national academy of sciences

Robert Mcc. Netting

1934—1995

A Biographical Memoir by
Olga F. Linares

Any opinions expressed in this memoir are those of the author(s)

and do not necessarily reflect the views of the
National Academy of Sciences.

Biographical Memoir

Copyright 1997
National Academies Press
washington d.c.
 ROBERT MCC. NETTING
October 14, 1934–February 4, 1995

BY OLGA F. LINARES

W ITH THE DEATH of Robert McC. Netting on Februar y 4,

1995, at the age of sixty, anthropology lost one of its
most respected members. A distinguished cultural ecolo-
gist, Netting conducted lifelong studies of the vital relation-
ships linking peoples’ social institutions, individual behav-
iors, and collective beliefs to their production practices.
Focusing on the effects of population growth on land ten-
ure and agricultural use, Netting championed the cause of
the small-holder—the peasant farmer who intensifies pro-
duction on a small plot of land by using household labor to
achieve an energy-efficient, low-input, successful adaptation.
Managing the household patrimony wisely and sustainably,
smallholders can achieve yearlong use of their land with
minimal ecological damage. They can make a decent and
honorable living in farming without experiencing the marked
instabilities and inequalities that plague capitalistic (or for
that matter also collectivistic) export-oriented farming en-
terprises elsewhere in the world.
Born in Racine, Wisconsin, on October 14, 1934, Netting
received his undergraduate training at Yale University. He
graduated in 1957 (summa cum laude and a member of the
Phi Beta Kappa Society) with a B.A. in English. His back-

125
126 BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS

ground in the humanities served him well. Netting was highly

literate; a skillful and engaging writer, his lucid prose was
devoid of the turgid constructions marring so much of so-
cial science writing today.
For graduate studies Netting went to Chicago, where he
obtained his M.A. in anthropology in 1959 and his Ph.D. in
1963. In the summer of 1958 he conducted fieldwork in the
Ft. Berthold Reservation in North Dakota. There he investi-
gated sources of conflict in Indian voluntar y organizations
for his M.A. thesis. For his Ph.D. dissertation research Net-
ting spent eighteen months from 1960 to 1962 studying the
agrarian practices of the Kofyar, a people living in the hilly
escarpments of the Jos Plateau in northern Nigeria. Netting’s
Kofyar study, published in 1968, was to become a classic
monograph on the cultural ecology of intensive cultivators.
Time and again, Netting was to return to this part of West
Africa: he visited the Kofyar for nine months in 1966-67,
for six months in 1984, for one month in 1992, and for
three months in 1994. More recently he collaborated with
M. P. and G. D. Stone in the publication of much of the
quantitative data gathered these past few years on Kofyar
demography, expansion, and cash cropping.
In addition to his African research, Netting carried out
protracted field studies among Alpine villagers in the Törbel
community of Valais, Switzerland. The fourteen months he
spent in Törbel in 1970 and 1971, followed by two months
in 1974 and 1977, resulted in numerous publications, in-
cluding his famous book, Balancing on an Alp (1981). This
is a superb analysis of the historical demography and inten-
sive land use of a European agricultural and herding com-
munity.
The consummate teacher—beloved by his students, ad-
mired by his colleagues—Netting’s first full-time academic
appointment was in the anthropology department of the
 ROBERT MCC. NETTING 127

University of Pennsylvania. At Penn he served as assistant

professor from 1963 to 1968 and as associate professor from
1968 to 1972. He and I first met in Philadelphia in 1966.
Fresh from the field, where I had been studying the agrar-
ian practices of the Jola of Casamance, Senegal, Netting
received me with characteristic grace: “Finally, a colleague
who is also working on intensive farmers.” With this remark
he promptly placed my research in comparative perspec-
tive, making me feel appreciated and welcomed. In the years
that followed I learned as much from his lectures on cul-
tural ecology in the introductor y course that we taught to-
gether at Penn as did his students. It was a great loss to the
department when Netting left in 1972 for the University of
Arizona.
With the exception of 1994, which he spent as a re-
search scholar at the Institute for Advanced Studies at Indi-
ana University, and extended periods in the field or shorter
summer consultant jobs, Netting served continuously as pro-
fessor of anthropology at the University of Arizona. Since
1991, in fact, he was regent’s professor in that distinguished
department.
Netting’s honors were multiple: Guggenheim fellow (1970-
71), fellow at the Center for Advanced Study in the Behav-
ioral Sciences (1986-87), the Heizer Prize for the best jour-
nal article on ethnohistory (1987), and the Wenner Social
and Behavioral Sciences Research Institute Best Book Award
(1994) for Smallholders. He also performed important ser-
vices for the profession: editor of the University of Arizona
Press’s Studies in Human Ecology since 1984; member of
the AAA Executive Board (1981-84), including chairman of
its Committee on Scientific Communication (1983-84); and
president of the International Association for the Study of
Common Property (1991-92). In April 1993 Netting was
elected to the National Academy of Sciences.
128 BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS

At the November 1994 meetings of the American Anthro-

pological Association, Netting complained to his friends of
a persistent backache. Shortly after, in December, his con-
dition was diagnosed as bone marrow cancer. The treat-
ment he underwent lowered his defenses, and a few months
later he died of valley fever, a lung infection common in
the southwestern United States. A person of great personal
integrity, compassion, and commitment, he is sur vived by
his wife, Rhonda Gillett-Netting, an accomplished biologi-
cal anthropologist in her own right, and five children: Rob-
ert F., Jessa F., and Laurel M. from a previous marriage and
the twins, Piers and Juliet, born after he died. His mother,
Martha M. Netting, and brother, the Rev. William J., also
mourn their loss.
Netting will always be remembered for his prodigious schol-
arship. His field research was informed by past theoretical
problems and future orientations. His methodology was sound
and appropriate. The seminal articles, meticulous mono-
graphs, and important theoretical works he produced shaped
the course of ecological anthropology from the 1970s on-
ward. They brought him international fame and a wide read-
ership. His publications and the field studies upon which
they are based merit detailed consideration.
EARLY WORKS

Netting’s early work is decidedly empirical in focus, com-

parative in execution, and functionalist in orientation. In
the 1960s he undertook research among the Kofyar of north-
ern Nigeria with a clear problem in mind. Could the eco-
logical approach that Julian Steward pioneered in his 1938
study of mobile hunting societies in the Great Basin of the
southwestern United States be profitable when applied to
agricultural peoples, he asked? What reformulations and
refinements of Steward’s theor y would be necessary to ac-
 ROBERT MCC. NETTING 129

commodate the sedentary, intensive cultivators of the hilly

Nigerian escarpment? At his return from the field Netting
wrote two papers answering these questions (full references
are given in the Selected Bibliography). In “Trial Model of
Cultural Ecology” (1965,1) Netting argues that social and
cultural factors, and not only biological and physical fac-
tors (i.e., Steward’s “relevant environmental features”), must
be included in the definition of effective environment. The
innermost core of Netting’s functionalist model is taken up
by what he calls “social instrumentalities”—namely,
demography, productive groups, and rights in resources—
precisely those aspects of social organization that have di-
rect adaptive significance. In a second article published the
same year (1965,2) Netting illustrates further what he means
by “social instrumentality.” He uses the example of the small
independent family among the Kofyar, an institution admi-
rably adapted to the labor needs of intensive agriculture in
small parcels of land. He contrasts it with the extended
family of the neighboring Chokfem people, who are better
adapted to shifting cultivation on dispersed lands. Here we
see Netting’s early interest in the functional links that re-
late household composition and labor requirements to the
ways in which land is put to productive use.
Netting’s first book, Hill Farmers of Nigeria (1968), is a
more complete analysis of the intensive ways in which the
Kofyar manage their homestead gardens on hilly slopes by
terracing and fertilizing. In this highly readable description
of Kofyar ecology and agrarian economy Netting demon-
strates that population density, division of labor, and rights
to land and labor are functionally interrelated with crucial
aspects of the ecosystem. In addition to making cross-cul-
tural comparisons and correlations he marshals an impres-
sive amount of quantitative data on farm size, labor compo-
sition, and yields to test culture-environment relationships.
130 BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS

Netting further compares the social institutions of Kofyar

hill farmers with those of their lowland bush relatives who
migrated to the lowlands in large numbers after the 1950s.
Their enlarged extended households are better suited to
the production of commercial crops under a system of shifting
cultivation. Intricate feedback mechanisms between popu-
lation density, land availability, and household structures
have facilitated adjustment and adaptation among these
migrants. According to Netting these are widespread phe-
nomena. In another landmark article (1969,2) he compares
Kofyar adaptation to that of the Igbo of eastern Nigeria. He
concludes that in both cases the emergence of polygynous
extended families and communal tenure is directly related
to the easing of population pressure, as more cultivable
land became available. Hence, population pressure becomes
the critical variable, the mechanism that sets in motion re-
lated technological and social variables.
Netting’s writings about the Kofyar covered many aspects
of their life besides agriculture. He wrote wonderful pieces
on the social value of drinking beer, on the politics of gen-
der and domesticity, and on warfare. On the latter theme
he emphasized the causal links between war and shifts in
settlements, including their abandonment. Tsetse fly infes-
tations increase as bush takes over unused land, and deaths
lower population densities.
Already engaged in the study of Törbel (see below), Net-
ting found time to write a useful little book explaining his
own anthropological perspective. Cultural Ecology (1977) is
a clear exposition of the theoretical underpinnings and
methodological commitments of what Netting calls an eco-
logical “way of seeing.” Hunter-gatherers, northwest coast
fishermen, East African cattle-raising peoples, and subsis-
tence farmers are analyzed with an eye to exposing the
complex, reciprocal interactions that underlie subsistence
 ROBERT MCC. NETTING 131

technologies and local ecosystems. For this task a compara-

tive historical approach and a cross-cultural perspective are
essential.
HISTORICAL ECOLOGY: THE TÖRBEL YEARS

Feeling the need for more complete historical records

than were available for northern Nigeria on long-term rela-
tionships between demographic fluctuations, land tenure
regimes, and ecological adaptations, Netting undertook re-
search during the early 1970s on the German-speaking Al-
pine community of Törbel in the Vispertal of the Valais
canton of southern Switzerland. The Törbel inhabitants prac-
tice an intensive, largely self-sufficient, mixed farming and
herding economy. Starting in 1972, Netting published a
series of important articles covering land-use practices, in-
cluding the intricate irrigation system, forms of communal
tenure, and the marriage system of these remarkable Swiss
alpine villagers. His most salient contribution was in the
analysis of historical records on household structure and
migration in this largely endogamous community. Census
data contained in enumerator’s books listed village resi-
dents by household and covered several periods during the
nineteenth century. Netting copied, cross-checked, and sub-
jected the data—with the help of Walter Elias and Larry
Manire—to computer analysis using software developed by
the Cambridge Center for the Study of Population and So-
cial Structure.
In the fifty years encompassed by the censuses of 1829
and 1880 three-fourths of Törbel’s households continued
to encompass four to eight members, with the modal num-
ber being four or five. There were minor increases in the
age of marriage, frequency of celibacy, and average life span
of the parents. But the number of households remained
fairly stable. The formation of new households was seri-
132 BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS

ously constrained by the limit placed on resources—namely,

meadows, gardens, grain fields, and water to irrigate them.
Households with extended family units that included maiden
aunts, or celibate uncles became more common through
time; but when emigration and wage labor opportunities
presented themselves, households contracted in size. The
ideal continued to be the nuclear household, well adapted
to a relatively static agrarian economy. Within relatively narrow
boundaries, therefore, the household serves as the main
institution through which individuals responded to short-
term social and economic changes.
In 1981 Netting’s Alpine research was published by Cam-
bridge University under the clever title, Balancing on an
Alp, an allusion to the closed corporate nature of Törbel, a
community in demographic and ecological equilibrium. The
book assembled eight of his most important articles, appro-
priately revised, plus three new chapters that structure and
relate the ecology and economy to the social organization.
Rather than replacing each other, as scholars have assumed,
in Törbel communal land tenure practices—held in the
alpine grazing lands and in the irrigation system—coex-
isted for 300 years with private tenure practices exercised
in the intensively cultivated agricultural plots. Discussion of
population dynamics covers four chapters and is based on a
staggering array of quantitative data forming the core of
the book. The concluding chapters present a skillful analy-
sis of the relationship between demographic trends and eco-
logical processes. An outstanding work of “ecological an-
thropology,” Balancing on an Alp is also a charming study of
how Swiss peasants endured and even thrived in their spe-
cial Alpine environment. The book has become a classic,
referred to by economic historians and students of rural
European life as often as by anthropologists and cultural
ecologists.
 ROBERT MCC. NETTING 133

A SYNTHESIS: THE LAST FEW YEARS

In 1993 Netting published Smallholders, Householders, an

impressive scholarly work analyzing the role that farm fami-
lies play in the ecology of intensive, permanent, and pro-
ductive agriculture. The book documents the food-produc-
ing practices of small rural cultivators from the Far East,
Southeast Asia, Africa, and Latin America. Their environ-
mentally appropriate and efficient ways of mobilizing labor,
reducing external inputs, and diminishing risk contrast with
the wasteful procedures inherent in agribusiness and large-
scale industrial farms. Under conditions of expanding popu-
lation, changing agricultural technologies, and the penetra-
tion of a market economy the smallholder alternative has
proven to be “economically efficient, environmentally sus-
tainable, and socially integrative” (p. 27). Using the ex-
ample of two systems he knew well—the Kofyar of northern
Nigeria and the Swiss Alpine villagers of the Valais Can-
ton—Netting outlines the common features of technology
and knowledge they share that are essential characteristics
of intensive farming practices everywhere. He then extends
his sample to include Asian irrigated rice economies and
intensively managed dooryard gardens to demonstrate that
an intimate knowledge of the environment combined with
a wide array of soil restoration, water control, and plant-
management practices are employed to solve ecological and
economic problems. The social unit that most effectively
carries out these intensive tasks is the coresident house-
hold, with its bounded resources and acknowledged prop-
erty rights, its committed labor force, and its clear produc-
tion goals. Despite their demonstrated efficiency, households
are not uniformly endowed. There are significant dispari-
ties between them in productive property and accumulated
wealth. But these differences are not predetermined or fixed:
134 BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS

they do not prevent deliberate mobility or the unintended

consequences of reduction in size. Actually, economic dis-
parity is lower in areas where population density is higher
and land use most intensive. It is in sparsely populated hin-
terlands and agricultural frontiers where wealth is more
polarized and poverty most paralyzing.
Consistent with previous writings, Netting finds in the
theories of Ester Boserup, the Danish economist, the most
intellectually satisfying reason for the smallholder way of
life. Boserup was the first scholar to argue that a positive
relationship exists between population density (and land
scarcity) and intensive forms of agriculture. This is exactly
the opposite of Malthus’s argument that environmental po-
tential and carr ying capacity determine population densi-
ties. It is more compatible, however, with the microlevel
analysis of the composition of peasant households by the
Russian economist Chayanov. One of the great strengths of
Netting’s last book is that he shows where the theories of
great economists such as Boserup, Malthus, Marx, and
Chayanov are relevant, or where they go astray, in an effort
to explain the logic and persistence of smallholder adapta-
tions. In the complex world economy in which all farmers
participate nowadays there is no imminent danger that the
smallholders’ way of life will disappear so long as their ac-
tivities continue to make good economic sense.
CONCLUSION

Netting’s life and work were characterized by integrity,

intellect, and involvement. Ever so much the social scien-
tist, he painstakingly gathered quantitative ethnographic data
with which to test middle-range theories about the processes
that relate social institutions to underlying forces in the
environment. His focus on the role of households in the
economy of intensive agriculture led him to discover sys-
 ROBERT MCC. NETTING 135

tematic relationships between population dynamics, ecological

change, and the form and function of rural family struc-
tures. His enduring contribution was to explore—systemati-
cally and quantitatively—the social and ecological conse-
quences of long-term resource use.
Netting’s respect for the inventiveness and tenacity of
rural producers won him affection and respect. “The won-
derful work he did for our community will forever remain a
legacy that will not be forgotten” (letter of September 5,
1995, from J. Daduut of the Kofyar Federation to Rhonda
Gillett-Netting). “Professor Netting was loved by the people
of Törbel—there remains nothing but to think of this man,
who was such a devoted friend to our simple mountain
folk, with thankful high esteem . . .” (letter by R. Wyss of
Törbel to Rhonda Gillett-Netting).

I SHOULD LIKE TO thank Rhonda Gillett-Netting for her kindness in

sharing with me essential documents on her husband. These in-
cluded an up-to-date CV, published newspaper articles on Bob, let-
ters from friends in the field, and a memorial article (B. J. McCay.
Robert McC. Netting and Human Ecology: An Appreciation. Hum.
Ecol. 24(1996):125-35). Two additional forthcoming pieces by Rich-
ard Wilk and Priscilla Stone, both devoted students of Netting, also
were helpful. The review essay by J. Martinez-Alier, “In Praise of
Smallholders” (prepared for the Conference on Agrarian Questions,
Wageningen, 1995) is critical of Netting’s work but not unfairly so.
Although I consulted several reviews of Netting’s publications, the
assessment here of his work is solely my own.
136 BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

1964
Beer as a locus of value among the West African Kofyar. Am. Anthropol.
66:375-84.

1965
Trial model of cultural ecology. Anthropol. Q. 38:81-96.
Household organization and intensive agriculture: The Kofyar case.
Africa 35:422-29.

1968
Hill Farmers of Nigeria; Cultural Ecology of the Kofyar of the Jos Plateau.
Seattle: University of Washington Press.

1969
Women’s weapons: The politics of domesticity among the Kofyar.
Am. Anthropol. 71:1037-46.
Ecosystems in process: A comparative study of change in two West
African societies. In Ecological Essays: Proceedings of the Conference
on Cultural Ecology, ed. D. Damas. National Musuem of Canada
Bulletin No. 230, pp. 102-12. Ottawa: National Museum of Canada.

1971
The ecological approach in cultural study. In McCaleb Module in
Anthropology, ed. Casagrande, J. B., W. H. Goodenough, and E.
Hammel, Series eds., 30 pp. Reading: Addison-Wesley.

1972
Of men and meadows: Strategies of Alpine land use. Anthropol. Q.
45:132-44.
Sacred power and centralization: Some notes on political adapta-
tion in Africa. In Population Growth: Anthropological Implications,
ed. B. Spooner, pp. 219-44. Cambridge: MIT Press.

1973
Fighting, forest, and the fly: Some demographic regulators among
the Kofyar. J. Anthropol. Res. 29:164-79.
 ROBERT MCC. NETTING 137
1974
The system nobody knows: Village irrigation in the Swiss Alps. In
The Impact of Irrigation in Society, eds. McG. Gibson and T. E.
Downing, pp. 67-75. Tucson: University of Arizona Press.
Agrarian ecology. Annu. Rev. Anthropol. 3:21-56.

1976
What Alpine peasants have in common: Observations on communal
land tenure in a Swiss village. Hum. Ecol. 4:135-46.

1977
Cultural Ecology. Menlo Park, Calif.: Cummings.

1978
With D. Cleveland and F. Stier. The conditions of agricultural intensifi-
cation in the West African savanna. A Sahelian Society Develop-
ment Paper prepared for the U.S. Agency for International De-
velopment, pp. 78-142.

1979
Household dynamics in a nineteenth century Swiss village. J. Fam.
Hist. 4:39-58.

1980
With W. S. Elias. Balancing on an alp: Population stability and change
in a Swiss peasant village. In Village Viability in Contemporary Soci-
ety, eds. P. Reining and B. Lenkerd, pp. 69-108. Washington, D.C.:
American Association for the Advancement of Science.
Familienpolitik: Alliance in a closed corporate community. In The
Versatility of Kinship, eds. S. Beckerman and L.S. Cordell, pp. 251-
68. New York: Academic Press.

1981
Balancing on an Alp: Ecological Change and Continuity in a Swiss Moun-
tain Community. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

1982
Territory, property, and tenure. In Behavioral and Social Science Re-
search: A National Resource, pp. 446-502. Washington, D.C.: Na-
tional Academy Press.
138 BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS

1984
With R. R. Wilk and E. J. Arnould, eds. Households: Comparative and
Historical Studies of the Domestic Group. Berkeley: University of Cali-
fornia Press.

1987
Clashing cultures, clashing symbols: Histories and meaning of the
Latok war. Ethnohistory 34:352-89.

1990
Population, permanent agriculture, and politics: Unpacking the evo-
lutionary portmanteau. In The Evolution of Political Systems, ed. S.
Upham, pp. 21-61. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

1993
Smallholders, Householders; Farm Families and the Ecology of Intensive,
Sustainable Agriculture. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
With G. D. Stone and M. P. Stone. Agricultural expansion, intensifi-
cation, and market participation among the Kofyar, Jos Plateau,
Nigeria. In Population Growth and Agricultural Change in Africa,
eds. B. L. Turner, G. Hyden, and R. W. Kates, pp. 206-49. Gainesville:
University of Florida Press.
ROBERT MCC. NETTING 139