Unit-5 Semiconducting Materials

2.
SEMICONDUCTING MATERIALS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After completing a study of this chapter, you will be able to,

• Define semiconductors and its types.
• Quantify carrier concentration in Intrinsic and Extrinsic semiconductors.
• Explain the terms hole concentration and Fermi level.
• Explain Hall effect in n-type and p-type semiconductors.
• Derive expressions related to Hall effect.
• Explain elemental and compound semiconductors.
42 Physics for Mechatronics Engineering
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Semiconducting materials are solid crystalline materials whose electrical
conductivity is intermediate between that of a metal and an insulator. The electrical
conductivity of semiconductors range from about 103 to 10-9 ohm-1 cm-1 as compared
with a maximum conductivity of 107 ohm-1 cm-1 for good conductors and a minimum
conductivity of 10-17 ohm-1 cm-1 for good insulators. The basic distinction between
conduction in metals and in semiconductors is made by considering the energy bands
occupied by the conduction electrons. Semiconductors exhibit conduction properties that
may be temperature dependent, permitting their use as thermistors. Semiconductor devices,
rectifiers and transistors have replaced vacuum tubes almost completely in low power
electronics, making it possible to save volume and power consumption by orders of
magnitude. The optical properties of a semiconductor are important for the
understanding and the application of the material.
Photodiodes, photoconductive detectors of radiation, injection lasers and light
emitting diodes, solar energy conversion cells are examples of the wide variety of opto
electronic devices.
Materials can be classified into three categories based on its conductivity or
its resistivity. Semi-conducting materials have the resistivity lying in between
conductors and insulators i.e. in the order of 10−4 to 0.5 Ωm. These materials are of greater
important as their conductivity can be altered according to the need of application by the
process of doping. This chapter deals with the types of semiconductors and its theory.
Types of semiconductor
Semiconductor are classified as,

i) Intrinsic semiconductors
ii) Extrinsic semiconductors
Semiconducting Materials 43
Figure 2.1 Types of Semiconductor
2.2 INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS

Semiconductor in an extremely purest form is called intrinsic semiconductor.
Example: Germanium and Silicon
In this semiconductor the conductivity is increased by thermal agitation. Since
they exist in purest form, the number of free electron generated by thermal agitation
equals the number of holes.
Carrier Concentration in Intrinsic Semiconductor
Intrinsic semiconductor behave as a perfect insulator at 0K. This is because, no

free electrons are available in the conduction band at such a low temperature. But when
the temperature is increased, the electrons in the valence band gets thermally agitated
and are excited to the conduction band thereby leaving the holes in the valence band.
Figure 2.2 Carrier concentration in intrinsic semiconductor

Both the electron in the conduction band and holes in the valance band are equal in number
and they together take part in electrical conduction. Hence to study the conductivity of
semiconductors, it is essential to calculate the carrier concentration (electron density
(ne) and hole density (nh).
From Figure 2.2, EC is the bottom level of conduction band, EV is the top level
of valence band and EF0 represent the Fermi level at 0K. The electron in the conduction
band have energy lying from EC to ∞ and holes in the valence band having energy from
−∞ to EV. Let me* and mh* be the masses of free electron and the hole respectively.
From the definition of density of states,
2.2.1 HOLE CONCENTRATION
The total probability of finding the electron and hole is 1. i.e., probability of filled
and unfilled states. Therefore the probability of unfilled states alone will be [1− F(E)].
Taking the maximum energy in the valence band as Ev and the minimum energy as
−∞, the density of holes in the valence band is given by
2.3 FERMI LEVEL

Fermi level is denoted as the highest energy levels of electrons at absolute zero
temperature. The concept of Fermi level is on the basis of Fermi-Dirac statistics.
According to Pauli’s exclusion principle, electrons being fermions, cannot be
accommodated in an identical energy states. So at absolute zero, they pack into the
lowest available energy states and form a “Fermi sea” of electron energy states. The
concept of Fermi energy is a crucially important concept for the understanding of the
electrical and thermal properties of solids.
2.3.1 FERMI FUNCTION
The Fermi function F(E) gives the probability that a given available electron energy
state will be occupied by an electron at a given temperature.
The Fermi function has the form
The nature of this function express that at ordinary temperatures, most of the levels
up to the Fermi level EF are filled, and relatively few electrons have energies above the
Fermi level.
Variation of Fermi energy level with temperature
In intrinsic semiconductors, due to thermal agitation, the electrons from the valence
band gets excited to the conduction band by leaving the holes in the valence band. So the
number of electrons in the conduction band are equal to that of the holes in the valence
band.
i.e., ne = nh
Equating Equations (2.7) and (2.12), we get,
Equation (2.14) implies that, the Fermi level lies exactly in the middle of EC and
EV. This is also shown in the figure.
In order to express the mobility of charge carries and the conductivity of intrinsic
semiconductors, it is customary to express the density of electrons and holes in terms of
the forbidden energy gap Eg.
Density of electron and holes in terms of Eg
The forbidden energy gap is expressed as,

Eg = EC – EV
Substituting Equation (2.13) in Equation (2.7), we have,
Since ni = ne = nh, we can write ni2 = ne.nh. Therefore for intrinsic semiconductor, even if
impurity is added to increase ne, there will be decrease in nh and hence the product nenh will
remain constant. This is called law of mass action.
2.4 MOBILITY AND ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY OF INTRINSIC

SEMICONDUCTORS
The electrical conductivity of intrinsic semiconductors is given by,
σi = nie (µe + µh) …..(2.18)

Hence, ni is the intrinsic carrier concentration, e in the electronic charge µe and µh are the
mobility of electron and hole respectively.
Substituting Equation (2.17) in the expression of conductivity, i.e., Equation (2.18),
This equation plotted by taking log σi along y axis and 1/T along x axis, a straight line
is obtained. Here σi increases with temperature.
Determination of band gap

In intrinsic semiconductor, the electrical conductivity is given by
2.5 EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS

Semiconductors in which the conductivity can be varied by the addition of
impurity (doping) are called extrinsic semiconductors.
Based on the nature of impurity added, they are classified as
i) n-type semiconductors
ii) p-type semiconductors
i) n-type semiconductors
When an intrinsic semiconductor (pure Ge

or Si) is doped with pentavalent impurity atoms
like phosphorus, arsenic or antimony, etc, a n-type
semiconductor is obtained as shown in Figure 2.3.
The impurity atom (P) has 5 valence electrons,
where as the Ge atom has only 4 valence electrons.
Therefore the 4 electrons of phosphorus atom form
the covalent bond with the neighboring 4 elec-
trons of Germanium atom. But the 5th electron of
phosphorus atom finds no other electron to form
the covalent bond and hence remain as free Figure 2.3 n-type semiconductor
electron. Therefore due to the doping process, the
free electron increases in number. So the elec-
trons forms the majority charge carriers and hence the holes remain as minority charge
carriers.
The Figure 2.4 shows the energy level diagram of an n type semiconductor.
Figure 2.4 Energy level diagram
The free electron donated by the impurity atom (donor atom) lie just below
the conduction band very close. This level is termed as donor level. In n-type
semiconductors, the Fermi level lies exactly in the middle of donor level (Ed) and
conduction band (Ec). Since the donor level is very close to the conduction band, even
at room temperature, the donor electron easily gets excited to the conduction band.
These electrons when reach the conduction band they will take part in the electrical
conductivity.
(ii) p-type semiconductors
When an intrinsic semiconductor (pure Ge or Si) is doped with a tetravalent

impurity atom like Boron, Gallium or Indium, etc, a p-type semiconductor is obtained.
Figure 2.5 p-type semiconductor
The impurity atom (In) has only 3 valence electron where as the Ge atom has
4 valence electron. The 3 electrons of Indium atom form the covalent band with the
neighbouring 3 electrons of Germanium atom. But the 4th position finds no electron to
get occupied to form the covalent bond and hence remain vacant. This vacant electron
site is called hole, which assist in the current flow.
Therefore due to the doping process, the holes numbers will increase. So the
holes form the majority charge carriers and hence electron remain as minority charge
carriers. The Figure 2.6 shows the energy level diagram of a p-type semiconductor.
Figure 2.6 Energy level diagram
The holes generated by doping process lie just above the valence band.
These holes can accept the electrons from the valence band and may pass them to the
conduction band. Hence the level at which the holes lie is called acceptor level (Ea).
2.6 EXPRESSION FOR CARRIER CONCENTRATION IN n-TYPE

SEMICONDUCTOR
The Figure 2.7 shows the energy band structure of n-type semi-conductor. In the
figure we can see the Fermi level lying exactly in the middle of conduction band and
donar level. Since Ec and Ed are very close to each other, the electrons can easily move
from donor level to conduction level even at low temperature.
Figure 2.7 Energy band
Assuming (Ec − EF) > k T

Let Nd be the number of donar energy levels per cm3 which is nothing but the
density of states Z(Ed) dE. As the electrons from the donor level moves into the
conduction level, they will leave equal number of holes in the donar level.
Generally we can write the number of holes per unit volume in donor energy level as,
Substitute (2.27) in equation (2.22) and re-arranging we get,

This above equation clearly states that density of electrons in the conduction band is
directly proportional to square root of the donor concentration.
Variation of Fermi Energy Level with Carrier Concentration and Temperature in n-type
Semiconductor
As the temperature increases, some electron in Ed level are excited to conduction

band and create vacant sites in Ed level i.e., donor level. This shifts the Fermi level
downwards in order to separate the vacant levels.
From the Figure 2.8 it is also found that, for the same temperature, if the doping
level is increased from 1021 atoms/m3 to 1024 atoms/m3, the electron concentration
increases and hence the Fermi level increases.
Figure 2.8
Expression for Carrier Concentration in p-type Semiconductor
The Figure 2v.9 shows the energy band structure

of p-type semi-conductor. In the figure we can see the
Fermi level lying exactly in the middle of valence band
and acceptor level. Since Ev and Ea are very close to each
other, the electron can easily move from the valence
band to the conduction band via the holes available in
the acceptor level. Thus acceptor level accepts the elec- Figure 2.9 Carrier concentrated
tron from valence band and passes them into the con- in p-type semiconductor
duction band even at low temperature.

Let Na be the number of acceptor energy levels per cm3 which has energy Ea above
valence band. As the electron from the valence band moves into the acceptor level, they
will leave equal number of holes in the valence band.
Generally we can write the number of electron per unit volume in the acceptor energy
level as,
This implies that, at 0K, the Fermi level lies exactly in between Ev and Ea.
where Na is the acceptor concentration. It is also clear that density of holes in the valence
band is proportional to the square root of the acceptor concentration.
Variation of Fermi Energy Level with Carrier Concentration and Temperature in p-type
Semiconductor
Figure 2.10
As the temperature increase, some of the electrons in the valence band are excited
to the acceptor level by breaking up of covalent bonds and therefore the Fermi level is
shifted upwards for a particular doping level.
From the Figure 2.10 it is also found that for the same temperature if the doping
level is increased from 1021 atoms/cm3 to 1024 atoms/cm3, the hole concentration increases
and hence the Fermi level comes down.
2.7 ELEMENTAL AND COMPOUND SEMICONDUCTORS

(Indirect and direct band gap semiconductors)
(i) Elemental semiconductors : (Indirect band gap semiconductors)

The elemental semiconductor is made of single element from the fourth group
elements, of the periodic table. Germanium and Silicon are the important examples
for elemental semiconductors, these are also known as indirect band gap semiconduc-
tors. Here the recombination of an electron from the conduction band with a hole in the
valence band takes place through traps. In this process, the phonons are emitted while
recombination and they heat the lattice.
(ii) Compound semiconductors: (Direct band gap semiconductors)
The compound semiconductors are made by combining the third and fifth coloumn
elements (or) second and sixth coloumn elements. GaAs, InP are the important example
for compound semiconductors, these are also known as direct band gap semiconduc-
tors. Here the recombination of electron and hole takes place directly and its energy
difference is emitted in the form of photons in the visible (or) Infrared range.
Since the life time of the change carrier is so small, the current amplification is small.
Hence these diodes are not suitable for making transisters and ICs, rather they are used
in making LEDs and LASER diodes.
Example: AlP, GaAs, InSb, AlAs. They have
covalent bond and possess larger energy gaps than
the elements.
GaAs is chemically stable in normal atmosphere
and its energy gap and carrier mobility is high. It is
used as photovoltaic material, laser material and in
LED.
Some of the III – V compounds become intrin-
Figure 2.11 Compound semiconductors
sic only at higher temperatures. It is desirable to oper-
ate semi conducting devices in the exhaustion range
where the carrier concentration is insensitive to temperature. A large energy gap extends
the exhaustion range effectively to higher temperatures. Group II – VI compounds may
be insulators as well as semiconductors. Examples are CdS (2.45 eV), CdSe (1.47 eV) and
CdTe (1.45eV)
Table 2.1 Properties of III – V Compounds
Material Energy gap Electronv mobility Hole mobility

Eg(eV) me m /volt –second mh m2/volt-second
2
GaAs 1.34 0.85 0.45

GaP 2.25 0.045 0.002
InP 1.27 0.60 0.016
InAs 0.33 30 0.010
InSb 0.18 8.00 0.070
GaSb 0.70 0.50 0.085
AlSb 1.52 0.140 0.020
CdS whose energy gap is 2.45 eV corresponds to frequencies, which lie in the
visible region of the spectrum. It is used in light meters because of its high majority
carrier lifetimes.
Group IV – VI compounds like lead sulfide, lead selenide and lead telluride having
energy gaps as 0.37, 0.27 and 0.33 eV are most useful in the infrared region of the
spectrum. Lead telluride is used as a thermoelectric material.
2.8 HALL EFFECT

When a current carrying conductor is placed in a transverse magnetic field, an
electric field is produced inside the conductor in a direction perpendicular to both the
current and the magnetic field. This is known as Hall effect.
Hall effect can be observed both in n-type and p-type semiconductor.
2.8.1 HALL EFFECT IN n-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR
Consider a n-type material. If an electric current is allowed to pass along positive

x-direction, and if a magnetic field is applied along z-direction, an voltage is devel-
oped across the face perpendicular to both x and z-direction. This voltage is called Hall
voltage.
Here the conventional current direction is from left to right and hence the electron
flow is from right to left in the x-direction.
Figure 2.11 Hall effect in n-type semiconductor
Now when the magnetic field is applied the electrons undergo a deviation in their
path and move downwards and accumulate in the bottom face. Due to this, a potential
is build across y axis. This electric field established between the top and bottom faces is
called Hall field EH and the respective voltage is called Hall voltage.
The force due to the potential difference = − eEH …..(2.36)
Here ‘e’ is the electronic charge
The force due to applied magnetic field = −Bev …..(2.37)

Here ‘B’ is the magnetic field strength and ‘v’ is the velocity of the moving electrons.
At equilibrium, the forces due to potential difference and that of the magnetic field are
same.
Figure 2.12
Therefore Equation (2.36) = Equation (2.37)

− eEH = −Bev
EH = Bv …..(2.38)
Current density Jx in the x-direction is given by
2.8.2 HALL EFFECT IN p-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR
Consider a p-type material. If an electric current is allowed to pass along positive

x-direction, and if a magnetic field is applied along z-direction, an voltage is developed

across the face perpendicular to x and z-directions. This voltage is called hall voltage.
Here the conventional current direction is from left to right and hence the hole
movement is also in the same direction.
Figure 2.13
Now when the magnetic field is applied the holes undergo a deviation in their path
and move downwards and accumulate in the bottom face. Due to this, a potential is build
across y-axis. This electric field established between the top and bottom faces is called
Hall field EH and the respective voltage is called Hall voltage.
Figure 2.14
The force due to the potential difference = eEH …..(2.41)

Here ‘e’ is the electronic charge. (It is same as electron but with positive nature.)
The force due to applied magnetic field = Bev …..(2.42)
Here ‘B’ is the magnetic field strength and ‘v’ is the velocity of the moving holes.
At equilibrium, the forces due to potential difference and that of the magnetic field
are same.
Therefore, Equation (2.41) = Equation (2.42)

eEH = Bev
EH = Bv …..(2.43)
Current density Jx in the x direction is given by
2.8.3 HALL COEFFICIENT (R H) IN TERMS OF HALL VOLTAGE (V H)
Let ‘t’ be the thickness of the sample. VH is the Hall voltage developed. If EH is the
Hall field, then we can write,
Hall voltage VH = EH.t …..(2.46)
Substituting equation (2.45) in equation (2.46),
VH = RH Jx.B.t …..(2.47)
Let ‘b’ be the breadth of the sample, then,
Area of the sample = b.t
2.8.4 EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF HALL CO-EFFICIENT
The setup shows the experiment to determine the Hall coefficient. It consists of a
semiconductor taken in the form of a slab. ‘b’ is the breadth and ‘t’ is the thickness of
the slab. H is the magnetic field applied. A current Ix is passed through the slab.
If VH is the Hall voltage produced, then the Hall coefficient is determined from the
formula
Experimentally it is found that, the Hall coefficient is negative in the case of n-type
semiconductors and is positive for p-type semiconductors.
Figure 2.15
Applications of Hall Effect
1. Determination of semiconductor type

For an n-type semiconductor, Hall coefficient is negative whereas for a p-type semi-
conductor it is positive. Thus, the sign of the Hall coefficient is used to determine whether
a given semiconductor is n-type or p-type.

2. Calculation of carrier concentration
Once Hall coefficient RH is measured, the carier concentration can be obtained from
1
n=
eR H
3. Determination of mobility
Thus by measuring electrical conductivity and Hall coefficient of a sample, the
mobility of the charge carriers can be calculated.
We know that electrical conductivity σe = ne µ e
σ
Hence , µ e = e
ne
µ e = σe R H
4. Magnetic Field meter

Hall voltage VH for a given current is proportional to B. Hence measurement of VH
measures the magnetic field B.
5. Hall effect Multiplier
This instrument gives an output proportional to the product of two signals. Thus if
current I is made proportional to one input and if B is proportional to the second input,
then Hall voltage VH is proportional to the product of the two inputs.
Importance of Hall effect
The study of Hall effect gives the following important informations.
• The sign of the current carrying charges is determined.
• From the magnitude of Hall coefficient, the number of charge carriers per unit
volume can be calculated.
• The mobility is measured directly.
• It can be used to decide whether a material is a metal, semiconductor or an
insulator.
2.9 APPLICATIONS OF SEMICONDUCTING MATERIALS IN STRAIN GAUGE
Strain Gauge
Strain gauge provides an extremely simple and accurate way to measure even
slight deformation of a solid surface or object. Strain gauge is an example of passive
transducer that converts a mechanical displacement or elongation into change in resis-
tance R.
Gauge factor is defined as the ratio of the fractional change in resistance to the fractional
change in length along the gauge axis.
Strain gauges are classified by:
• Material (usually bonded wire, metal foil, or semiconductor)
• Physical size
• Resistance
Semiconductor strain gauge
A semiconductor strain gauge is formed by the semiconductor technology i.e.,

the semiconducting wafers or filaments of length varying from 2 mm to 10 mm and
thickness of 0.05 mm are bonded on suitable insulating substrates (for example Teflon).
The gold leads are usually employed for making electrical contacts. The electrodes are
formed by vapour deposition. The assembly is placed in a protective box as shown in the
figure below.
Figure 2.16 Semiconductor strain gauge
The strain sensitive elements used in the semiconductor strain gauge are silicon and
germanium. When the strain is applied to the semiconductor element a large of change
in resistance occur which can be measured with the help of a Wheatstone bridge. The
strain can be measured with high degree of accuracy due to relatively high change in
resistance.
A temperature compensated semiconductor strain gauge can be used to measure small
strains of the order of 10-6 i.e., micro-strain. This type of gauge will have a gauge factor
of 130 ± 10% for a semiconductor material of dimension 1 x 0.5 x 0.005 inch having the
resistance of 350 Ω.
Advantages of Semiconductor Strain Gauge
• The gauge factor of semiconductor strain gauge is very high. Therefore it is

useful in measurement of very small strains of the order of 0.01micro-strains.
• The semiconductor strain gauge has much higher output, but it is as stable as a
metallic strain gauge.
• It has a large fatigue life i.e., 10 x 106 operations can be performed.
• It possesses a high frequency response of 1012 Hz.
• It is manufactured in very small sizes and lengths ranging from 0.7 to 7.0 mm.
Solved Problems
2. In a surface of lntrinsic Germanium kept at 400K, the mobilities of electrons

and holes are 0.46 m2V–1S–1 and 0.27 m2V–1S–1 respectively. Find the forbidden
energy gap, if the resistivity of the specimen is 2.13 Ωm.
Solution
3. Calculate the conductivity of intrinsic germanium at 400K, with a carrier

concentration of 2.8 × 1019/m3, the mobility of electron and hole are 0.40 m2V–1S–1 and
0.22 m2V–1S–1 respectively.
Solution
4. A semiconducting crystal 15 mm long, 1.5 mm wide and 1.5 mm thick has a magnetic
flux density of 0.6 wb/m2. A current of 15 mA is passed through the specimen in which
the voltage across its width is formed to be 40 µv. Calculate the Hall coefficient of
semiconductor and the density of charge carriers.
Solution
Exercise Problems
2. In a sample of intrinsic Germanium kept at 330 K, the mobilities of electrons and

holes are 0.35 m2 v−1 s−1 and 0.39 m2 v−1 s−1 respectively. Find the forbidden energy
gap, if the resistivity of the specimen is 2.03 Ωm. (Ans: ni = 4.1639 × 1018 / m3)
3. Calculate the conductivity of intrinsic Germanium at 330 K, with a carrier concentra-
tion of 3 × 1019/m3, the mobility of electron and hole is 0.44 m2 v−1 s−1 and 0.33 m2 v−1
s−1 respectively. (Ans: σ = 3.7 Ω−1m−1)
4. A semiconductor with a dimension of 16 mm × 1.4 mm × 1.4 mm has a magnetic flux
density of 0.5 wb/m2. A current of 14 mA is passed through the specimen in which the
voltage across its width is formed to be 30 µV. Calculate the Hall coefficient and
density of charge carries in the given semiconductor.
(Ans: n = 1.22 × 1024/m3)
Review Questions
Short questions
1. What is a semiconductor?
2. Draw the energy level diagram of a semiconductor.
3. What is an extrinsic semiconductor?
4. What is an intrinsic semiconductor?
5. What is a p-type semiconductor?
6. What is a n-type semiconductor?
7. What are properties of semiconductor?
8. Write the expression for the concentration of electrons in the conduction band of
an intrinisic semiconductor.
9. Write the expression for the concentration of holes in the valence band of an
intrinisic semiconductor.
10. What is Fermi level in a semiconductor?
11. Write the expression for the electrical conductivity of an intrinisic semiconductor
12. What is meant by doping?
13. Explain the concept of hole in semiconductor.
14. What is meant by donor energy level?
15. What is meant by acceptor level?
16. Write the expression for carrier concentration in n-type semiconductor.
17. Write the expression for carrier concentration of holes in the valence band of an
p-type semiconductor.
18. Explain the variation of Fermi level with temperature in the case of p-type
semiconductor or n-type semiconductor.
19. What are elemental semiconductors and compound semiconductors? Give two
examples.
20. Define Fermi level in the case of semiconductors. Mention its position in intrisinic
and extrinsic semiconductor at 0K. (May 2003)
21. Define Hall effect and Hall voltage.
22. Mention any four applications of Hall effect. (May 2003, May 2005)
Descriptive questions
1. Derive an expression for density of electrons in the conduction band in an
intrisinic semiconductors.
2. Derive an expression for density of holes in the valence band of an intrisinic
semiconductors.
3. Discuss the variation of Fermi level with temperature in an intrinsic semiconductor.

4. Describe a method of determining the band gap of a semiconductor. How does the
electrical conductivity vary with temperature for an intrinsic semiconductor?
(Nov. 2002)
5. Obtain an expression for density of electrons in the conduction band of an n-type
extrinisic semiconductor by assuming Fermi-Dirac distribution function.
(May 2004)
6. Obtain an expression for density of holes in the valence band of an p-type
extrinisic semiconductor. (AU 2004)
7. Discuss the variation of carrier concentration with temperature in an n-type
semiconductor. (AU 2001)
8. Explain with a sketch the variation of Fermi level and carrier concentration with
temperature in the case of p and n type semiconductors for high and low doping
levels. (April 2002)
9. What is Hall effect? Derive an expression of Hall coefficient. Describe an
experimental setup for the measurement of the Hall coefficient.
(Dec 2002, Nov. 2004, 2004)
Question Bank
1. A pure semiconductor at absolute zero temperature behaves like ___________
a. a conductor b. an insulator c. a magnetic material d. a ferro-electric material
2. The conductivity of a semiconductor is increased by __________
a. Increasing temperature b. Decreasing temperature
c. Maintaining temperature at 0K d. Maintaining constant temperature
3. The insulating behavior of intrinsic semiconductors at 0 K is due to _________
a. Excess of free electron in C.B b. less free electron in VB
c. no free electron in VB d. no free electron in CB
4. The forbidden energy gap of silicon is ________________
a. 1.1 eV. b. 0.25 eV. c. 0.5 eV. d. 0.7 eV.
5. Ec to ∞ is the energy limit of
a. valence band b. donor level c. conduction band d. acceptor level
6. The energy limit of valance band is __________
a. α to 0 b. 0 to α c. -α to Ev d. 0 to Ev
7. The element which is not suitable to prepare a semiconductor device ___________
a. Arsenic b. Gallium c. Indium d. Calcium
8. The total probability of finding the electron and the hole in the intrinsic semiconductor is __________
a. 0 b. 1 c. 2 d. 3
9. The probability of unfilled state in the intrinsic semiconductor is __________________
a. F(E) b. 0 c. 1 d. 1 – F(E)
10. Fermi energy level lies in the__________ of valence band and conduction band of intrinsic semi
conductor at absolute zero temperature.
a. uppermost b. bottom c. lowest d. middle
11. The concept of Fermi energy is based on _________________
a. Classical statistics b. Newtonian mechanics
c. Fermi-Dirac statistics d. Maxwell Boltzmann statistics
12. Forbidden energy gap of a semiconductor is Eg = _____________________

a. Ec b. Ev c. Ec – Ev d. Ec + Ev
13. The reciprocal of resistivity is __________________
a. resistors b. insulators c. conductivity c. semi conductivity
14. The impure form of a semiconductor is known as__________
a. Intrinsic semiconductor b. Extrinsic semiconductor
c. Semiconductor d. conductors
15.When a pentavalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor, it becomes _____________
a. p – type semiconductor b. semiconductor
c. n- type semiconductor d. intrinsic semiconductor
16. In n-type semiconductors _________________
a. electrons are minority charge carriers b. holes majority charge carriers
c. electrons are majority charge carriers d. holes are not produced
17. The resistivity of semiconducting materials lies in the range of ____________
a. 10–5 to 0.5 Ωm b. 10–4 to 0.5 Ωm
c. 10 to 0.4 Ωm
–4
d. 10–5 to 0.4 Ωm
18. The electrical conductivity of intrinsic semiconductor is __________
a. σi = nie (µe + µh) b. σi = nie (2 µe) c. σi = nie (2 µh) d. σi = nie (µe - µh)
19. The Hall effect is observed in _____________
a. Semi-conductors b. Insulators c. Magnetic materials d. Polymers
20. The Hall electric field for n-type semi-conductors is __________
a. EH = RH Jx B b. EH = RH Jx E c. BH = RH Jx E d. EH = RH B
21. The electrical conductivity of a semiconductor is _____________
a. 103 to 10–9 Ω–1 m–1 b. 109 to 10–3 Ω–1 m–1
c. 103 to 10–3 Ω–1 m–1 d. 10–9 to 109 Ω–1 m–1
22. The energy gap for zinc oxide semiconductor is _____________
a. 3.3 ev b. 33 ev c. 3.3ev d. 0.33 ev
23. In N type semiconducting materials, the majority carriers are __________
a. Positive Holes b. Electrons c. Protons d. Neutrons
24. A semiconductor has _____________ temperature coefficient of resistance.
a. positive b. zero c. negative d. infinite
25. The P type semiconductors are formed by adding impurity of valency ___________
a. 3 b. 4 c. 5 d. 6
26. The cut-in voltage of silicon diode is__________

a. 0.2 V b. 0.7 V c. 1.1 V d. 2.5 V
27. The forbidden energy gap of germanium is ________________
a. 0.15eV b. 0.25 eV c. 0.5 eV d. 0.7 eV
28. The N-type semiconductor is an example of _____________
a. extrinsic semiconductor b. intrinsic semiconductor
c. super conductor d. insulators
29. Holes are the majority carriers in___________
a. P-type semiconductors b. N-type semiconductors
c. Insulators d. Superconductors
30. The Hall effect is used to identify the _________
a. the type of semiconductor (p or n type) b. insulator
c. magnetic materials d. nanomaterial
Answers
1. b 2. a 3. d 4. a 5. c 6. c 7. d 8. b 9. d 10. a 11. c
12. c 13. c 14. b 15. c 16. c 17. b 18. a 19. a 20. a 21. a 22. a
23. b 24. c 25. a 26. b 27. d 28. a 29. a 30. a
PART - B
1. What is semiconductor?
Semiconductor is a special class of material, which is very small in size, sensitive to heat, light
and electricity. Its resistivity lies in between a conductor and an insulator.
2. What are properties of semiconductors?
a. They are formed by covalent bond b. They have empty conduction band,
c. They have almost filled valence band. d. They have comparatively narrow energy
3. What is an intrinsic semiconductor?
Semiconductor in an extremely pure form (without impurities) is known as intrinsic semiconductor.
4. What is an extrinsic semiconductor?
A semiconducting material in which the charge carriers originate from impurity atoms added to
the material is known as extrinsic semiconductor or impurity semi conductor.
5. What are elemental semiconductors? Give some important elemental semi conductors.
Elemental semiconductor are made from single element of the fourth group elements of the peri
odic table. It is also known as indirect band gap semiconductor.
Example - Important elemental semiconductors and their band gaps are as follows
Silicon - 1.1 Germanium - 0.72 Diamond - 5.3 Gray tin - 0.08
6. What are compound semiconductors? Give some important compound semi conductors.
Semiconductors which are formed by combining third and fifth group elements or second and
sixth group elements in the periodic table are called compound semiconductors. These com
pound semiconductors are also known as direct bandgap semiconductors.
Group Compound Semiconductor
Combination of third and Gallium phosphor (GaP) Gallium
fifth group elements (III and Arsenic (GaAs) Indium Phosphor
V) (InP) Indium Arsenic (InAs)
Combination of second and Magnesium oxide (MgO) Mag-
sixth group elements (II and nesium silicon (MgSi) Znic oxide
VI) (ZnO) Zinc sulphide (ZnS)
7. Mention the uses of compound semiconductor.

They are used as photovoltaic materials, photoconductive cell, laser materials and for making
LED [Light Emitting Diode].
8. What is a p-type semiconductor?
When a small amount of trivalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor, it becomes extrin
sic semiconductor or impure semiconductor and it is called p-type semiconductor.
9. What is an n-type semiconductor?
When a small amount of pentavalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor, it becomes
extrinsic or impure. Semiconductor and it is known as n-type semi conductor.’
10. What are the difference between elemental and compound semiconductor?
Elemental Semiconductor Compound Semiconductor

They are made of single element E.g., Ge, Si, They are made up of compound Eg : GaA,
etc., GaP, CdS, MgO etc.
They are called as indirect band gap They are called as direct band gap semi-
semiconductor i.e., electron hole conductor i.e., electron hole recombina-
recombination takes place through traps, tion takes place directly with each other.
which are present in the band gap.
Here heat is produced due to recombination Here the photons are emitted during
recombination ( this effect is in LED)
They are used for the manufacture of diodes They are used for making LED’s Laser
and transistors etc. diodes, IC’s etc.
11. What is meant by doping and doping agent?

The technique of adding impurities to a pure semiconductor is known as doping and the added
impurity is called doping agent.
12. Explain the concept of hole in semiconductor.
In intrinsic semiconductor, charge carriers are created due to breaking of covalent bonds. When
a covalent bond is broken, an electron escapes to the conduction band leaving behind an empty
space in the valence band. This missing electron is called a hole.
13. What is meant by donor energy level?
A pentavalent impurity when doped with an intrinsic semiconductor donates one electron which
produces an energy level called donor energy level.
14. What is meant by acceptor energy level?
A trivalent impurity when doped with an intrinsic semiconductor accepts one electron which
produces an energy level called acceptor energy level.
15. Write an expression for the concentration of electrons in the conduction band of an intrinsic
semiconductor.
The expression for the concentration of electrons in the conduction band of an intrinsic semi
conductor is given by
16. Write an expression for the concentration of holes in the valence band of an intrinsic
semiconductor.
The expression for the concentration of holes in the valence band is given by
17. What is Fermi level in a semiconductor?

Fermi level in a semiconductor is the energy level situated in the band gap of the semiconductor.
It is exactly located at the middle of the band gap in the case of an intrinsic semiconductor. Thus,
it is a reference energy level from which the maximum energy of the valence band and minimum
energy of the conduction band are referred.
18. Write an expression for carrier concentration in n-type semiconductor.

Expression for carrier concentration in n-type semiconductor is given by
19. Write an expression for carrier concentration of holes in the valence band of p-type semi
conductor.
Expression for carrier concentration in p-type is given by
20. Define Fermi level in the case of semiconductors. Mention its position in intrinsic and extrin
sic semiconductor at OK.
Fermilevel is located halfway between the valence and conduction band in an intrinsic semicon
ductors at 0K.
In n-type semiconductors at 0K, Fermi level lies exactly at the middle of the donor level Ed and
the bottom of the conduction band EC.
In p-type semiconductor at 0K, Fermi level lies exactly at the middle of the acceptor level Ea and
top of the valence band Ev
21. Define Hall-effect and Hall voltage.

When a conductor (metal or semiconductor) carrying a current (I) is placed in a transverse
magnetic field (B), a potential difference (electric field) is produced inside the conductor in a
direction normal to the directions of both the current and magnetic field. This phenomenon is
known as Hall-effect and the generated voltage is called Hall-voltage.
22. Mention four applications of Hall effect.

a. It is used to find type of semiconductor. b. It is used to measure the carrier concentration. c.
It is used to find mobility of charge carrier. d. It is used to measure magnetic flux density
using a semiconductor sample of known Hall coefficient.
23. Why do we prefer extrinsic semiconductors than intrinsic semiconductors?
Extrinsic semiconductors have electrical conductivity, which depends on the number of dopant
(impurity) atoms and have operating temperature. But in the intrinsic semiconductors the electri
cal conductivity is very small and is not a constant at different temperature.
24. What is the meaning of bandgap of a semiconductor?
Bandgap (or) energy gap of a semiconductor is the region of energies, which are not allowed to
occupy by the electron of that material. It is equal to the energy difference between the minimum
energy of conduction band and the maximum energy of valence band of that material. But in a
bandgap the added impurity atoms can have their energy levels.
25. Why do we prefer silicon for transistors and GaAs laser diodes?
Silicon is an indirect bandgap semiconductor and so the lifetime of the charge carriers is more
and hence amplification is more. Ga As is the direct bandgap semiconductor and the electrons
can recombine directly with the holes in the valence band emitting a light photon.
26. What is the effect of doped impurities and increase of temperature in a semiconductor?
The doped impurities and increase of temperature create the charge carriers and thereby increas
ing the electrical conductivity of semiconductor, even though there is an increase of scattering
centers. Since the increase of conductivity due to doped impurities and increase of temperature is
larger than the reduction of conductivity due to increase of scattering centres.
27. What are intrinsic semiconductors?
Intrinsic semiconductors are the pure elemental semiconductors in which the conductivity varies
with respect to temperature alone.
28. What are p-type and n-type semiconductors?
P-type semiconductor is the one having holes as the majority charge carriers and electrons as the
minority charge carriers. Example: Silicon or Germanium doped with trivalent impurities like Al
Ga and In. N-type semiconductor is the one having electrons as the majority charge carriers
and holes as the minority charge carriers. Example: Silicon and Germanium doped with pentava
lent impurities like P, As and Sb.
29. What are donors and semiconductors?
The donors are the doped pentavalent impurity atoms like P, As and Sb in silicon or germanium
donating an electron from its atom to silicon or germanium crystal. The acceptors are the doped
trivalent impurity atoms like Al, Ga and In in silicon or germanium accepting an electron from
each silicon or germanium atom.
30. Why do we prefer extrinsic semiconductors than intrinsic semiconductors?

Extrinsic semiconductors have high electrical conductivity which depends on the number of
dopant (impurity) 0 atoms and have high operating temperature. But in the intrinsic semiconduc-
tors the electrical conductivity is very small and is not a constant at different temperature.
31. Define the operating temperature of a semiconductor.
The operating temperature of a semiconductor is defined as the maximum temperature upto which
extrinsic behaviour or amplification is existed. For example, silicon has the operating temperature of
200° C so that the silicon transistors or diodes can be operated safely with the effect of doped
impurities upto 200° C.
32. What is Hall effect? What is its use in the semiconductor?
Hall effect refers to the creation of a transverse e.m.f across the semiconductor slab carrying in
the perpendicular magnetic field. Using this effect the concentration and sign of charge carries
can be determined. Further the mobility of charge carriers can also be determined.
33. Calculate the number of electron-hole pairs per cubic metre in instrinsic silicon at 310 K, the
value of its forbidden energy gap being 1.12 electron volt. The number of electron-hole
pairs per cubic metre in pure germanium crystal is 2.5 × 1019 at 300 K and the value of Eg
for germanium is 0.72 eV. (Given: Boltzmann constant ‘k’ = 1.38 × 10-23 J/K).
34. Find the conductivity of intrinsic silicon at 300K. It is given that the intrinsic con
centration at 300K in silicon 1.5 x1016 /m3 and the mobilities of electrons and holes in
silicon are 0.13 m2V–1S–1 and 0.05 m2V–1S–1 respectively. The number of silicon atoms/m3 =
5x1028. Also find the resultant conductivity if donor or acceptor type impurity is added to
the extent of 1 impurity atom in 108 silicon atoms.
35. Find the concentration of holes and electrons in n – type silicon at 300K, if the conductivity
is 3 x 104 ohm-1 m-1. Also find these values for p – type silicon.
36. A silicon material is uniformly doped with phosphorus atoms at a concentration of 2 x 1019
/ m3. At the temperature of interest the mobilities of holes and electrons are 0.05 and
0.12 m2V–1S–1 respectively, ni = 1.5 x 1016/ m3. Find the electron and hole concentrations and
electrical conductivity.
37. A sample of germanium is doped to the extend of 1014 donor atom/cm3 and 5 x 1013
acceptor atom/cm3. At 300 K, the resistivity of the intrinsic germanium is 60 ohm cm. If the
applied electric field is 2 V/cm, find the total conduction current density.
38. A semiconducting crystal 12 mm long, 5 mm wide and 1 mm thick has a magnetic flux of
0.5 wb/m2 applied from front to back perpendicular to largest faces. When a current of 20
mA flows lengthwise through the specimen the voltage measured across its width is found to
be 37 mV. What is Hall coefficient of that semiconductor?
39. The given silicon plate is placed in x - y plane such that its length is parallel to s axis
and breadth is parallel to y axis. A magnetic induction of 0.5 weber/m2 is acting in z direction
and the flux lines are passing through the specimen in a perpendicular manner. The hall
coefficient of that material is 3.66 x 10-4 m3 / coulomb. The thickness, breadth and length of
the plate are 1 mm, 10 mm and 100 mm respectively. A current of 10-2 ampere is flowing
through the plate in x direction. Calculate the voltage appearing across y direction.
40. A n type semiconductor specimen has hall coefficient RH =3.66 x 10-4 m3/coulomb. The
conductivity of specimen is found to be 112 ohm-1 m-1. Calculate the charge carrier density
ne and electron mobility at room temperature.
3. MAGNETIC AND SUPERCONDUCTING MATERIALS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After completing a study of this chapter, you will be able to,

• Explain about ferro and ferrimagnetic materials.
• Describe the domain theory of ferromagnetism.
• Differentiate hard and soft magnetic materials.
• Explain the structure, preparation, properties and applications of ferrites.
• Enunciate the applications of magnetic valve, magnetic bearings,
superconducting magnets and SQUIDS.
• Define super conducting material and its properties.
• Explain the Meissner effect, isotope effect.
• Illustrate the BCS theory.
• Explain high temperature superconductor.
• Explain the applications of superconductors.
3.1 MAGNETIC MATERIALS

Magnetic materials are one of the important industrial materials necessary for
many engineering designs. Magnetic materials play a vital role in the area of electrical
engineering.
3.1.1 BASIC DEFINITIONS
Magnetic dipole
The two opposite ends of a bar magnet i.e., the north and south poles separated by
a distance is called a magnetic dipole.
Magnetic field
When current flows through a conductor, a magnetic effect is felt around the
conductor. The space or region around a magnet where the magnetic effect is felt is
called magnetic field.
Figure 3.1 Magnetic field
The elemental metals such as Fe, Co and Ni can produce a strong magnetic field
around themselves when magnetized at room temperature.
Magnetic lines of force
When a magnetic field is applied, the continuous curve in the magnetic field is
called magnetic lines of force. The tangent drawn at any point of which gives the direc-
tion of resultant intensity at the point.
Magnetic and Superconducting Materials 89
Magnetic flux (φ)
The total number of magnetic lines of force emanated from the north pole is called
magnetic flux.
Magnetic Induction (B) or Magnetic Flux density
The total number of magnetic lines of force passing through a unit area of cross
section (A) of the materials.
Flux (φ)
Magnetic Induction = ____________________________________
Area of cross section (A)
Unit: weber/metre2 or tesla (T)
Magnetic moment
It is defined as the product of pole strength (m) of any pole and the magnetic
length () between two poles.
Magnetic moment = m ×  weber – metre
Magnetic field strength (H) or Magnetic field Intensity
It is the force experienced by a unit north pole placed at that point.

H = F/m Ampere turns/metre or newton/weber.
Where,
F = Force experienced by N-pole when placed at some point in the
magnetic field.
m = Pole strength of N-pole in weber.
Magnetisation
The process of making a non-magnetic material into a magnetic one is called

Magnetisation.
Intensity of magnetization (I)
Magnetic dipole moment m ×
I = _____________________________________ = ___________
Volume of the bar A×

Magnetic permeability (μ)
It is a measure of the conducting power of magnetic lines of force penetrating

through the material. The magnetic flux density B is directly proportional to the mag-
netic field strength (H).
B ∝ H
B = µH ∴ µ = B/H
µ is a constant of proportionality known as absolute permeability of the medium.
µ=µoµr
Here, µo – Permeability of free space
µr – Relative permeability of the medium.
Force between two poles when placed at a fixed distance in the medium
µr = _____________________________________________________________________________________________________
Force between them at the same distance in vacuum

µr = 1 for air and non-magnetic materials.
Magnetic susceptibility (χm)

Intensity of magnetization (I)
χm = ____________________________________________
Magnetic field strength (H)
Remanence
When the magnetic field applied to a particular specimen is cut off, then the
residual intensity of magnetization left in the specimen is called Remanence or
Retentivity.
Coercivity
The strength of the reverse magnetic field needed to completely demagnetize the
specimen is called coercivity.
Magnetic domains
The group of atoms in a tiny bounded region in the ferromagnetic material is called
magnetic domains. These domains are magnetically saturated and the magnetic moments
are aligned in the same direction. They behave like a magnet.
Hysteresis
The intensity of magnetization (I) and magnetic induction (B) lag behind the
magnetizing field (H) when a magnetic material is taken through a cycle of magnetiza-
tion. Eventhough when the magnetic field is switched off (i.e., H = 0), the values of I
and B are not equal to zero. Hence the magnetic property is retained. This lagging of I
and B behind H is called hysteresis.
Hysteresis loss
The loss of energy per cycle per unit volume of the material when a magnetic
material is taken through a cycle of magnetization is called hysteresis loss.
Bohr magneton (µB)
Each electron spinning on its own axes behaves as a magnetic dipole and has a
dipole moment called Bohr magneton. It is a fundamental unit.
1 Bohr magneton = 9.27 × 10–24 A.m2
eh
µB = _______
4πm
Where,
e - charge of the electron
m - electron mass
h - Planck’s constant
3.2 DIFFERENT TYPES OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS AND ITS PROPERTIES
Different types
1. Diamagnetic materials
E.g: Cadmium, Copper, Silver, Bismuth, Tin, Zinc, Gold, Niobium and its
compounds.
2. Paramagnetic materials
E.g: Aluminum, Calcium, Oxygen, Platinum, Titanium, and Chromium.
3. Ferromagnetic materials
E.g:
a. Ferromagnetic materials
E.g: Iron (Fe), Cobalt (Co), Nickel (Ni).
b. Anti-ferro magnetic materials
E.g: Ferrous oxide, Manganese oxide, Zinc ferrite.
c. Ferrimagnetic materials
E.g: Nickel ferrite, Manganese ferrite, Ferrous ferrite.
3.2.1 DIAMAGNETIC MATERIALS
Definition
These materials when placed in a magnetic field, becomes weakly magnetized in

the direction opposite to that of the applied field. There is no permanent dipole moment
in each atom. The induced magnetic moment produced in these materials during the
application of the external magnetic field decreases the magnetic induction present in
the specimen.
Origin
A material contains a large number of electrons and the orbits of these electrons are
randomly oriented in space. The current that is produced due to movement of electron
in an orbit produces magnetic field in a direction at right angles to the plane of the orbit.
This magnetic field induces a magnetic moment in the atom in a direction opposite to
it. These magnetic moments are randomly oriented. Hence the magnetic moments of all
such electron gets cancelled resulting in the net magnetism equal to zero in the material.
When an external magnetic field is applied to the material, rotation of dipoles take
place producing an induced dipole moment. This induced dipole moment opposes the
applied field. The magnetism which is created in a direction opposite to that of the exter-
nal field is called diamagnetism.
Characteristics of diamagnetic materials
1. Susceptibility (χm) of a diamagnetic material is always negative. The relative

permeability µr < 1.

Example For Cadmium, χm = –0.18 × 10–6
For Copper, χm = –0.086 × 10–6

For Silver, χm = –0.2 × 10–6
2.When magnetic field is applied, it repels the magnetic lines of force as shown in
Figure 3.2. This property is exhibited by superconductors. Hence we call all super
conducting materials (at low temperature) as perfect diamagnet. When the
temperature is increased beyond its critical temperature, diamagnetism suddenly
disappears and it behaves like a normal conducting material.
Figure 3.2 Magnetic Lines of Force
3.It does not depend on temperature and the strength of applied magnetic field.
4.No magnetic moment is present in the material.
3.2.2 PARAMAGNETIC MATERIALS
Definition
Paramagnetic materials become weakly ionized when placed in a magnetic field

in the same direction as that of the applied field. It has permanent dipole moment in
each atom. When external magnetic field is applied, the induced magnetic moment is
produced which increase the magnetic induction present in the specimen.
Origin
The orientation of the magnetic moment along the direction of the external field
give rise to paramagnetism. The permanent magnetic moment arises due to orbital
motion of electron around the nucleus and spin motion of electron about its own axis.
The magnetic moment due to former disappears due to the effect of electric field of
the neighbouring charges. But the magnetic moment due to electron spin are randomly
oriented in the absence of external field. When the external field is applied, the
magnetic moments tend to align in the direction of the applied field resulting in large
magnetization. But due to the thermal agitation of the atoms the magnetic moments are
partially aligned in the direction of the external field resulting in weak magnetization.
Characteristics
1. Susceptibility χm is positive and small

E.g: For aluminum χm = 0.065 × 10–6
For Calcium χm = 1.10 × 10–6
The relative permeability µr > 1
2. When magnetic field is applied to paramagnetic material, it is attracted towards the
centre of the material as shown in Figure 3.3.
3. Susceptibiltiy (χm) is inversely proportional to absolute temperature of the material.
χm ∝ 1/T
Curie’s law for high temperature χm = C/T
T = absolute temperature in kelvin.
C = Curie constant
At low temperature
C
χm = __________
T–θ
θ - paramagnetic curie temperature. Figure 3.3 Magnetic Field in Para
magnetic Material
θ is always very low. When the temperature T < curie t e m -
perature, the paramagnetics becomes diamagnetic.
4. Spin alignment All spins are randomly oriented, as shown in Figure 3.4
Figure 3.4 Orientation of Magnetic Spin

3.2.3 FERRO MAGNETIC MATERIALS
Definition
Ferromagnetic materials are strongly magnetized in the direction of the applied

magnetic field. It possesses enormous permanent magnetic moment in each atom.
When external magnetic field is applied, a large amount of induced magnetic moment is
produced which increases the magnetic induction present in the specimen as shown in
figure 3.5.
Origin
The presence of permanent magnetic moments in the atoms or molecules in the

specimen gives rise to ferromagnetism as this magnetic moment align themselves in the
same direction as that of the external field. The exchange interaction between unpaired
electrons of adjacent atoms in the crystal lattice gives rise to local molecular magnetic
field resulting in spontaneous magnetization.
Characteristics
1. Magnetic susceptibility value is large and positive. The temperature dependence of

susceptibility for ferromagnetic materials is said to be complex.
Figure 3.5 Bhaviour of Ferro Magnetic Material
2. When magnetic field is applied to a ferromagnetic material, the magnetic lines of

force are strongly attracted by the specimen.
3. Characteristics of
Table 3.1 Spin Alignment of Ferro Magnetic Materials
Ferromagnetic materials Antiferromagnetic materials Ferrimagnetic
materials
1. All the magnetic dipoles are 1. Here the successive 1. Here the suc-
aligned parallel and oriented in magnetic dipoles are aligned in cessive magnetic
the same direction. opposite directions. moments are of
This parallel alignment of different mag-
atomic magnetic dipoles occurs nitude and are
only in microscopic regions aligned in opposite
called magnetic domains. direction.
2. The net magnetization 2. At room temperature, man- 2. A large mag-

is zero, if the domains are ganese and chromium in the netization is pro-
randomly orientd. solid state exhibit antiferro- duced on applying
magnetism. The ratio of a/d for a small magnetic
Mn and Cr is less than 1.4 and field.
they have a negative exchange
energy
3. The magnetic dipoles of Fe, 3. Susceptibility is very small 3. They are used
Co and Ni are arranged parallel and positive in high frequency
due to the creation of positive C applications.
exchange energy between them. χm = ––––––
T+q
The ratio of atomic spacing (a) to
the diameter (d) of the 3d orbit is C – curie constant
in the range of 1.4 to 2.7 for Fe, q – paramagnetic curie
Co and Ni for which this paral- temperature
lel alignment occurs whereas for
The susceptibility increases
manganese and chromium a/d
with increasing temperature
does not fall in this range. Hence
and reaches a maximum value
Mn and Cr are not ferromag-
at one particular temperature
netic.
called as Neel temperature.
Above the neel temperature,

the antiferro magnetic mate-
rial becomes a paramagnetic
material.
4. When ferromagnetic mate- 4. Examples: Ferrous oxide, 4. Examples:

rials are heated, it loses its Manganese oxide, Zinc ferrite. Ferrous ferrite,
magnetism slowly. Nickel ferrite,
Manganese ferrite.
4. Ferromagnetic materials exhibit hysteresis. Even if the magnetic field is removed

from the material, it retains the magnetism due to spontaneous magnetization.
They have permanent dipole moment.
5. The permeability of a ferromagnetic material is not a constant, as magnetic
induction (B) does not vary linearly with magnetic field strength (H).
6. When the temperature of the ferromagnetic material is greater than its Curie
temperature, then ferromagnetic is converted into a paramagnetic material.
3.3 WEISS THEORY OF PARAMAGNETISM

A molecular field exists around the molecules in a real gas called as internal
molecular field Hi as the molecules in the real gas are mutually influenced by their
magnetic moments. The internal molecular field is directly proportional to the intensity
of magnetization I.
Hi ∝ I
Hi = λ I λ = molecular field coefficient.
The net effective field Heff = (H + Hi)

H - external field
Hi - internal molecular field.
According to Langevin theory,
Note
When T < θ, susceptibility χ becomes negative.

∴ Paramagnetic material becomes a diamagnetic material.
But for most of the paramagnetic materials, the Curie temperature value itself is
low. Therefore the temperature T < θ, the Curie temperature is a rare condition.
3.4 HEISENBERG AND DOMAIN THEORY OF FERROMAGNETISM

Domain
The group of atoms in a tiny bounded region in the ferromagnetic material is called
magnetic domains. Each domain consists of magnetic moments aligned in the same
direction. Hence they are magnetically saturated and behave like a magnet.
Table 3.2
In the absence of
In the presence of magnetic field
magnetic field
As the direction of During initial stages During Final stages of
magnetization varies from magnetisation
domain to domain, the net The domains having The other domains are
macroscopic magnetiza- moments parallel to the rotated parallel to the field.
tion is zero. magnetic field increase
in area.
Table 3.3
During demagnetization
The regular domain arrangement is changed.
It is different from its original state.
This creates hysteresis in the ferromagnetic
material.
Figure 3.6 Magnetic Domains

The above theory explains the following

1. When a magnet is broken into pieces, then each piece will be a magnet with a north
and south pole as the domains continue to remain in the specimen even when it is
broken into pieces.
2. When a magnet is heated, the alignment of the domains in the magnet is disturbed.
Therefore it loses its magnetism.
3. Soft iron is easy to magnetise and demagnetise. But hard iron like steel is
difficult to magnetise and demagnetize. This is because the domains of soft iron
can be easily rotated with small magnetising force but the domains of hard iron can
be rotated with large magnetizing force. Hence the hard iron like steel possesses
high retentivity.
4. Magnetostriction
When a specimen is magnetized suddenly, there is a slight change in the length of
the specimen, which is caused due to the rearrangement of the domains inside. This
increase in length due to the rearrangement of the domains when magnetic field is
applied is called magnetostriction.
There are two possible ways of alignment of the domains when magnetic field is applied
to a material.
i) By the motion of domain walls
ii) By the rotation of domains.
i) By the motion of domain walls

When no magnetic field (H) is applied, domains are randomly aligned.
When H ≠ 0, i.e. when magnetic field is applied, the domains parallel to the
magnetic field grow at the expense of the domains which are unfavourably oriented as
shoun in figure 3.7.
Figure 3.7 Motion of Domain Walls

ii) By the rotation of the domains

When the magnetic field value is increased fur-
ther, the growth of domains become impossible but
the favourably oriented and fully grown domains tend
to rotate so as to be incomplete alignment with the
direction of the field as shown in figure 3.8.
The existence of domain structure is found using
‘Bitter powder pattern’ method. In this method a drop
of colloidal suspension of finely divided ferromag-
netic powder is spread over the specimen surface Figure 3.8
whose domain structure has to be investigated. Now
when the ferromagnetic specimen is observed through the microscope, the colloidal
particles collect along the domain boundaries since strong local magnetic fields exist
near these domain boundaries.
3.5 ORIGIN OF DOMAINS

The total energy of the ferromagnetic solid comprises of
1. Magneto static energy
2. Anisotropy energy
3. Magnetostriction energy
4. Bloch wall or Domain wall energy
1. Magneto static energy
When a ferromagnetic substance is subjected to an external field, their magneto

static energy is present in that material.
As shown in Figure 3.9(a), if a single domain is present, then this configuration
will have a high value of the magnetic energy given by
In Figure 3.9(b), there are two domains in the crystal which are magnetized
in the opposite directions. Hence the magnetic energy is reduced to one-half. In
Figure 3.9(c), the material is divided into more than two domains. Hence, we can say
that if the magnetic material is divided into ‘n’ domains, the energy is reduced to 1/n of
the initial magnetic energy. The energy keeps on reducing since the spatial extension of
the field is reduced.
Figure 3.9 Magneto Static Energy
2. Anisotropy energy
The energy associated with the magnetization depends on the direction because
in ferromagnetic crystals we have easy and hard directions of magnetization. The
anisotropy energy is defined as the excess of energy required to magnetize the specimen
in a given direction over that required for easy direction.
For example,
In FCC Nickel (111) is the easy direction
In BCC iron (111) is the hard direction and (100) is the easy direction.
For cobalt, which possesses HCP structure, the hexagonal axis is the easy
direction of magnetization.
3. Magnetostriction energy
When magnetic field is applied to a ferromagnetic specimen, there will be relative

elastic changes in the length. This is called magnetostriction. For example when a rod of
nickel is kept in an a.c. field, it is periodically shortened due to magnetization.
If the specimen rod is suitably magnetized before it is inserted in the a.c. field, then
mechanical change in length will be in step with the frequency of the alternating field.
Therefore the magnetostriction energy is defined as the energy due to the mechanical
stresses generated due to magnetostriction in the domains.
4. Bloch wall or Domain Wall Energy
The domain wall is the boundary between two domains whose overall magnetic
moments are at different orientations as shown in figure. It is the sum of contributions
from the exchange energy and magneto-crystalline energies in the domain wall region.
Figure 3.10 Bloch Wall
Figure 3.11 shows the relation-

ship among magnetic exchange energy,
magneto crystalline anisotropy energy
and wall width. The equilibrium wall
width is about 100 nm.
The domain wall assumes a thick-
ness, which balances these two energies
(i.e. exchange energy and magneto
crystalline anisotropy energy) so that
it gives the lowest total energy. The
number of spins (N) is less, if the Figure 3.11
domain wall is thin. When N increases,
the exchange energy decreases. The wall does not become infinitely thick because of
the influence of the anisotropy energy. When there is a small difference in orientation
between the dipoles, the exchange forces between the dipoles are minimized and the
exchange energy is reduced (shown in Figure 3.11). Therefore the exchange force tends
to widen the domain wall. If the wall is wider, the number of dipoles forced to lie in
directions different from those of easy magnetization is greater and hence the magneto
crystalline anisotropy energy will be increased. When the sum of the exchange and
magneto crystalline anisotropy energies is a minimum then the equilibrium wall width
is reached.
3.6 HYSTERESIS
When a magnetic material is taken through a cycle of magnetization, even when
the magnetizing field strength (H) is made zero, intensity of magnetization (I) and
magnetic induction (B) will not become zero. i.e., Lagging of I and B behind H is called
Hysteresis.
Hysteresis Curve (BH loop)
The following graph figure 3.12 shows the effect of an applied field H on the magnetic
induction B of a ferromagnetic metal during magnetizing and demagnetizing. When
the magnetic field increases from zero, magnetic induction B increases from zero along
the curve OA. At the point A saturation induction (Bs) is reached. Upon decreasing the
applied field to zero, the original magnetization curve is not retraced and there remains
a magnetic flux density Br called remanent induction. Hence, even when H = 0, there
remains some residue of magnetism called remanence or retentivity shown by the point
Br on the graph.
B
A
Bs
Br
C
−Hc O Hc
D G H
BH max
E
Figure 3.12 Hysteresis Loop
The reverse magnetic field (–Hc) applied (shown by the point D on the curve) is the
coercive force. The coercive force is the magnitude of the demagnetizing field required
to reduce the residual magnetism to zero after the saturation. If the negative applied
field is increased still more, eventually the material will reach saturation induction in the
reverse field shown by the point E in the curve.
When the reverse field is removed, the magnetic induction will return to the
permanent induction shown by the point F in the BH curve. When a positive field is
applied, the BH curve complete a loop following the path FGA. Hence the loop is
repeated when the reverse and forward field is applied further resulting in a closed loop
ACDEFGA. This closed loop is called as hysteresis loop or hysteresis curve.
Hysteresis loss
The area enclosed by the hystersis loop is hysteresis loss and it represents the loss
of energy in taking a ferromagnetic body through a cycle of magnetization.
3.7 FORMATION OF DOMAIN STRUCTURE IN FERROMAGNETIC

MATERIAL AND THE HYSTERESIS CURVE EXPLAINED ON THE BASIS
OF THE DOMAIN THEORY
Domain Theory of Ferromagnetism

Pierre-Ernest Weiss proposed the concept of Domains to explain the properties of
ferromagnetic materials and its hysteresis effect. According to this hypothesis, A fer-
romagnetic material is divided into small regions called Domains. In each domain, the
magnetic moments are aligned in the same direction, but the direction of the magnetic
moment varies from domain to domain in such a way that the net magnetization of the
specimen in zero.
The boundaries separating the domains are called domain wall or Bloch wall.
Domain size can grow due to the movement of domain walls. When an external mag-
netic field is applied the domains align themselves along the field, which results in large
net magnetization of the material. Magnetization occurs in the specimen in two ways.
1. Movement of domain walls 2. Rotation of domains
1. Movement of domain walls: Movement of domain walls takes place due to weak
magnetic fields. Due to the weak field the magnetic moment increase and hence the
boundaries of the domains are displaced, so the volume of the domain increase or
changes.
2. Rotation of domain walls: When the external magnetic field is strong, further domain
growth becomes impossible. Therefore, most favorably oriented and fully grown
domains tend to rotate to be in complete alignment with the field direction.
a. Random domain alignment b. Domain wall movement c. Domain rotation
Figure 3.13
Energy associated in the process of domain growth
The existence of domains in a ferromagnetic solid is understandable from the Ther-

modyamical principle, which states that “In equilibrium the total energy of the system is
minimum”. For this we consider the total energy of the domain structure and then how
it is minimized.
The total energy of the domain comprises the sum of the following energies
Viz.
1. Exchange energy
2. Anisotropy wall energy
3. Domain wall energy
4. Magnetostrictive energy
1. Exchange energy (or) Magnetic field energy (or) Magneto-static energy

The interaction energy which makes the adjacent dipoles to align themselves is
known as Exchange energy or Magnetic field energy. Due to the development of free
poles at the ends of the domain, an external field is produced around it and the configu-
ration will have a high value of magnetic field energy. In other words, “It is the energy
required in assembling the atomic magnets into a single domain and this work done is
stored as potential energy”.
Figure 3.14
The triangular domains at the top and bottom of the crystal complete the flux path
and hence will not produce any poles. Therefore there is no magnetic field associated
with the magnetization. These domains are called “Closure domains”.
2. Magneto-Crystalline anisotropy energy

In ferromagnetic crystals, there are two crystallographic directions of magnetiza-
tion namely, Easy direction and Hard direction. In easy direction a weak field can be
applied and in the hard direction a strong field should be applied for producing the same
magnetization. For example, in Iron easy direction is [100] medium direction is [110]
and hard direction is [111]. A very strong field is required to produce magnetic saturation
in hard direction [111] compared to the easy direction [100].
The excess energy required to magnetize the specimen along hard direction over
the easy direction is called Crystalline anisotropy energy. For iron Crystalline anisot-
ropy energy is found to be 1.4 × 10-4 J/m3.
3. Domain wall energy (or) Bloch wall energy

The Domain wall or Bloch wall is a transition layer that separates two adjacent
domains magnetized in different directions. The Domain wall energy is due to both the
Exchange energy and Anisotropic energy. The Exchange energy is low when the spin
changes gradually along the domain wall on the contrary the Anisotropy energy is low
when the spin changes abruptly along the domain wall. The domain wall should have a
thickness balancing these two energies.
4. Magnetostrictive energy
When domains are magnetized in different directions, they will either expand or
shrink. Therefore a change in dimension takes place due to magnetization. This phenom-
enon is known as Magnetostriction and the energy produced due to this effect is called
Magnetostriction energy. Due to the applied field, the dipoles rotate which changes the
bond length between the atoms i.e. the applied field affects the inter-atomic spacing due
to attraction or repulsion. Magnetostriction depends on the crystallographic axes along

which it is magnetized. In Nickel the length decreases while in Permalloy the length
increases, but in both the cases the change in length is due to the mechanical stress gen-
erated by domain rotation.
Domain theory explains…
• When a magnet is broken in to pieces, the domains remain in the broken pieces.
So each piece has a north pole and a south pole.
• When heated, magnetism is lost due to the disturbance in domain alignment.
• Soft iron is easy to magnetize and de-magnetize because domains can be easily
rotated, while hard iron is hard to magnetize and de-magnetize because it cannot
be easily rotated.
• When a specimen is suddenly magnetized, there is a change in length due to the
rearrangement of domains inside the specimen. This effect is called Magnetostric-
tive effect, this is seen in Nickel.
Explanation of Hysteresis on the basis of Domain theory

B
A
Bs
Br
C
−Hc O Hc
D G H
BH max
E
Figure 3.15 Hysteresis Loop
We know when the Ferro-magnetic material is subjected to an external field; there

is an increase in the value of the resultant magnetic moment due to the two processes,
namely,
1. The movement of domain walls 2. Rotation of domains
Stage (i): When a small external field is applied, the domain walls are displaced along
the easy direction of magnetization represented by the curve OA as shown in the figure.
Now if the applied field is removed, the domains return back to their original state,
known as Reversible domains.
Stage (ii): If the field is increased, a large number of domains contribute to the magneti-
zation and the magnetization increases rapidly with H. Now, even if the magnetic field
is removed, because of the displacement of the domain wall to a very large distance the
domains do not come back to their original position represented by AB. These domains
are called Irreversible domains.
Stage (iii): If the field is further increased, the domains start rotating along the field
direction and the Anisotropic energy is stored in the hard direction represented by BC.
Now the specimen is said to have attained it maximum magnetization. At this position
even if the external field is removed, the material posses a magnetism called Residual
magnetism or Retentivity represented by OD.
Actually, the specimen will try to attain it original configuration by the movement of
the Bloch wall, but this movement is stopped due to the presence of impurities and
lattice imperfections etc., To overcome this, a large reverse magnetic field is applied to
the specimen. The amount of energy spent to reduce the magnetization to zero is called
Coercivity represented by OE in the figure.
3.8 HARD AND SOFT MAGNETIC MATERIALS

Table 3.4
Hard Magnetic Material Soft Magnetic Materials

1. Materials which retain their magnetism 1. Soft magnetic materials are easy to
and are difficult to demagnetize are called magnetise and demagnetize.
hard magnetic materials. These materials are used for making
These materials retain their magnetism even temporary magnets. The domain wall
after the removal of the applied magnetic movement is easy. Hence they are easy
field. Hence these materials are used for to magnetise. By annealing the cold
making permanent magnets. In permanent worked material, the dislocation density
magnets the movement of the domain wall is reduced and the domain wall move-
is prevented. They are prepared by heat- ment is made easier. Soft magnetic
ing the magnetic materials to the required materials should not possess any void
temperature and then quenching them. and its structure should be homogeneous
Impurities increases the strength of hard so that the materials are not affected by
magnetic materials. impurities.
2. Properties 2. Properties
a. Nature of the hysteresis curve is shown a. Nature of the hysteresis curve is
in figure. shown in figure.
b. They have large hysteresis loss due to b. They have low hysteresis loss due
large hysteresis loop area. to small hysteresis area.
c. Susceptibility and permeability are c. Susceptibility and permeability are

low. high.
d. Coercivity and rententivity values are d. The coercivity and retentivity
large. values are less. Since they have
low retentivity and coer-
civity, they are not used for
making permanent magnets.
e. Magnetic energy stored is high. e. Magnetic energy stored is less.
f. They possess low value of BH
f. They possess high value of BH
product.
product.
g. The eddy current loss is less
g. The eddy current loss is high. because of high resistivity.
Examples and Applications of Hard magnetic materials

Table 3.5
Examples Applications
1. Tungsten steel Used for making permanent magnets for dynamos
and motors
2. Cobalt steel Motors, fans, heavy duty instruments
3. Alini Used in the design of portable instruments
4. Alnico cunife Permanent magnets in smaller size
5. Hypernic Long distance telephone lines
Examples and Applications of Soft magnetic materials

Table 3.6
Examples Applications
1. Cast iron Used in electrical machinery and d.c. machine
frame work
2. Perminar Used in armature of motors and transformer cores
3. Carbon steel Used in making rotor of turbo alternator
4. Mumetal Used in transformer cores
5. Silicon steel Construction of poles of motors and dynamos
Energy product of a Magnetic material
The energy required to demagnetize a permanent magnet is given by the area of the
hysteresis loop between Br and Hc. The maximum value of this area (BrHc) is called the
BH product or energy product. For permanent magnets, this product value is large.
The energy product value at C and D is zero since at the point C, H value is
zero and at the point D, value of B is zero. In between C and D, at one intermediate
point, the BH product value is maximum (BH)max. The area occupied by the largest
rectangle which can be drawn within the demagnetizing curve (shown in second quadrant of
hysteresis curve) gives the maximum (BH)max energy product value.
The maximum energy product value is used to analyse whether the material can
be used for magnetic recording. For permanent magnets, the energy product value
is large.
v
Figure 3.16 Hysteresis Curve
3.9 FERRITES
Ferrites are interstitial solid solution of carbon in BCC iron.
They belong to the class of oxides having spinel structure and are good examples
of ferrimagnetism in which the spins of adjacent ions in the presence of magnetic field
are in opposite senses and with different magnitudes. They are the complex compounds
of various metals and oxygen and exhibit the phenomenon of ferromagnetism.
The general formula is XOFe2O3 where X may be divalent metal such as

magnesium, manganese, zinc, cobalt, copper, iron or nickel.
3.9.1 STRUCTURE OF FERRITES
Ferrites crystallize in the form of a cubic structure. Each corner of a unit cell
consists of a ferrite molecule. In a ferrous ferrite unit cell, there are eight ferrous ions,
16 ferric ions and 32 oxygen ions. If we consider only the oxygen ions in a ferrite
crystal, they constitute a close packed FCC structure. There are 16 octahedral sites
(surrounded by six O2– ions) and eight tetrahedral sites (surrounded by 4 O2– ions). Metal
ions occupy these octahedral and tetrahedral sites as shown in Figure 3.17 and 3.18.
Figure 3.17
Figure 3.18 (a) Unit Cell of Ferrites

Figure 3.18 (b) Unit Cell of Ferrites
Types of structure
Table 3.7
Regular spinel Inverse spinel

Each trivalent metal ion occupies an Trivalent metal ions occupy all tet-
octahedral site (B) and each divalent rahedral sites (A) and half of octahe-
ion occupies a tetrahedral site(A) of dral sites (B) of FCC oxygen lattice
FCC oxygen lattice and the rest of octahedral sites (B)
are occupied by divalent metal ions.
Formula: Fe (XFe)O4
Formula: X2 Fe3+ O4
X-divalent metal ion Ferric ion act Fe3+ (Fe2+ Fe3+) O4
as trivalent metal ion. Ferrous ferrite Fe3O4.
Table 3.8 X- divalent metal ion
Normal structure Inverse spinel structure

A sites (8) Tetrahedral 8X ++
8Fe+++
B sites (16)Octahedral 16 Fe2+++ 8 X ++ + 8 Fe +++
Example Cd, Zn ferrites Ferrous ferrite Fe++ [Fe2+++ ]O4
Symbol X++ [Fe2+++ ]O4 Fe +++ [Fe2+++ X++] O4
Manufacturing Process of Ferrite
Ferrites are manufactured by powder metallurgical process by mixing, compacting

and then sintering at high temperatures followed by age hardening in magnetic fields.
3.9.2 PREPARATION OF FERRITES
Ferrites are prepared by sintering a mixture of various metallic oxides.

The general chemical composition of ferrite is MO Fe2O3, M is a divalent metal
such as iron, nickel, zinc, cadmium, cobalt, magnesium or manganese.
The suitable proportion of metallic oxide and Fe2O3 are mixed using water or
kerosene. The mixing can be done using a blender. It should be done for several hours.
Then the mix is filtered. The filtered material is dried using a hot oven and then it is
crushed.
The resultant mixture is sintered at 900 °C to 1100 °C for a period of three to
fifteen hours under the atmosphere of nitrogen.
This presintered material is grounded into a fine powder. This powder is mixed
with a binder like paraffin wax and solvent viz water. This mix is then dried and
powdered well. Later it is prepared into desired shape using suitable dyes.
Finally the ferrite is placed in a proper vessel in a furnace. It is heated to 1100 °C
to 1400 °C. The binder evaporates and it is cooled slowly to obtain the ferrite in the
desirable shape.
Properties of ferrites
1. Ferrites are essentially oxides having di and trivalent metal ion.

2. Ferrites are soft and brittle with relatively low strength (8 BHN).
3. Ferrites are non – machinable.
4. Ferrites are ferromagnetic upto 768 °C and becomes paramagnetic above 768 °C
when it is heated. Hence the curie temperature is 768 °C where the magnetic
property changes from ferromagnetic to paramagnetic.
5. Ferrites are not metals. They are ionic crystals having resistivities in the range
of 102 to 106 ohm cm. The resistivity of ferrite is 106 to 107 times the resistivity
of Fe-Si alloy. Hence the ferrites are used as core material in the case of
transformer.
6. Ferrites have low eddy current loss and hence they are suited for microwave
frequency applications.
7. They have low hysteresis loss.
8. The valence electrons are tied up by ionic bonding in ferrites.
9. The magnetization of ferrites can be controlled by changing the relative percentage
of the different constituent ions.
Advantages
1. They have low eddy current losses and low hysteresis losses.
2. Efficiency is high.
3. Occupies less volume.
4. Easy to manufacture with greater uniformity.
5. Cost is less.
Disadvantages
1. It cannot be machined or drilled.

2. It reaches saturation magnetization easily.
3.9.3 APPLICATIONS OF FERRITES
1. Ferrites are used as core materials in the audio and T.V. transformers. Ferrite cores
can be used as memory cores in the case of computer.
2. Ferrites are used in television scanning coils and high speed switches.
3. Hard ferrites are used to make permanent magnets because they have high coercivity
and low magnetic induction. E.g: Barium ferrite, which is produced by sintering a
mixture of barium and ferric oxides. Hard ferrites are used in instruments like
galvanometers, ammeters, voltmeters, speedometer, wattmeter etc.
4. Ferrites having rectangular hystersis loop are called as ferrox cubes. They have
high permeability and resistivity. They are used in
a. Switching circuits
b. Matrix storage
c. Shift registers in computers
Example for ferrox cube is magnesium manganese ferrite which consists of 50%
MgO and 50% MnO with Fe2O3
5. Ferrites are used to produce low frequency ultrasonic waves by using the principle
of magnetostriction.
6. Ferrites are used in radio receivers to increase the sensitivity and selectivity of the
receiver.
7. Ferrites are used in digital computers and data processing circuits.
8. Ferrites are used in non-reciprocal microwave devices such as gyrator, isolator and
circulator.
9. Ferrites are also used in power limiting and harmonic generation devices.
10. Ferromagnetic amplifiers of microwave signal are designed using ferrites.
3.10 DEVICES AND APPLICATIONS

3.10.1 PERMANENT MAGNETS
Application of permanent magnet can be divided into four categories:
Category 1
Applications that make use of the attractive and (or) repelling force of the magnet,
i.e. the attraction between a magnet and a soft magnetic material, such as a piece of iron
or steel, or the attraction or repulsion between two magnets is used to do mechanical
work. The following applications are in this category.
• Magnetic separators, magnetic holding devices, such as magnetic latches.
• Magnetic torque drives.
• Magnetic bearing devices.
Category 2
Application that make use of the magnetic field of the magnet to convert
mechanical energy to electrical energy. Some of these applications are:

• Magnetos.

• Generators and alternators.

• Eddy current brakes.
Category 3
Application that make use of the magnetic field of the magnet to convert electrical
energy to mechanical energy. Some of these applications are:

• Motor.

• Meters.

• Loud Speakers.

• Relays.

• Actuators, Linear and rotational.
Category 4
Applications that use the magnetic field of the magnet to direct, shape and control
electron or ion beams. Some of these applications are:

• Magnetic focused cathode -ray tubes.

• Travelling wave tubes.

• Μagnetrons.

• Ion pumps.

• Cyclotrons.
3.10.2 TRANSFORMER CORES
Magnetic materials like iron, nickel, cobalt and their alloys are used as the base
material for all core material. The main purpose of the core is to contain the magnetic
flux and create a well-defined, predictable path for the flux.
Selection of core material and geometry are usually based on a compromise
between conflicting requirements such as size, weight, temperature rise, flux density,
coreloss and operating frequency.
Magnetic cores are made of three basic materials. The first is bulk metal, the second
is powdered materials and the third is ferrite material.
The bulk metal is put into the process of hot and cold rolling. These materi-
als are wound into tape cores, such as C cores, E cores and toroids. Powder cores,
such as powder permalloy and powederd iron materials are into toroids, EE cores
and slugs. Ferrites are ceramic materials of iron oxide, alloyed with oxides or
carbonate of manganese, zinc, nickel, magenisum or cobalt.
3.11 MAGNETIC RECORDING MATERIALS
Magnetic recording
The process of storing data using a magnetic medium is called magnetic record-
ing. The data is stored in the recorded medium in the two forms, either in the form of
magnetization pattern (analog recording) or a sequence of binary magnetization states
(digital recording). The most widely used form of magnetic recording uses either a tape
(or) a disc. The magnetic materials are deposited on a polymeric sheet (or) an Al disc
in the form of powder, grains (or) needle like particles. There are different types of
magnetic materials. Some of the popular recording materials are powdered Fe2O3, cobalt
based thin films.
For recording on tapes (or) discs, we require a current carrying coil which is placed
close to the magnetic medium. The current required for straight forward writing of data
is usually large. The magnetic induction is produced by using a coil of many windings
around a magnetized armature.
This configuration is used in a recorder head and it is shown below.
Table 3.9 Magnetic properties of some recording materials
Recording Material Bsat(T) Coercivity (A/m) Tc(°C)
g - Fe2O3 0.5 1,600 675
Co-coated 0.5 4,000 400
Fe powder 2.0 80,000 770
Co-Vi thin film 1.6 4,000 1,000
Co-Cr thin film 0.5 500
The number of coil windings and the permeability of the armature determine the
strength of magnetization. The induction effect is achieved through the fringing field
at the edge of the armature. Because of the lower saturation field at the edge of the
armature, the head is often coated with a (high-permeability) metallic layer to focus the
field lines.
The distance between the ends of the armature (i.e.,) the magnetic gap length
should be one-third of recording wavelength.
During reading, the magnetic head is subjected to wear and tear when it is in con-
tact with the fast moving tape (or) disc.
Reading a magnetic disc or tape involves the reverse to the write process. The
changing flux on the magnetic medium as the tape (or) disk passes through the head,
induces a voltage in the head. It results in a small voltage change, which corresponds to
the strength of the magnetization.
The Floppy disk
A small flexible disk with a magnetic surface is called Floppy disk. It’s surface
is located with a thin magnetic film where binary data are stored in the form of minute
magnetized regions. It is permanently housed in a square jacket for protective pur-
poses as shown in the below Figure 3.19.
Figure 3.19 Floppy disk in jacket

These cut out areas in the jacket are the drive spindle, read / write head and index
position sensor. The index hole establishes a reference point for all the tracks on the
disk. As the disk rotates at 360 rpm within the stationary jacket, the read /write head
makes contact through the access window.
A typical 5½ inch floppy disk having 77 tracks is shown in Figure 3.20(a). The disk
is divided into 26 sectors, so that each of the 77 tracks is also divided into 26 equal sized
sectors. The longer outside track has the same number of sectors and the same length,
as does the shorter inside the track. There are more used space between sectors in the
longer track. Notice that the index hole appears between the first and the last sectors.
Figure 3.20(a) Tracks in floppy disk Figure 3.20(b) Sectors in floppy disk
Each sector can store 128 bytes of data. The total storage is therefore (128 bytes/
sector) (26 sectors /track) 2,56,000 bytes.
A typical sector format is shown in Figure 3.20(b), where each sector is divided
into fields .The address mark passes the head/ write head first and identifies the
upcoming areas of the sector as the ID field. The track and sector organization of ID field
identifies the data field by sector and track number. The data mark indicates whether the
upcoming data field contains a good record or a deleted record. The data field is the
position of the sector that contains the 128 data bytes. The average access time to a
given sector is about 500 ms. This is much faster than that of the magnetic tape but much
slower than the semiconductors memories.
Both the ID field and the data field typically contain two bytes for cyclic
redundancy check (CRC). These bytes provide for error detection. The CRC is
computed by the disk controller with the recorded data, using a special algorithm. Then
it is compared to the CRC recorded with the data.
Magnetic tapes and films
Extremely rapid magnetization is possible by their magnetic (metallic) films

produced on a non-magnetic substrate. The process of electroplating, evaporation or
sputtering are employed for this purpose. The coercive force can be enhanced by adding
cobalt.
Magnetostriction effect becomes zero in an iron alloy with 81.5% Ni. Metallic
films must be as thin as possible to minimize eddy-current losses. Magnetic tapes and
films are also made of FeCoNi, Gd3Fe5O12 and CrO2.
Metallic glasses are excellent ferromagnets possessing high magnetic moments,
very high permeability, and zero magnetostriction. They are hard and corrosion
resistant, therefore they are very suitable for use as magnetic head recorder. These can be
easily magnetized and hence they also find applications in magnetic shielding, motors,
transformers etc.,
Cobalt-based glass alloy have established their superiority over super alloys at
frequencies above 0.1 MHz. The absence of grain boundaries, high mobility of domains,
high electrical resistivity, wear resistance and high flux density make metallic glass a
superior magnetic material.
Magnetic Bubbles
Magnetic bubbles are soft magnetic materials of few micron diameter. Being
embedded in the matrix of different spin orientations, they are separated by an equal
distance among themselves. Magnetic bubbles are memory devices having storage
material of either amorphous magnetic layer or magnetic garnet.
The iron garnet materials are grown on GGG or Sm3Ga5O12. The bubble diameter
of garnet system is proportional to 1/Ms2.
Ms – Saturation magnetization.
Magnetic bubble memory is a form of computer memory in which a small magnetized
region of a substance is used to store information. Magnetic garnets are easily magnetized
in one direction but hard to magnetize in the perpendicular direction. A bubble memory
chip consists of a thin film of these materials deposited on a non-magnetic substrate.
When magnetic field is applied to the chip, the domains with magnetization parallel to the
field grow at the cost of domains with opposite magnetization. When the strength of the
magnetic field is further increased, the strip domains of opposite magnetization
change into cylindrical domains called as magnetic bubbles. The magnetic bubbles
constitute a magnetic region of one polarity surrounded by a magnetic region of the opposite
polarity. The presence or absence of a bubble at a specified storage location gives
information and the information is retrieved using a rotating magnetic field. Chip is
enclosed in two permanent magnets and two rotating field coils. One million bits can be
stored in each chip.
Magnetic bubble memory chips of 4 MB capacity has already been developed. To
increase the memory, the bubble diameter and the film thickness have to be reduced.
Techniques of lithography and film growth are employed for the same.
Bubble memories are suitable for small size, low power dissipation and highly
reliable applications. They are employed in memory devices of computers.
Advantages of magnetic bubble memory

1. The memory contents are not destroyed due to power failure.
2. Bubble memory is non-volatile and more reliable than magnetic disks.
3. Interconnections are minimized.
4. Power consumption is less.
5. A same technology is followed for all the memory functions of decoding,
generation, switching and sensing.
6. They are inexpensive.
3.11.1 MAGNETIC VALVES
A magnetic valve is in particular a fuel injection valve for internal combustion

engines. It has a valve housing, a conductor coil mounted on a core of ferromagnetic
material and an armature which carries a valve body cooperating with a valve seat.
The valve seat is provided with armature plate. The magnetic valve also comprises of a
control valve element, which interacts with the valve seat in order to open and close a fuel
passage.
A spacer element made up of magnetic non-conducting material is displaced
between a pole face of the magnetic core oriented towards the armature plate and a
pole face of the armature plate oriented towards the magnetic core. This spacer element
prevents magnetic adherence of the armature to the magnetic core. The magnetic valves
are also used in refrigeration plant.
3.11.2 MAGNETIC BEARINGS
Magnetic bearings are used as an active suspension drives in rotating machinery,

mainly for active vibration control purposes.
A magnetic bearing supports a moving shaft using magnetic forces and without
mechanical contact. Because the rotor floats in space without contact with the magnets,
lubrication is not needed.
Figure 3.21 Magnetic Bearing
The rotor of the magnetic bearing is mounted on the rotating shaft. Stator consists
of multiple magnets which surrounds the rotor. Each magnet produces a magnetic field
and tends to attract the rotor. The attractive force may be controlled by varying the
amount of current in the coil of a particular magnet.
Advantages over oil lubricated bearings
• Oil lubrication system with pumps, valves, coolers, ducting, lamps etc, can be
eliminated.
• Operating temperature may be high.
• Efficiency can be improved due to the elimination of mechanical friction.
• Improved liberation control.
• Extensive health monitoring and protection for the machine.
Application
Magnetic bearings are:
1. Widely used for aerospace applications where compact size, high performance,
high efficiency and high reliability are required.
2. Used in defense applications.

3. Used in gas turbine engines where wide temperatures and high rotational speeds
are employed.
4. Used in digital controllers to provide a total solution for high power density and
rotating machinery.
5. Used in turbo generators, high speed motors with controls, embedded controls and
power electronics.
3.11.3 SUPER CONDUCTING MAGNETS
Type II super conductors like Nb -Ti and Nb3 Sn compounds, having high critical
field value are suitable for making super conducting magnets. It produces large magnetic
field without consuming large electric power. It consists of a super conducting coil in
which current flow, generates a large magnetic field. In the super conducting state, the
current flows without any resistive loss. Hence no joule heating occurs which is one of
the major problems in the fabrication of high field conventional electromagnets.
Super conducting coils and magnets are made using V3 Ga, Nb3 Al and Nb3
(Al0.8 Ga 0.2) compounds.
A super conducting solenoid occupies little space. It has no steady state power
consumption and uses relatively little liquid helium coolant. Although their use is
confined to laboratory research, super conducting solenoids may be useful in
magneto hydrodynamic power conversion and in some engineering applications. Super
conducting magnets are used in NMR topography in the field of medicine. They are used
in magnetic separation of ores and chemicals, controlled thermonuclear fusion and in
super conducting levitation of trains.
Problem
A transformer core is wound with a coil carrying an alternating current of frequency
50 Hz. Assume the magnetization to be uniform throughout the core volume of 0.01 m3.
Calculate the hysteresis loss. The hysteresis loop has an area of 40,000 units when the
area are drawn in units of 10–4 wbm–2 and 102 Am–1.
3.12 SUPERCONDUCTIVITY
Super conductivity was discovered by H. Kamerlingh Onnes in London in 1911,
while studying the variation with temperature of the electrical resistance of mercury
within a few degrees of absolute zero. He observed that the resistance droped sharply to
an unmeasurably small value at a temperature of 4.2 Kelvin.
Tc is the transition temperature below which the material behaves like a
superconductor above which the material becomes a normal conductor. Super
conductor has infinite conductivity and zero resistivity below the transition temperature Tc
and critical magnetic field Hc.
Figure 3.22 Variation of resistance with temperature for the specimen mercury
Watch Animation in the CD-ROM

3.13 PROPERTIES OF SUPER CONDUCTOR

Meissner effect
According to this effect, the magnetic flux density B, will be repelled away from
the interior of the specimen as long as T < Tc and H < Hc (Tc - transition temperature,
Hc - critical magnetic field, as shown in Figure 3.23.)
The magnetic induction inside the material is given by
B = µr (H + M) = µr(1 + χ)H …..(3.1)
where, µr is the permeability of the material
M is the magnetization of the material
χ is the magnetic susceptibility

Figure 3.23 Meissner Effect
Since, B = 0, for a material to be in a superconducting state, the above Equation

(3.1) becomes
0 = µr (1 + χ) H = µr(H + M)
M = –H which means that the magnetization is equal and opposite to the
magnetizing field strength. The susceptibility χ becomes equal to –1. Therefore the
super conductor is a perfect dia-magnet.
The magnetic flux at the air material interface does not vanish abrupty in a super-
conductor. But it penetrates into the material upto a depth, called as London penetration
depth λL.
3
where m is the mass of the electron

e is the charge of the electron
nsu is the density of electrons is the superconductivity state.
µ0 is the permeability of free space.
Critical field and current density
When the temperature of the specimen is increased above Tc and it is subjected

to strong magnetic field H > Hc then the super conducting property is destroyed. The
magnetic field necessary to restore the normal resistivity is called the critical magnetic
field Hc. If the current density is greater than the critical current density Jc, then the super
conductivity vanishes as shown in Figure 3.24.
Figure 3.24 Current Density Versus Temperature

Figure 3.25 The critical field vs temperature for a superconductor

The variation of critical field with temperature shown in the Figure 3.26 is almost
parabolic and can be represented by the equation
..... (3.3)
H0 is the critical field at 0 Kelvin. The figure shows that critical current density Jc
becomes zero at Hc, the critical magnetic field (Hc) and at the transition temperature (Tc).
Critical current density
As an electric current is always associated with a magnetic field, then a super

conductor carrying a current (such that the field produced is equal to Hc) retains the
resistance of the specimen. The current density at which it occurs is called the critical
current density Jc.
Jc = 2πrHc Silsbee’s rule
where, r - radius of the super conducting wire.
Jc - critical current density
Hc - critical magnetic field.
Isotope effect
Tc ∝ M−1/2
M−1/2 Tc = constant
Where M is the atomic weight and Tc is the critical or transition temperature. The
exponential term for the isotopic mass (m) varies from zero to 0.5. For example
Element Exponential term of M
Zn 0.30
Os 0.2
Pb 0.48
Cd 0.5
Specific heat
The specific heat of a super conductor falls rapidly than a normal conductor below
the super conducting transition temperature.
Figure 3.26 Variation of specific heat with temperature for a super conductor and a normal conductor
Thermal conductivity
As the super conducting electrons do not take part in transporting the heat,
a decrease in thermal conductivity takes place when the material becomes a
superconductor from a normal conducting state.
Effect of high frequency radiation and impurities on a super conductor
High frequency radiation on a super conductor modifies the zero resistivity of

the specimen. When chemical impurities are added to a super conductor, the magnetic
properties of the super conducting material are changed.
3.14 TYPE I AND TYPE II SUPER CONDUCTORS

Type I Superconductors Type II Superconductors
Example: lead, tin, mercury, aluminium, Example: Niobium, Vanadium,
zinc, gallium, Zirconium.
Below a certain critical magnetic field HC is lower critical material below which
Hc, the magnetic field is completely the material will be in a super conducting
excluded from the interior of the super- state.
conductor and at the critical field Hc, the HC is upper critical field above which the
material loses super conductivity abruptly material will be in a normal state. Between
and the magnetic field is penetrated fully HC and HC the material will be in a mixed
inside the material. state. (vortex state)
Type I super conductor exhibits At H , the flux starts penetrating inside
C
complete Meissner effect and they are the specimen and it increases until H is
C2
completely diamagnetic. reached.
Below Hc, the material behaves like a At H magnetization vanishes and
C
super conductor and the magnetic field is specimen returns to its normal state.
expelled away from the material.
Between HC and HC , magnetization
At HC, the transition is reversible. Above vanishes gradually.
HC, the material becomes a normal
The critical magnetic field value is
conductor. For Type I super conductor HC
100 times greater than the Type I super
takes the value upto 1000 Gauss.
conductor.
Type I super conductor are soft
Type II super conductor is called as hard
super conductors as it lose its super
super conductor. It has large amount of
conducting property for low magnetic
magnetic hysteresis which is induced by
fields (upto 1000 Gauss). Hence they are
mechanical treatment
not suitable for making high field super
conducting magnets.
Representation of superconductors on periodic table
3.15 BCS THEORY ON SUPER CONDUCTOR [BARDEEN COOPER -

SCHRIEFFER THEORY]
In 1957, BCS theory was proposed on super conductivity. Electron 1 and electron
2 are called the Cooper pair of electrons as shown in Figure 3.27.
Figure 3.27 BCS Theory Watch Animation in the CD-ROM

If an electron in a metal approaches a positive ion core, there is an attractive

coulomb interaction between the two. Because of this, the ion core starts vibrating
and consequently distorts the lattice. If the mass of the positive ion core is small, then
the distortion will be more. When another electron moves on the other side of this
distorted lattice, then there exists an attraction between the first electron and the second
electron via the distorted lattice. This attraction overcomes the repulsive force between
the two electron and it is called as electron-lattice electron interaction. The second
electron energy gets lowered which implies that the force between the two electrons is
attractive. Those two pair of electrons are called Cooper pair of electrons, flow of which
constitutes super conductivity. These Cooper pair of electrons are merely accelerated
without any resistance or scattering with the structure of the lattice.
BCS theory accounts for super conductivity only at low temperatures. High
temperature super conductivity cannot be explained by BCS theory. It can able to
explain many phenomenon associated with super conductivity such as the isotope effect,
Meisnerr effect, flux penetration, existence of energy gap in the excitation spectrum.
3.16 HIGH TEMPERATURE SUPERCONDUCTORS

Superconductivity is achieved only at low temperatures. The transition
temperature can be raised by irradiating the material with microwaves, lasers and by
increasing the pressure on the materials.
Achieving super conducting at room temperature is under process using less copper
Y-Sr-Nb-O compound.
High temperature super conductivity
In 1986, a major break through in superconductivity took place. They observed highest
TC had gone from 4 K to about 23 K. Chu and co-workers formed Y-Ba-Cu-O system
with transition temperature of 90 K.
Any superconductor with a transition temperature above 10 K is in general called-

high temperature super conductor.
In the table 3.10 year of discovery and critical temperature TC of high temperature
superconductors are given.
Table 3.10 Year of discovery and critical temperature TC of high temperature super conductors
Year Material TC (K)

1974 LiTi2O4 13
1975 Ba(PbBi)O3 13
1986 La2–xSrxCuO4 38
1987 YBa2Cu3O7 92
1988 Tl2Ca2Ba2Cu3O10 125
General characteristics of high temperature superconductors
1. They have high transition temperature.

2. They are direction dependant.
3. They have pervoskite crystal structure.
4. They are reactive, brittle and cannot be easily formed or joined.
5. They are oxides of copper in combination with other elements.
6. They are also called as 1-2-3 compound.
i) Highly anisotropic and have layered structures

Most of high temperature superconducting oxides are cuprate compounds.
One of their characteristics is the presence of CuO2 layers which dominate most
properties. In Figure 3.29 schematic structure of YBa2Cu3O6 is shown. The structure is
highly anisotropic.
ii) Metallic oxides
The other most important characteristic of high temperature super conducting

oxides is their metallic properties. The conductivity is metallic mainly in the CuO2
planes. The conductivity is much smaller in a direction perpendicular to CuO2 planes.
The formula for YBCO material is YBa2Cu3O6+x, where x corresponds to partial

oxygen content.
Figure 3.28 Schematic structure of YBa2Cu3O6
For 0.0 < x < 0.4 YBCO is an insulator

For 0.4 < x < 1.0 YBCO is an superconductor
YBCO is doped by adding additional oxygen, electrons are attached by oxygen
ions from CuO2 planes to form CuO chains to become metallic.
iii) Ceramic materials

The discoverers of La2−xSrxCuO4(LSCO) and YBa2Cu3O7 (YBCO) synthesized the
original materials as ceramic pellets. The amount of doping decides the nature of the
material. For example YBa2Cu3O6 is an insulator while YBa2Cu3O7 is a super conductor.
Methods of preparation
1. The correct ratio of constituent oxides are mixed.

2. After grinding, the compound is sintered and pellet is prepared.
3. Calcination is done (at ~ 1000 ºC) and annealed in oxygen to obtain
superconducting phase.
3.17 APPLICATIONS OF SUPER CONDUCTORS

Super conducting magnets
Type II super conductors like Nb -Ti and Nb3 Sn compounds, having high
critical field value are suitable for making super conducting magnets. It produces large
magnetic field without consuming large electric power. It consists of a super
conducting coil in which currents flow generating a large magnetic field. In the super
conducting state, the current flows without any resistive loss. Hence no joule heating
occurs which is one of the major problems in the fabrication of high field conventional
electromagnets.
Super conducting coils and magnets are made using V3 Ga, Nb3 Al and Nb3
(Al0.8 Ga0.2) compounds.
A super conducting solenoid occupies little space. It has no steady state power
consumption and uses relatively little liquid helium coolant. Although their use
is confined to laboratory research, super conducting solenoids may be useful in
magneto hydrodynamic power conversion and in some engineering applications. Super
conducting magnets are used in NMR topography in the field of medicine. They are
used in magnetic separation of ores and chemicals, controlled thermonuclear fusion and
in super conducting Levitation of trains.
Cryotron
Principle: Superconducting properties disappear when a magnetic field H whose

value is greater than critical magnetic field HC is applied to a material. Cryotron acts
as switching element or relay in computer. As the current in a super conducting ring
can flow without any change in its value, it is used as a memory or storage element in
computers. In the Figure 3.29, P is a super conducting material which is kept inside a
coil of another super conducting material Q.
Figure 3.29 Watch Animation in the CD-ROM
HC of P is lesser than HC of Q.
HC is the critical magnetic field.
The temperature of the whole system is below the transition temperature of the
two materials P and Q, so that both are super conducting. The current in the core
material P can then be controlled by a current in coil Q, because magnetic field produced
by Q may exceed the critical field of P at the operating temperature. Hence the wire P
becomes a normal conductor. Likewise, it can act as a relay or switching element in
computer.
Josephson effect
Brian Josephson, an English physicist in 1962 predicted that if a very thin layer
(≈ 2 nm thickness) of an insulator is sandwiched between two superconductors and
a voltage V is applied across the two super conductors, a current starts flowing. The
tunneling of cooper pairs of electron could take place between two super conductors
which are separated by a thin insulator even in the absence of external voltage.
The current which flows has a continuous dc component which persists even after
the removal of voltage and ac component is present only when the voltage V is present.
D.C. Josephson effect
Even in the absence of any electric or magnetic field, the dc current flows across
the junction of the two super conductors separated by a thin insulating layer as shown in
Figure 3.30.
Figure 3.30 Josephson Effect Watch Animation in the CD-ROM

A.C. Josephson effect
SQUID (Super conducting Quantum Interference Device) and their applications
Here two Josephson junctions are mounted on a super conducting ring. SQUID
magnetometers involve the super current properties of the Josephson junctions. They
are used to study tiny magnetic signals from the brain and heart and they also act as
storage devices for magnetic field. They are used to detect NMR signals and it also
detects the amount of iron in the liver of the human body. SQUID sensors, (based
on their ultra sensitivity at low temperatures) are used in magneto cardiography and
magneto encephalography. Brain tumours and clots are detected using magnetic
resonance imaging scanning equipment using super conducting solenoids.
Super conducting levitation
Super conducting magnets are used to levitate a train above the track. Absence
of friction makes the train to move at greater speeds upto 550 km/hr with low power
consumption.
Principle
The supporting field is provided by a super conducting solenoid which carries

current instead of using a conventional permanent magnet. The repulsive force between
the supporting magnetic field and the super conducting surface having persistent current
forms the basic for levitation of trains above the rails.
Working
Superconducting magnets are kept longitudinally on both sides of the bottom

surface of the train. Super conducting magnets are arranged parallel to the track. These
magnets lie just above the track. The track is made of concrete and coated with
aluminium sheets. The propulsion system is an air cored linear synchronous motor with
superconducting coils. The middle part of the bottom surface of the train is fitted with
coils. The coils are parallel to the track. A travelling electromagnetic wave is produced
with variable frequency by means of a cable which is laid into the track. A propulsion
force which moves the train is produced by the interaction between the field coil of LSM
and the traveling waves. As the train moves, the flux produced by the superconducting
magnet induces current in aluminium sheets. This induced current flows in the opposite
direction to that passing through the superconducting coil of the magnet. Therefore, a
repulsive force is developed between these two current carrying conductors lifting the
train above the track. At very low speed or when the train is at rest, it is supported by
wheels.
Figure 3.31 Super conducting levitation Watch Animation in the CD-ROM
Important characteristics of Levitation
1. Power consumption is low.

2. Absence of friction make the train move at higher speed.
3. Air gaps are wide due to high flux density produced by superconducting magnets.
Some other applications of superconductor
1. Superconductors are used in magneto hydrodynamic power generation.

Consuming less energy, occupying less space with less weight, super conducting
generators are used now a days.
2. Super conducting transmission systems overcome the losses due to

conventional electric power lines. Electric power companies now a days prefer the
super conducting wire and it is under progress in Westinghouse Electric Co., the
University of Wisconsin.
3. Using super conducting magnets, high efficiency ore-separating machines are
produced which is mainly used to separate the tumour cells from healthy cells.
4. Superconductors are used in the highly sensitive radiation meters called
bolometers and it is also used to measure the precise value of magnetic fields.
5. Superconductors are used to launch the space craft in a single stage using magnetic
levitation and propulsion technique.
6. Superconductors are also used in the fields of geophysics, radioastronomy and in
nuclear physics.
Electric generators
Superconducting generators are very smaller in size and weight when compared with
conventional generators. The low loss superconducting coil is isolated in an extremely
strong magnetic field. Motors with very high powers as large as 2500 KW could be
constructed at very high and at very low voltages as low as 450 V. This is the principle
of energy saving power systems.
Low loss transmission lines and transformer
The power loss during transmission is negligible, since the resistance is zero at
superconducting phase. Hence electrical cables are designed with superconducting
wires. If superconductors are used for winding of a transformer, the power losses will be
very small.
Generation of high magnetic fields
Superconducting materials are used for producing very high magnetic fields of the
order of 50 tesla. It is required in Magneto Hydro Dynamic power generators.
Logic and storage functions in computers
Super conductors are used to perform logic and storage functions in computers.
The current voltage characteristics associated with Josephson junction are suitable for
memory elements. With this much faster switching times (of the order 10 ps) have been
measured.
It is used to detect brain tumour and defective cells.
For scanning purpose, superconducting materials are used in NMR (Nuclear
Magnetic Resonance)
Harvard university made wires too small which are 1000 times thinner than human
hair and millionths of inch long. Supercomputers (458 ºF) are made out of wires and
switches. They allow electric current to pass without resistance and without the need
of voltage to drive. Extraordinarily thin wire are used in researches which rely on
esoteric tubes of carbon called as NANOTUBES. Super conducting wires are used in precise
measuring devices, electric motors and medical imaging equipment.
Review Questions
Short Questions
1. Define the following terms
a. Magnetic field intensity b. Magnetic moment
c. Magnetic flux density d. Magnetic permeability
e. Magnetic susceptibility f. Magnetization
g. Intensity of magnetization h. Remanence or Retentivity

i. Coercivity j. Hysteresis
k. Hysteresis loss l. Magnetic domain
m. Magnetic field
2. State Curie-Weiss law
3. What are ferrites? Give some of its applications.
4. What are the structures of ferrites? Explain
5. Define energy-product of a magnetic material.
6. Name some of the magnetic recording materials.
7. What is a Bohr magneton?
8. What are ferrox cubes? Give an example.
9. Distinguish between a hard and soft magnetic material.
10. Distinguish the different types of magnetic materials based on their spin
alignment.
11. What are diamagnetic materials?
12. What are paramagnetic materials?
13. What are ferromagnetic materials?
14. Distinguish the different types of ferromagnetic materials based on their spin.
15. What is Hysteresis?
16. Define Hysteresis loss.
17. What are hard and soft magnetic materials? Give examples.
18. What are the advantages and disadvantages of ferrites?

19. Why ferrites are used as core material in the case of transformer?
20. What are super conducting magnets? Give examples.
21. What is a SQUID? Give examples.
22. What are magnetic bubbles?
23. Why hard ferrites are used to make permanent magnets?
24. What are the properties of permanent magnets?
25. Explain the phenomenon of super conductivity.
26. Compare Type I super conductor with Type II super conductor or give the
difference between soft and hard super conductors.
27. Explain “Meissner effect”.
28. Give any two applications of super conductors in engineering and medical field.
29. What is the principle of magnetic levitation?
30. Define critical temperature.
31. What are Type I super conductor ?
32. Define critical field.
33. Distinguish between d.c. and a.c. Josephson effect.
34. Write a short note on SQUIDS.
Descriptive Type Questions

1. What are the different types of magnetic materials? Explain their properties. Give
examples. Give its applications also.
2. Explain the Domain theory of ferromagnetism.
3. Explain the Heisenberg criteria of ferromagnetism.
4. Explain the Hysteresis, Hysteresis loss and energy product of a magnetic material.
5. Distinguish between hard and soft magnetic materials.
6. Obtain Curie-Weiss law and discuss.
7. Distinguish between ferro, ferri and antiferro magnetic materials. Give examples
for each.
8. Explain the reason for the formation of domain structure in ferromagnetic material
and explain how the hysteresis curve is explained on the basis of domain theory.
9. Draw a B-H curve for a ferromagnetic material. Identify retentivity and coercive
field on the curve. What is the energy loss per cycle?
10. Explain the structure, properties and preparation of ferrites. Give some of its
applications.
11. Write a note on magnetic recording materials.
12. What are ferrites? Explain their properties and applications.
13. Write an essay on magnetic recording materials.
14. Write a note on
a. Magnetic bubble memory b. Magnetic storage
c. Magnetic tapes and films
15. Write a note on magnetic bubbles.
16. Describe briefly about magnetic valves and magnetic bearings.
17. Write a note on
a. Superconducting magnets
b. SQUIDS
18. Mention the applications of super conductors.
19. Discuss type I and type II superconductors.
20. a. What are high temperature superconductors? Give four examples
b. Explain the flowing:
Meissner effect, Type I superconductor, Principle of magnetic levitation and ac
Josephson effect.
21. a. What is superconductivity?
b. Mention any four property changes that occur in a superconductor.
c. Explain the effect of isotopes on superconductors.

d. Explain the Type I and Type II superconductors.
e. Mention two applications.
23. Explain the various properties of a super conducting materials.
24. a. What is meant by high temperature super conductors? Give examples.
b. Describe how YBa2Cu3O7 super conductor is prepared with its crystal structure.
c. Explain the importance of oxygen content in YBa2Cu3O7 super conductor.
25. Describe the various applications of superconductor based on their properties.
Question Bank
1. Numerical value of exchange integral is positive for
a. Parallel spin alignment b parallel and unequal spin alignment
c. Antiparallel spin alignment d. antiparallel and unequal spin alignment
2. For iron the easy direction of magnetization is
a [100] b. [110] c. [111] d. [011]
3. Inherent nature of all matter is
a. Ferro magnetism b. Anti ferromagnetism c. Para magnetism d. Diamagnetism
4. The total number of magnetic lines of forces emanated from the north pole is called
a. magnetic flux b. magnetization c. magnetic moment
d. hysteresis
5. Basic source of magnetism ______________.
a. Charged particles alone b. Movement of charged particles
c. Magnetic dipoles d. Magnetic domains
6. Units for magnetic flux density
a. Wb / m2 b. Wb / A.m c. A / m d. Tesla / m
7. Magnetic permeability has units as
8. Magnetic permeability has units as
a. Tesla b. Henry c. Tesla / m d. Henry / m
9. Magnetic field strength’s units are
10. Example for dia-magnetic materials
a. super conductors b. alkali metals c. transition metals d. Ferrites
11. Example for para-magnetic materials

12. Example for ferro-magnetic materials
13. Example for anti-ferro-magnetic materials
a. salts of transition elements b. rare earth elements c. transition metals d. Ferrites
14. Example for ferri-magnetic materials
a. salts of transition elements b. rare earth elements c. transition metals d. Ferrites
15. Magnetic susceptibility para-magnetic materials is
a. +10-5 b. -10-5 c. 105 d.10-5 to 10-2
16. Magnetic susceptibility dia--magnetic materials is
a. +10-5 b. -10-5 c. 105 d. 10-5 to 10-2
17. Magnetic susceptibility ferro-magnetic materials is
a. +10-5 b. -10-5 c. 105 d. 10-5 to 10-2
18. Example for soft magnet
a. 45 Permalloy b. CrO2 c. Fe-Pd d. Alnico
19. Example for hard magnet
a. 45 Permalloy b. CrO2 c. Fe-Pd d. Alnico
20. Example for magnetic material used in data storage devices
a. 45 Permalloy b. CrO2 c. Cunife d. Alnico
21. Which of the following is a superconductor?
a. gold b. copper c.mercury d. silver
22. Superconductivity can be destroyed by applying
a. magnetic field only b. electric field only c. both electric and magnetic field
d. magnetic field and electric field don’t affect superconductivity
23. A superconductor repels magnetic flux lines, this phenomenon is called
a. Isotope effect b. Hall effect c. Josephson effect d. Meissner effect
24. Critical temperature (Tc) can be brought nearer to room temperature by
a. increasing the pressure b. increasing the temperature
c. applying magnetic field d. applying electric field
25. Superconductivity exhibited by a material is associated with
a. the rearrangement of atoms b. change in crystal structure
c. impurities in the materials d. electrons in the material
26. Superconductivity was successfully explained by BCS theory based on the concept of
a. electron-electron interaction b. electron-lattice-electron interaction
c. electron-lattice interaction d. lattice-electron-lattice interaction
27. Type I soft superconductors have the property of
a. Losing their superconducting property quickly on the application of magnetic field

b. Losing their superconducting property slowly on the application of magnetic field
c. Losing their superconducting property quickly on the application of heat
d. Losing their superconducting property slowly on the application of heat
28. Type II soft superconductors have the property of
a. Losing their superconducting property quickly on the application of magnetic field
b. Losing their superconducting property slowly on the application of magnetic field
c. Losing their superconducting property quickly on the application of heat
d. Losing their superconducting property slowly on the application of heat
29. Mixed state (both superconducting state and normal state) is exhibited by
a. type I (or) soft superconductors b. normal materials
c. type II (or) hard superconductors d. both type I and type II
30. High temperature superconductors exhibit superconductivity,
a. at absolute zero b. below 20 K c. at room temperature d. greater than 20 K
Answers
1. a 2. a 3.d 4. a 5. b 6. a 7. c 8. d 9. c 10. a 11. b
12. c 13. a 14. d 15. d 16. b 17. c 18. a 19. d 20. b 21. c
22. c 23. d 24. a 25. d 26. b 27. a 28. b 29. c 30. d
PART - B
1. What are ferromagnetic materials?
Certain materials like Iron (Fe), Cobalt (Co), Nickel (Ni) and certain alloys exhibit high
degree of magnetisation. These materials show spontaneous magnetization i.e., they have a
small amount of magnetisation (atomic moments are aligned) even in the absence of an
external magnetic field. This indicates that there is a strong internal field within the material
that makes the atomic magnetic moments align with each other. This phenomenon is known
as ferromagnetism and the materials which exhibit this kind of property are called ferromag
netic materials.
2. What are the properties of ferromagnetic materials?
1. All the dipoles are aligned parallel to each other due to the interaction between any two
dipoles.
2. They have permanent dipole moment. They attract the magnetic field strongly.
3. They exhibit magnetisation even in the absence of magnetic field. This property of
ferromagnetic materials is called as spontaneous magnetisation. They exhibit hysteresis
curve.
4. During heating, they lose the magnetisation slowly.
3. What is Heisenberg theory of ferromagnetism?

The molecular field based on simple dipole - dipole interaction was found to be less and
hence cannot account for the existence of ferromagnetism. Heisenberg removed this discrep
ancy by assuming the quantum exchange interaction between the electron spins instead of
dipole - dipole interaction.
4. What is domain theory of ferromagnetism?
According to Weiss, a virgin specimen of ferromagnetic material consists of a number of regions
or domains which are spontaneously magnetized due to parallel alignment of all magnetic dipoles.
The direction of spontaneous magnetisation varies from domain to domain.
5. What are the energies involved in origin of domains in ferromagnetic material?
a. Magnetostatic energy or magnetic field energy or exchange energy b. Crystalline energy or
anisotropy energy, c. Domain wall energy or the Bloch wall energy d. Magnetostriction energy.
6. What is hysteresis in magnetic materials?
The lagging of magnetic induction behind the applied field strength is called hysteresis.’
7. What is meant by hysteresis loss?
When the specimen is taken through a cycle of magnetization, there is a loss of energy in the form
of heat. This is known as hysteresis loss.
8. What are soft - magnetic materials?
Materials which are easy to magnetise and demagnetise are called soft magnetic materials.
9. State the properties of soft magnetic material.
a. They have high permeability , b. They have low coercive force (due to which these are
not suitable for making permanent magnets) c. They have low hysteresis losses
10. Mention few soft magnetic materials and their applications.
a. Pure or ingot iron b. Cast iron (carbon above 2.5 %) c. Carbon steel
Applications
1. Cast iron is used in the structure of electrical machinery and frame work of d.c.machine.
2. Carbon steel has high mechanical strength used in making motor of turbo alternators.
11. What are hard magnetic materials?
Materials which retain their magnetism and are difficult to demagnetise are called hard magnetic
materials.
12. State the properties of hard magnetic materials.
• Possess high value of B-H product • High retentivity • High coercivity • Low
permeability.
13. Mention few hard magnetic materials and their application.
a. Tungsten steel contains 4.5 to 6 % tungsten, 0.5 to 0.7 % carbon and the remaining is iron.
b. Cobalt steel contains 34 % cobalt, 5 % chromium 3.5 to 6 % tungsten and remaining is iron.
Applications:
1. Tungsten steel is used in making permanent magnets for dynamos, motor.
2. Cobalt steel is used in motor, fans and heavy duty instruments.
14. Differentiate soft and hard magnetic materials.
Soft magnetic materials Hard magnetic materials
Magnetic materials which can be Magnetic materials which cannot be easily
easily magnetized and demagnetized. magnetized and demagnetized.
They have high permeability They have low permeability
Magnetic energy stored is not high Magnetic energy stored is high
Low hysteresis losses due to small High hysteresis looser due to large hysteresis
hysteresis loop area. loop area.
15. What are ferrimagnetic materials.
Materials which exhibit ferrimagnetism are called ferrimagnetic materials or ferrites.
16. Mention the properties of ferrimagnetic materials.
a. These are the ferromagnetic materials in which equal number of opposite spins with differ
ent magnitudes such that the orientation of neighbouring spins is in anti parallel manner are
present. b. Susceptibility is positive and very large for these materials.
17. What are ferrites and mention its types.
Ferrites are modified structure of iron with no carbon in which the magnetic moments are of
unequal magnitudes. Its general formula is given by X2+ Fe23+ O42- . Types: Normally there are
two types of structure present in the ferrites. 1. Regular spinel 2. Inverse spinel.
18. State the applications of ferrites.
a. They are used in transformer cores for high frequencies upto microwaves.
b. They are used in radio receivers to increase the sensitivity and selectivity of the receiver.
c. Ferrites are used in digital computers and data circuits as magnetic storage elements.
d. They are used as an isolator.
19. Why ferrites are advantageous for use as transformer cores?
Ferrites are used as transformer cores for frequencies upto microwaves. This is because the
eddy current problem, which prevents the penetration of magnetic flux into the material, is much
less severe in ferrites than in iron.
20. What are the essential differences between hard and soft magnetic materials?
Hard magnetic material Soft magnetic material
It has a large area hysteresis loop It has smaller area hysteresis loop
It has high coercivity and high retentivity It has lesser coercivity and lesser retentivity.
It has irreversible domain wall movement It has reversible domain wall movement.
It has lesser permeability It has large permeability

It is used for making permanent magnets It is used for making electromagnets.
21. Explain the terms remenance and coercivity.
Remenance is the property of the magnetic material by which it retains some magnetization
when the magnetisting field is reduced to zero. It is expressed in terms of weber/m2. Coercivity
is the property of the magnetic material by which it requires a demagnetizing force to destroy
the residual magnetism in it. It is expressed in terms ofampere turn/m.
22. Name two uses of soft magnetic materials.
a. Since soft magnetic materials can be easily magnetized or demagnetized, these are used
to make electromagnets used in cranes. b. Due to their low hysteresis loss, they are also
used as transformer core materials.
23. What are the requirements of a transformer core material?
Transformer core material should have high resistivity to reduce eddy current losses and
magnetically soft to reduce hysteresis losses.
24. What are magnetostriction materials?
Magnetic materials whose length along the axis magnetization may change when it is placed
parallel to the magnetic field are called magnetostriction materials. These are used to produce
ultrasonic waves and design mechanical filters used in the single side band transmission of
ratio waves.
25. Give the origin of magnetic moment in magnetic materials.
The magnetic moment originates from the orbital motion and spinning motion of electrons in
atoms. Particularly ferromagnetism is mainly due to spin-spin interaction of unpaired electrons
in the ferromagnetic atoms.
26. What are ferrites?
Ferrites are soft magnetic materials having the general formula XFe2O4 where X is the
divalent metal like Mn, Ni, Fe, etc. These are ferromagnetic materials having opposite and
different magnitude spin in the adjacent ions in the lattice. These have high resistivity and low
hysteresis loss at radio frequencies and hence these are used as transformer core materials at
those frequencies.
27. What is meant by energy product of a hard magnetic material?
The product of residual magnetic induction (Br) and coercivity (Hc) is called energy product. It
is the important quantity to design powerful permanent magnets. For example Alnico magnets
have high energy products and hence they are very powerful permanent magnets.
28. For making electromagnets what is the nature of magnetic material?
For making electromagnets we require high initial permeability, low coercivity and low hyster
esis loss magnetic materials.
29. What are garnets?

Garnets are the soft magnetic materials having high resistivity, low hysteresis loss and low
current losses. These are used at microwave frequencies as nonreciprocal microwave devices
like gyrator, isolator, etc. and as magnetic bubble storage materials. Example: Yttrium Iron
garnet. (Y3 Fe5O12)
30. What are domains?
Domains are the small regions in a ferromagnetic material which are completely magnetized by
favourable exchange spin-spin interaction. The domain are responsible for vlarge magnetization
of ferromagnetic materials with very weak magnetic fields.
31. What is super conductivity?
The phenomenon of sudden disappearance of electrical resistance in a material below a certain
temperature when it is sufficiently cooled is known as super conductivity.
32. What are superconductors?
The materials which exhibit superconductivity phenomena are called superconductors or super
conducting materials.
33. What is transition temperature?
The temperature at which a normal material turns into a superconductor is called transition
temperature (or) critical temperature (Tc).
34. What is Meissner effect?
When a material is cooled below its transition temperature i.e., T< TC, the material becomes a
perfect diamagnet. The magnetic flux originally present in the material gets ejected out of a
superconductor. This effect is known as Meissner effect.
35. Explain the term critical magnetic field in supercondutor.
At any temperature, below the critical temperature minimum magnetic field is required to
destroy the superconducting property. This is known as critical magnetic field (Hc).
Critical magnetic field is given by the relation
36. What is isotope effect in superconductivity?

In superconducting materials, transition temperature varies with the average isotopic mass M of
its constituents.
37. What are high TC superconductors? Give an example.

Any superconductor, if transition temperature is above 10K it is called as high TC superconduc
tor. Example: YBa2Cu307 Tc-92 K Lai.85Ba0.l5CuO4 TC = 36 K
38. What are the properties of High TC superconductors?
• They have high transition temperature. • They have modified pervoskite structure.
• Formation of superconducting state in high Tc superconductors is direct dependent.
• They are oxides of copper in combination with other elements.
39. What are the applications of superconductors?
• Superconductors are used for the production of high magnetic field magnets.
• By using superconducting materials, it is possible to manufacture electrical generators and
transformers in exceptionally small sizes having efficiency of 99.90 %
• Superconducting materials are used in the construction of very sensitive electrical
measuring instruments such as galvanometers.
• Superconducting materials if used for power cables will enable transmission of power
over very long distances without any significant power loss or drop in voltage.
40. What are type I superconductors?
The superconductors in which the magnetic field is totally excluded from the interior of super
conductors below a certain magnetising field HC and at HC the material loses superconductiv
ity abruptly and the magnetic field penetrates fully are termed as type I superconductors.
41. What are type II superconductors?
The superconductors in which the material loses magnetisation gradually rather than suddenly
are termed as type II superconductors.
42. Distinguish between type I and II superconductors.
Type I Superconductors Type II Superconductors
The material loses magnetization suddenly The material loses magnetization gradually
The exhibit complete Meissner effect. i.e., They do not exhibit complete Meissner
they are completely diamagnetic effect.
There is only critical magnetic field There are two critical magnetic field i.e.,
lower critical field, and upper critical field.
No mixed state exists Mixed state is present.
43. What is magnetic levitation?

The magnetic levitation is based on diamagnetic property of a superconductor which, is the
rejection of magnetic flux lines. A superconductor can be suspended in air against the repulsive
force from a permanent magnet. This magnetic Invitation effect can be used for high speed
transportation without frictional loss.
44. What is SQUID?
SQUID is the acronym for Superconducting Quantum Interference Device. It is a double junc
tion quantum interferometer. Two Josephson junctions mounted on a superconducting ring
forms this interferometer. Squids are based on the flux quantization in a superconducting ring.
The total magnetic flux passing through the ring is quantized. It is an ultra-sensitive measuring’
instrument used for detection of very weak magnetic field in the order of 10-14 Tesla.
45. What is cryotron?
Cryotron is a magnetically operated current switch, which uses superconductivity principle.
46. Mention few biomaterials and their applications.
a. Stainless steels (ASTMF - 138 and ASTMF - 139) have high tensile strength and
high biocompatability and are used as steel wires, plates and implant devices.
b. Porous high density polyethylene is used in dental and cortical implants
c. Ceramic implants (Al2O3 with some SiO2 and alkali metal oxide) are used to
make femoral head.
47. What are nanophase materials?
Nanophase materials have three dimensional structure having length less than 100 nm. They
have hybrid properties such that high hardness and high ductility. Further they have nonlinear
optical and magnetic properties.
48. What are intermetallic compounds?
Intermetallic compounds have combined properties of metals and nonmetals.
Example: Cu Zn alloy. It has ionic bond along with metallic bond. So that it behaves as
insulator with high brittleness.
49. What are the different types of superconductors?
Based on critical temperature, there are type I superconductor (soft superconductor) having
complete Meissner effect or only one critical magnetic field (Examples: Al, Zn, Ga) and type II
superconductor (hard superconductor.) having incomplete Meissner effect or two critical mag
netic fields between which the material is in the mixed state. (Examples: Zr, Nb). Further there
are p- type super conductors or high temperature superconductors in which charge carries are
holes and n-type superconductors or low temperature superconductors in which charge carriers
electrons.
50. Mention few applications of superconductors.

a. Superconducting transmission systems are used for transmission of electric energy with
very low transmission loss.
b. Superconducting magnets are used for producing very large magnetic field and for magnetic
levitation.
c. Cryotrons or superconducting gating circuits act as switching elements in computers.
d. Using superconducting components one can design an extremely fast and large scale comput
ers occupying lesser volume and consuming electrical energy less than 1/2 watt.
51. Explain the term “Superconductor”.
Superconductor is the material having nearly zero resistivity and perfect diamagnetism. Thus
a superconductor can conduct electric current without any resistance and excludes the magnetic
flux from the material when it is placed in a magnetic field.
52. What is meant by superconducting transition temperature?
Superconducting transition temperature is the temperature at which normal material is con
verted into superconducting one when we cool the material.
53. What is a cryotron?
Cryotron is a switching element made from two different superconductors arranged
in a manner that one superconductor in the form of a straight wire is enclosed by
another superconducting coil and is based on the disappearance of superconducting state in
superconductor due to the production of magnetic field by the other superconductor surround
ing the first superconductor.
54. How will you explain the phenomenon of superconductivity?
High temperature superconductivity can be explained by resonance valence band theory such
that attractive correlation brings intense electron pairing similar to that responsible for bond
ing hydrogen atoms in a hydrogen molecule. Low temperature superconductivity explained by
BCS theory such that superconductivity is due to cooper pairs of electrons having opposite
spins. At very low temperatures, cooper pair is formed through electron-electron interaction via
lattice deformation.
55. What are SQUIDS? What are their uses?
Superconducting Quantum Interference Devices (SQUIDS) are based on the flux quantization in
a superconducting ring and is a double junction quantum interferometer formed from two
Josephson junctions mounted on a superconducting ring. SQUID sensors have high sensitivity
at low temperatures and are used to detect defects in heart and brain through magnetocardiogra
phy and magnetoencepha-lography.
56. An iron rod of density 7.7 x 103 kg/m3 and specific heat 0.462 x 10–3 J/kg K is subjected
to cycles of magnetization at the rate of 50 cycles per second. If the area enclosed by B-H loop
corresponds to energy loss of 10–2 J, find the rise of temperature per minute assuming that
the heat generated is not radiated.
57. In the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom the electron circulates around the nucleus in a
path of radius 5.1x 10-11 metre at a frequency v of 6.8 x 1015 revolutions per second. What
are the values of B at the centre and its dipole moment?
58. In a magnetic material the field strength is found to be 106 ampere/m. If the magnetic
susceptibility of the material is 0.5 x 10-5, calculate the intensity of magnetization and flux
density in the material.
59. The saturation value of magnetization of iron is 1.76 x 106 ampere/m. Iron has body
centred cubic structure with an elementary cube edge of 2.86 Å. Calculate the average
number of Bohr magnetons contributed to the magnetization per atom.
60. A paramagnetic material is subjected to homogeneous field of 106 ampere/m at a room

temperature of 30 ° C. Calculate the average magnetic moment along the field direction per
spin Bohr magnetons.
61. The area of the hysteresis loop drawn between B and H is 94 m2. Each unit space along the
vertical axis represents 0.1 weber/ m2 and each unit space along the horizontal axis repre
sents 20 ampereturns per metre. The steel used for drawing hysteresis loop weighs 7650
kg/m3 Determine
62. Prove that superconductors are perfect diamagnets.
63. The superconducting transition temperature of lead is 7.26 K. The initial magnetic field at
0 K is 64 x 103 ampere/m. Calculate the critical field at 5 K.
64. Calculate the critical current density for 1 mm diameter wire of lead at 4.2 K.A
parabolic dependence of Hc upon temperature may be assumed.

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2.

After completing a study of this chapter, you will be able to,

Semiconductor are classified as,

Figure 2.1 Types of Semiconductor

2.2 INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS

Carrier Concentration in Intrinsic Semiconductor

Intrinsic semiconductor behave as a perfect insulator at 0K. This is because, no

Figure 2.2 Carrier concentration in intrinsic semiconductor

2.2.1 HOLE CONCENTRATION

2.3 FERMI LEVEL

2.3.1 FERMI FUNCTION

Variation of Fermi energy level with temperature

Density of electron and holes in terms of Eg

The forbidden energy gap is expressed as,

2.4 MOBILITY AND ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY OF INTRINSIC

σi = nie (µe + µh) …..(2.18)

Determination of band gap

2.5 EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS

When an intrinsic semiconductor (pure Ge

Figure 2.4 Energy level diagram

(ii) p-type semiconductors

When an intrinsic semiconductor (pure Ge or Si) is doped with a tetravalent

Figure 2.5 p-type semiconductor

Figure 2.6 Energy level diagram

2.6 EXPRESSION FOR CARRIER CONCENTRATION IN n-TYPE

Figure 2.7 Energy band

Assuming (Ec − EF) > k T

Substitute (2.27) in equation (2.22) and re-arranging we get,

As the temperature increases, some electron in Ed level are excited to conduction

Expression for Carrier Concentration in p-type Semiconductor

The Figure 2v.9 shows the energy band structure

duction band even at low temperature.

2.7 ELEMENTAL AND COMPOUND SEMICONDUCTORS

(i) Elemental semiconductors : (Indirect band gap semiconductors)

Material Energy gap Electronv mobility Hole mobility

GaAs 1.34 0.85 0.45

2.8 HALL EFFECT

2.8.1 HALL EFFECT IN n-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR

Consider a n-type material. If an electric current is allowed to pass along positive

Figure 2.11 Hall effect in n-type semiconductor

The force due to applied magnetic field = −Bev …..(2.37)

Therefore Equation (2.36) = Equation (2.37)

2.8.2 HALL EFFECT IN p-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR

Consider a p-type material. If an electric current is allowed to pass along positive

x-direction, and if a magnetic field is applied along z-direction, an voltage is developed

The force due to the potential difference = eEH …..(2.41)

Therefore, Equation (2.41) = Equation (2.42)

2.8.3 HALL COEFFICIENT (R H) IN TERMS OF HALL VOLTAGE (V H)

2.8.4 EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF HALL CO-EFFICIENT

Applications of Hall Effect

1. Determination of semiconductor type

a given semiconductor is n-type or p-type.

4. Magnetic Field meter

2.9 APPLICATIONS OF SEMICONDUCTING MATERIALS IN STRAIN GAUGE

Semiconductor strain gauge

A semiconductor strain gauge is formed by the semiconductor technology i.e.,

Figure 2.16 Semiconductor strain gauge

• The gauge factor of semiconductor strain gauge is very high. Therefore it is

2. In a surface of lntrinsic Germanium kept at 400K, the mobilities of electrons

3. Calculate the conductivity of intrinsic germanium at 400K, with a carrier