SEMINAR I

Theoretical Aspects of Language

History. Linguistic Features of
Germanic Languages. The Common
Germanic Period.
Task 1
Subject and Aims of the History of English
 The study of English can be viewed from both synchronic and
diachronic perspectives. Synchronically, English is treated as it
exists today, without considering its historical development.
Diachronically, it is studied as a language evolving over time,
interpreting its current state as a result of ongoing changes.
 The course's main goals include understanding the origins of
Modern English features and tackling theoretical issues such as:
o The balance between static and dynamic elements of
language.
o The influence of both linguistic and extralinguistic factors
(e.g., social, historical events).
o Independence of linguistic processes over time.
 Another aim is to broaden philological knowledge by exploring the
position of English in relation to other languages, uncovering its
connections with both related (Germanic) and unrelated languages.
Sources of Linguistic History
 Linguistic history is reconstructed using written records, with the
earliest English texts dating to the 7th century. However, earlier
Germanic languages provide insight into English's development.
 Methods like comparative linguistics (comparing languages
within the Indo-European family) and internal
reconstruction (examining non-productive language systems to
infer older stages) are crucial.
 External records, such as borrowings from other languages, and
dialectal studies, which preserve archaic forms, also provide
valuable insights.
Statics and Dynamics in Language History
 Statics refers to the elements of a language that remain stable
over time. These are aspects like grammatical rules or core
vocabulary that change slowly.
 Dynamics, on the other hand, refers to the changes that occur in a
language, such as shifts in pronunciation, vocabulary, or syntax.
 The relationship between these two can be seen as
complementary. While a language remains stable in some aspects
(statics), it also undergoes constant change (dynamics) to adapt to
new social, cultural, or technological contexts.
  In language history, the diachronic approach focuses on dynamics
by studying how language changes over time, whereas
a synchronic approach may examine static structures at a given
point in time. The interplay of these concepts is essential for
understanding how languages evolve while maintaining continuity.
Linguistic Changes and Their Mechanisms
Linguistic changes can happen at multiple levels:
 Phonetic and phonological changes: These include sound shifts,
like the Great Vowel Shift in English, which drastically altered
vowel pronunciations between Middle and Modern English.
 Morphological changes: Shifts in word structures, such as the
simplification of inflectional endings (e.g., loss of many noun case
endings in Old English).
 Syntactic changes: Changes in sentence structure, such as the
move from Old English's flexible word order (due to inflections) to
Modern English’s fixed Subject-Verb-Object order.
 Lexical changes: These include borrowings from other languages
(e.g., Latin, Norse, French), the creation of new words, or the loss of
obsolete vocabulary.
Mechanisms of Linguistic Change:
1. Assimilation and dissimilation: Where sounds become more
similar (assimilation) or dissimilar (dissimilation) to nearby sounds.
2. Analogy: A process where irregular forms become regular (e.g.,
strong verbs becoming weak in English: "holp" → "helped").
3. Sound shifts: Systematic changes in pronunciation across a
language, like the Grimm’s Law, which explains sound shifts in the
Germanic languages compared to other Indo-European languages.
Causes of Language Evolution
 Internal Causes:
o Languages tend to simplify over time for ease of
communication. For example, English lost many complex
inflectional endings, simplifying word forms.
o Phonetic economy: Changes that reduce effort in
pronunciation.
o Regularization: Language users tend to regularize irregular
forms (e.g., past tense forms).
 External Causes:
o Social and cultural influences: Invasions, trade, and
colonization brought about massive lexical changes. For
example, the Norman Conquest introduced many French
words into English.
o Technological and scientific advancements: New
inventions and concepts require new words (e.g., "internet,"
"email").
o Contact with other languages: Borrowing from neighboring
languages or those in contact through trade or migration (e.g.,
Norse influence on English during the Viking Age).
 o Political factors: Standardization efforts, like the introduction
of a national language or the role of printing, which helped
stabilize spelling.
Task 2
The The problem of periodisation of the history of the English
language.

The development of a language is a continuous process with no clear-cut

boundaries. This makes it challenging to define precise periods because
linguistic changes happen gradually over time rather than in sudden
breaks. Periodization is, therefore, somewhat artificial and based on
historical, social, and political events, rather than purely linguistic
developments.
Traditional Periodization
 The commonly accepted periodization divides the history of English
into three major periods:
1. Old English (OE): 5th century to late 11th century
2. Middle English (ME): Late 11th century to late 15th century
3. New English (NE): Late 15th century to present
However, a more detailed periodization divides these into seven distinct
periods, which helps to reflect the major historical and linguistic shifts
more accurately.
The Seven Periods of English History
1. Early Old English (5th–7th century):
o The period begins with the West Germanic invasion of Britain,
marking the separation of English from its continental
relatives. The language consisted of tribal dialects with no
written form.
2. Old English (8th–11th century):
o The period saw the transformation of the tribal dialects into
regional dialects. West Saxon gained prominence in writing,
and Old English was a relatively stable system with rich oral
and written traditions (e.g., Beowulf).
3. Early Middle English (1066–14th century):
o Following the Norman Conquest, English absorbed significant
French influence, especially in vocabulary. This was a period of
great dialectal variation due to the feudal system and foreign
influences. Anglo-Norman French dominated literature and
governance, while English remained a spoken language.
4. Late or Classical Middle English (14th–15th century):
o The period of Chaucer and the restoration of English as the
literary and state language. The dialect of London gained
prestige and began to dominate written forms.
5. Early New English (16th–17th century):
o The introduction of printing in 1475 by William
Caxton marked a turning point. The Renaissance led to
significant lexical and phonological changes, with the
language becoming more standardized. The Great Vowel
 Shift began during this time, significantly altering English
pronunciation.
6. The Age of Normalization (17th–18th century):
o Often referred to as the “age of correctness,” this period was
characterized by attempts to standardize pronunciation,
grammar, and usage. The literary language became more
mature, with distinct styles emerging.
7. Late New English (19th–20th century):
o Modern English saw significant growth in vocabulary due to
the Industrial Revolution, technological advancements, and
global interaction. Dialects began to decline as Standard
English gained dominance.

Task 3
The Common Germanic Period
 The Germanic languages are part of the Indo-European
language family, and they share certain linguistic features that
distinguish them from other Indo-European languages.
 The Common Germanic period refers to the hypothetical phase of
the Germanic languages before they began to differentiate into
distinct languages (Proto-Germanic). This period is not documented
in writing but is reconstructed through comparative linguistic
methods.
Differentiation of Common Germanic Languages
 The Proto-Germanic language is thought to have existed during
the late Bronze Age and early Iron Age (around 500 BCE – 200
CE).
 Over time, Proto-Germanic split into different dialects, which
eventually became distinct languages:
o North Germanic: Evolved into the modern Scandinavian
languages (e.g., Swedish, Danish, Norwegian).
o West Germanic: Gave rise to English, German, Dutch, and
other related languages.
o East Germanic: Includes Gothic, the only East Germanic
language with surviving written records (now extinct).
 By the 2nd–4th centuries CE, these dialects had become sufficiently
different from one another that they are considered separate
languages. The early records, such as Gothic texts, already show
significant divergence.
History and Characteristics of Germanic Languages
1. Germanic Accent:
o Germanic languages developed a dynamic or stress accent,
meaning that the accented syllable was pronounced with
more force. This accent is usually placed on the root of the
word (the first syllable), which differentiates it from other
Indo-European languages that have more flexible accent
systems.
 2. Phonetic Changes (Grimm’s Law):
o One of the most defining changes in Germanic languages is
the Germanic Consonant Shift or Grimm's Law. This law
describes how certain consonants in Proto-Indo-European (PIE)
evolved in Germanic languages:
 PIE voiceless stops became voiceless fricatives (e.g., /p/
→ /f/).
 PIE voiced stops became voiceless stops (e.g., /b/ → /p/).
 PIE voiced aspirated stops became voiced fricatives
(e.g., /bh/ → /b/ or /v/).
3. Vowel Changes:
o The Proto-Indo-European vowels "a" and "o" underwent
changes in Germanic languages:
 Short vowels "a" and "o" merged into Germanic
short "a".
 Long vowels "a" and "o" became Germanic long
"o".
4. Verbal System:
o Germanic languages developed a distinct verb conjugation
system, including the differentiation between strong
verbs (which change their vowel to indicate tense, e.g., sing-
sang-sung) and weak verbs (which add a suffix like -ed to
form the past tense, e.g., walk-walked).
5. Noun Declensions:
o Proto-Germanic nouns were inflected for case, number, and
gender, similar to Proto-Indo-European. Over time, many of
these inflections were lost in later stages, especially in
English.
The Evolution of Germanic Languages
 From Proto-Germanic, the language evolved differently in the
various regions:
o Old Norse developed in Scandinavia (leading to modern
Scandinavian languages).
o Old High German evolved in the southern parts of modern
Germany.
o Old English emerged in Britain following the Anglo-Saxon
migrations, bringing the West Germanic dialects to the island.
English in the Germanic Group
 English belongs to the West Germanic group of languages,
alongside German, Dutch, and Frisian.
 English shares the Germanic accent, Grimm’s Law sound shifts,
and other features with its sister languages, but it also developed
unique characteristics due to external influences (like the Norman
Conquest introducing French vocabulary).
Germanic Linguistic Features
 Fixed Stress Accent: Stress is typically on the first syllable of the
word.
 Grimm’s Law: Consonantal shifts that distinguish Germanic from
other Indo-European languages.
  Vowel Length: Distinction between short and long vowels, with
specific changes from PIE vowels.
 Strong and Weak Verbs: Strong verbs show internal vowel
changes to indicate tense, while weak verbs add a suffix.

Task 4
Principal phonetic features of Germanic languages. Alterations of
PG vowels. When do dependent qualitative and quantitative
changes take place? Grimm's Law.Verner's Law.

Principal Phonetic Features of Germanic Languages

Word Stress
 In Proto-Germanic (PG), stress became fixed compared to the
earlier Indo-European (IE) free and movable stress.
 Early Proto-Germanic still had a movable stress, but by Late
Proto-Germanic, stress was fixed on the first syllable, which
was usually the root of the word. This is a defining feature of all
Germanic languages and contributed to the reduction of unstressed
syllables (affixes and endings).
 The shift from musical pitch accent and force stress to a
fixed force (dynamic) stress on the first syllable is one of the
most critical changes in Germanic phonology.
Proto-Germanic Consonant Shift (Grimm's Law)
The First Consonant Shift, also known as Grimm's Law, introduced
systematic changes in the consonant system as Proto-Germanic evolved
from Proto-Indo-European (PIE). There are three stages to this shift:
1. PIE voiceless stops [p], [t], [k] became PG voiceless
fricatives [f], [θ] (th), [x] (later [h] in many dialects).
o Examples: PIE *pisk- → PG *fiskaz (fish); PIE *treyes → PG *þrīz
(three).
2. PIE voiced stops [b], [d], [g] became PG voiceless stops [p], [t],
[k].
o Examples: PIE *dekm → PG *tekam (ten); PIE *genu → PG
*knee.
3. PIE voiced aspirated stops [bh], [dh], [gh] became PG voiced
stops [b], [d], [g].
o Examples: PIE *bhrātar → PG *brōþer (brother).
Verner's Law
Verner’s Law explained certain exceptions to Grimm’s Law by
considering the position of stress in the word:
 According to Verner’s Law, the voiceless fricatives that arose
from Grimm’s Law ([f], [θ], [x]) and the inherited PIE fricative [s]
became voiced ([v], [ð], [ɣ], [z]) if the preceding vowel was
unstressed in PIE.
o Example: PIE *pétēr (father) → PG *faðēr (in contrast
to Grimm’s Law, which would have resulted
in father retaining a voiceless fricative [f]).
  This voicing resulted in alternations of consonants within word
forms, known as grammatical interchange. For example,
alternations between [s] and [z] or [θ] and [ð] in different
grammatical forms.
 Rhotacism: The voicing of [z] led to its change into [r] in West
Germanic and North Germanic. This phenomenon is seen in the
alternation between present tense "was" and past tense "were."
Alterations of PG Vowels: Dependent Qualitative and Quantitative
Changes
1. Qualitative Changes:
o Fronting and rounding of vowels occurred in PG, often
influenced by neighboring sounds.
o For example, i-umlaut (also known as i-mutation) fronted a
back vowel when a high front vowel (/i/ or /j/) followed in the
next syllable. This feature is especially notable in Old
English and Old Norse.
2. Quantitative Changes:
o Lengthening and shortening of vowels were common
depending on their position in the word.
o Vowels in stressed syllables tended to be lengthened, while
vowels in unstressed syllables were often reduced and
eventually eliminated, contributing to the simplification of the
Germanic vowel system.
Common Phonetic Characteristics of Germanic Languages
 Stress Accent: Fixed stress on the first syllable, unlike the free
accentuation in PIE.
 Consonant Shifts: Explained by Grimm’s Law and further refined
by Verner’s Law.
 Vowel Reduction: Unstressed vowels in suffixes and endings were
gradually weakened and, in some cases, disappeared altogether
(especially in Old English).
 Rhotacism: The sound [z] became [r] in many Germanic languages
(seen in the transformation of certain verb forms and nouns).