rotor circuit reduces


the starting current of the motor, while increasing the starting torque.

3.9 Rotation of asynchronous motors

frequency regulation.

The rotational speed of the rotor of an induction motor can be


determined from the slip expression:
60 f 1
n2 =n 1 ( 1−S )= ( 1−s )
n

From this expression, it can be seen that the rotational speed can be
adjusted by changing three quantities: the slip, the frequency of the
stator current, and the number of even poles of the motor.

1. Regulation of rotational speed by changing the slip.

To change the slip of an induction motor with a short-circuited rotor, it


is necessary to adjust the voltage of the stator winding. Thus, as the
voltage U1 applied to the stator decreases, the torque of the motor
decreases in proportion to U2 and the shape of the mechanical
characteristic changes. In this way, the slip can be adjusted to 0 <S
<Skr
Figure 44. By changing the tension

rotation frequency regulation

Figure 45. Rotor circuit

regulation of rotational speed by adding additional resistance


4.1 Tasks and applications of synchronous machines

Synchronous machines are used as the main producers of alternating


current electricity. They are installed in thermal, hydraulic and nuclear
power plants, as well as in vehicles. Synchronous machines can work
as both a generator and an engine. Depending on the type of
transmission, the structure of the synchronous generator is determined
and they are divided into turbogenerators, hydrogenerators and diesel
generators. Synchronous motors are used to drive pumps, compressors,
fans and other mechanisms at 100 kW and more.

Synchronous machines are also used as compensators to increase the


power factor of the network. Some types of small powerful
synchronous motors are widely used in automation and device turning.

4.2 Structure and working principle of synchronous machine

Synchronous machines can be made with fixed and rotating anchors. In


large power machines, the anchor is fixed to make it easier to get
electricity. Small powerful synchronous machines can be made in both
moving and stationary anchor conditions (Figure 54).

The windings of the rotating anchor are connected to the load by means
of three contact rings.
Figure 54. Synchronous machine structure

a ) fixed anchor;

b) rotating anchor

As you can see, a synchronous machine consists of two main parts - a


stator and a rotor. The stator of a synchronous machine is like the stator
of an asynchronous machine. The stator core is assembled from
electrotechnical steel sheets with a thickness of 0.35 - 0.5 mm. It places
a three-phase alternating current coil in the sockets inside the core.
Usually the end ends of the phase windings are connected by a star.

According to the structure of the rotor, synchronous machines are made


in two forms: clearly visible polar and invisible polar.

Large powerful two- or four-pole machines are usually made with an


invisible rotor at a speed of 1500, 3000 rpm. The core of such a rotor is
made of solid mass. The impact coil is placed in the openings on 2/3 of
the rotor surface (Figure 55, a)

When the number of poles is equal to or greater, a clearly visible polar


rotor is used (Figure 55, b).
Figure 55. Structure of the rotor of a synchronous machine
GENERAL INFORMATION OF TECHNICAL DIAGOSTICS

The state of technical equipment is determined not only by the


service life, but also by the working conditions. One of the main tasks
that ensure the reliable and economical operation of electrotechnical
facilities is the correct management of the operational period of the
equipment. Advanced experience in solving this problem should be
taken into account, an operational strategy based on monitoring and
evaluation of the current state of equipment should be selected.
Ensuring equipment reliability should be a constant focus.
Electrical equipment that has expired and is in operation is highly
worn, which worsens its performance characteristics and increases the
probability of an accident. To keep the old equipment in working
condition, it is required to increase the annual maintenance, diagnostics
and repair costs.
Technical diagnostics (from the Greek "recognition") is control of
the functional and sound condition of the used object according to the
results of special tests, measurements and observations.
In the modern era, the global trend of creating and developing
intelligent electric power systems poses new issues for experts working
in the field of electric power: ensuring reliability, reducing operating
costs, etc.
The main issue of electrical equipment manufacturers, as well as
enterprises and organizations that put them into operation, is energy
efficiency, uninterrupted operation, warning of accidents and reduction
of operating costs. One of the current issues is the assessment of the
possibility of extending the service life of the equipment beyond the
normative one, and solving the issues of transitioning the power
systems to non-maintained-outside-controlled (scad systems)
substations.

Thus, the following issues are prioritized:


- development of effective automated diagnostic systems with the
ability to record the defects-defects that develop in electrical equipment
in the initial development period;
- transition from the system of periodic service costs to the system
of service according to the current situation;
- creation of an automatic system for predicting equipment failure
in the diagnostic information base received in operation mode.
Planned technical diagnostics is carried out in accordance with the
applicable norms and rules, and also allows making judgments about
the further service life of any equipment after the end of its normative
service life.
Unplanned technical diagnostics of the equipment is carried out
when violations in its technical condition are revealed.
The main criterion of the diagnostic system is the accuracy and
reliability of the diagnosis. The criteria of accuracy and reliability do
not differ from the values of similar criteria of the devices and methods
used in making any measurement.
Diagnostic information includes equipment passport indicators;
data on the technical condition at the beginning of operation; data on
the current technical condition with the results of measurements and
examinations; the results of calculations, assessments, forecasts and
decisions made in advance, etc. belongs to.
Technical diagnostic tools should provide reliable measurements
or control of diagnostic parameters under specific operating conditions
of the equipment.
Control (review) of technical diagnostic tools is usually carried
out by the metrology (metrology) service of the enterprise.
The results of the diagnosis are as follows:
- determination of the condition of the applied equipment;
- revealing the type of damage or defects, its extent, location,
causes of occurrence. This is the basis for making a decision about
restoration and repair works (repair composition, volume, duration,
etc.) or about the complete replacement of equipment;
- making a forecast about the period of preservation of working
qualities and characteristics during the future period of operation
(period of operation). A diagnosis without a prognosis is not considered
fully evaluated (full diagnosis).
For example, the diagnosis of substations or objects consisting of
engines and other equipment performing technologically complex
operations means the implementation of functional control measures of
each functional part, element and system as a whole.
Diagnostics of any electrical devices and equipment can be carried
out in the following way:
- periodic control by disconnecting the controlled object from
work (off-line);
- periodic monitoring (on-line);
- continuous automatic (on-line) control (monitoring);
- complex diagnostic examination.
Periodic control under working voltage is less expensive, less
expensive, but does not ensure the detection of rapidly developing
defects.
Control by decommissioning (decommissioning) equipment opens
up greater opportunities for inspection, but disrupts the operation of a
particular technological process or network.
Automatic control gives results regardless of the qualification
(level of expertise) of the personnel, allows monitoring the dynamics of
changes of controlled parameters in real time, and also allows
controlling the state of individual parts and systems of the equipment
with the help of a mathematical model with certain evidence.
When we say complex diagnostic examination, we understand the
formation of results based on the three previous (above) diagnostic
methods. The decision made about the state of the equipment is more
complete, but the period of formation of the results takes too long and
does not allow timely reaction to the dynamics of the change of the
state of the equipment.
The final price is formed as an average price based on the
diagnostic requirements.
The results of the comparisons show that the most promising form
of diagnostics is continuous (on-line) control.
However, it should be noted that in order to determine the
development of faults with maximum accuracy and effectiveness, for
predicting non-stop work under given operating conditions, for
calculating the effectiveness and risk of using the equipment when the
nominal operating characteristics are exceeded, none of the diagnostic
forms has an absolute advantage.
In turn, diagnostic parameters should include the following
features:
- sensitivity;
- range of change;
- ambiguity;
- stability;
- informativeness;
- regularity of registration;
- convenient and simple measurement.
The sensitivity of the diagnostic parameter is the degree of change
of the diagnostic parameter when the functional parameter is changed,
that is, the higher the value of this quantity, the more sensitive the
diagnostic parameter is to the change of the functional parameter.
The range of change of the diagnostic parameter corresponds to
the amount of change of the functional parameter. The greater the
range of variation of the diagnostic parameter, the higher its
informativeness.
Unambiguity of the diagnostic parameter - each value of the
functional parameter corresponds to only one value of the diagnostic
parameter.
Stability - determines the possibility of a diagnostic parameter
deviating from its average value when repeatedly measured under
unchanged conditions.
Informativeness is a characteristic of the diagnostic parameter,
which, if insufficient or insufficient, can reduce the effectiveness of
the process itself (reliability of the diagnosis).
The periodicity (regularity) of registration of the diagnostic
parameter is determined according to the technical operation
requirements and the factory-manufacturer's instructions and depends
on the possible occurrence and development speed of the defect.
The convenience of measuring the diagnostic parameter directly
depends on the design of the diagnostic object and the diagnostic tool
(device).
Methods of technical diagnostics
Modern diagnostics of electrical equipment (by purpose) can be
conditionally divided into three main areas:
• parametric diagnostics;
• diagnosis of faults;
• preventive diagnostics - preventive diagnostics.
Parametric diagnostics is control of the standardized parameters
of the equipment, detection and identification of dangerous changes.
Used for crash protection and equipment monitoring. Diagnostic
information includes the sum of deviations of the values of these
parameters from the nominal value.
Diagnostics of faults is the determination of the type and degree
of the fault after the fact of the occurrence of the fault has been
registered. Such diagnostics are a part of equipment service or repair
work and are carried out according to the result of monitoring its
parameters.
Preventive diagnostics is the detection of all potentially
dangerous defects at an early stage of development, observing their
development and, on this basis, long-term forecasting of the
condition of the equipment.
Modern diagnostic systems include all three areas of technical
diagnostics to form a complete and reliable assessment of the
condition of the equipment.
Thus, the following can be attributed to the results of diagnostics:
1) determining the condition of diagnostic equipment (assessing
the condition of the equipment);
2) determination of the type of defect, its scale, location, causes of
its occurrence - this is the basis for making a decision on the further
operation of the equipment (repair, additional inspection, continued
operation, etc.) or on the complete replacement of the equipment;
3) forecasting the next service life of the equipment and
evaluating its residual resources.
According to the general classification, electrical equipment
diagnostic methods can be divided into two groups: non-destructive
and destructive control methods. Non-destructive control methods are
control methods that do not require the destruction of equipment
(materials) samples. Accordingly, destructive control methods are
control methods that lead to the destruction of samples of equipment
(materials).
Non-destructive testing methods include:
1) magnet;
2) electricity;
3) eddy currents;
4) radio wave;
5) heat;
6) optical;
7) radiation;
8) acoustic;
9) penetrating substances (capillary and seepage).
Each diagnostic method mentioned above is also classified
according to additional indicators.
Defects in the insulation of electrical equipment are
collected (cracks and micro-cracks, gas inclusions, erosion, a
small amount of moisture, wear, etc.) and are distributed over a
large volume or surface of the insulation. The possibilities of
detecting different defects are also different.
In addition, control methods are divided into two groups
according to electrical characteristics:
- electrical insulation control methods;
- non-electrical control methods: For example, chromatographic
analysis of gases that can be generated in transformer oil, ultrasonic
control methods, radio wave method, thermal imaging (thermal imager)
method, optoelectronic method, X-ray method and s.

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