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Python Digital Content

Module-01(core python)
1) Introduction
2) Language Fundamentals
3) Operators
4) Input and Output Statements
5) Flow Control
6) String Data Structure
7) List Data Structure
8) Tuple Data Structure
9) Set Data Structure
10) Dictionary Data Structure
11) Functions
12) Modules
13) Packages

Introduction:
Python is a widely used general-purpose, high level
programming language. It was created by Guido van Rossum
in 1991 at the Centrum Wiskande & Informatica(CWI) and
further developed by the Python Software Foundation. It was
designed with an emphasis on code readability, and its syntax
allows programmers to express their concepts in fewer lines of
code.

There are two major Python versions: Python 2 and Python 3.

Both are quite different.

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Identfiers:
 A name in the python program is called as identifier.
 It can be a class name or function or module name or
variable name.
 Ex: a=10
 def(): class test:

Rules to define identifiers in python:

 If identifier starts with underscore (_) then it indicates it
is private.
 We can't use
reserved words as
identifiers Ex:
def=10
 There is no length limit for python identifiers. But not
recommended to use too lengthy identifiers.
 Dollar ($) symbol is not allowed in python.
 If identifier starts with (_ _)it indicates that strongly
private identifiers.
 If the identifier starts and ends with two underscores
symbols then the identifier is language defined
special name, which is also o known as magic
methods.
 Ex: add

Variables in python:
Variables are nothing but reserved memory locations to store
values. This means that when you create a variable you
reserve some space in memory.

Based on the data type of a variable, the interpreter allocates

memory and decides what can be stored in the reserved

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memory. Therefore, by assigning different data types to

variables, you can store integers, decimals or characters in
these variables.

Rules to define a variable:

1. Variable must start with either alphabet or _
2. Variable can't start with number
3. We can write alphanumeric value to the variable
4. We can't use special characters in name
5. We can only _ special character in variable name
6. No space is allowed in variable name
1).The only allowed characters in python are
 Alphabets(Either lower case or upper case)
 Digits(0-9)
 Underscore symbol(_)

Reserved Words:

->In python some words are reserved to represent some meaning or

functionality. Such type of words are called as reserved words.
-->There are 35+ reserved words in python
>>> import keyword
Keyword.kwlist

Note:

-->All the reserved words in python contain only alphabets

symbols.
-->Except the following 3 reserved words, all contain only
lower case alphabets.
True, False, None
Ex: a=true(invalid)
a=True(valid)

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Data Types:
--> Data types are used to specify what type of data has to be
store in the variable.
--> Without specifying data types variable memory allocation
with not take place for variables.
--> Programming languages supports 2-types of data types.
1).Static 2).Dynamic

1).Static Data Types:

-->In static type programming languages programmer should

define the data type to the variable explicitly.
-->Once if we define data type to the variable explicitly, we can't
modify the data type of that variable throughout the program
execution
C, C++, .Net, Java.......languages supports static data types.

2).Dynamic Data Types:

-->In dynamic data type we not need to specify data type , it will
be define automatically based on user input.
-->Python data types are categorized into 2-parts.
-->Fundamental types
-->Collection types
Python supports three types of numeric data.

Int - Integer value can be any length such as integers 10, 2,

29, -20, -150 etc. Python has no restriction on the length of
an integer. Its value belongs to int
Float - Float is used to store floating-point numbers like 1.9,
9.902, 15.2, etc. It is accurate upto 15 decimal points.
complex - A complex number contains an ordered pair, i.e.,
x + iy where x and y denote the real and imaginary parts,

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respectively. The complex numbers like 2.14j, 2.0 + 2.3j, etc.

Bool - it will store True and False values

Note:

Python contains several inbuilt functions

1) type():
To check the type of variable.
2) id():
To get the address of object.
3) print():
To print the value

Str Data Type:

--> Str represents String data type.
--> A string is a sequence of characters with in single quotes or double
quotes. Ex: s='PRSOFTWARES'
s="PRSOFTWARES"
--> By using single quotes or double quotes we can't represent multi line
string literals. Ex: s="PRSOFTWARES
Dilsukhnagar"(Invalid)
--> For this requirement we should go for triple quotes(''') or
triple double
--> We can embeded one string in another string.
Ex: '''This "python classes very helpful" for java students'''.
Slicing of Strings:
--> Slice means a piece.
--> [:] is called as slice operator, which can be used to retrieve
parts of string.
--> In python string follows zero based index.
--> The index can be either +ve or -ve.
--> +ve index means forward direction from Left to Right.
--> -ve index means backward direction from Right to Left

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--> long data type is available in python2 but not in python3. In python3
long values also we can represent by using int type only.

Type Casting:
-->We can convert one type to other type. This conversion is called as
Typecasting or Type coercion.
-->The following are various in-built functions for type casting.
--> int()
--> float()
--> bool()
--> str()
--> bytes()

1) int():
We can use this function to convert values from other types to int.

1. >>> int(123.456)
2. 123
3. >>> int(10+4j)
4. TypeError: can't convert complex to int
5. >>> int(True)
6. 1
7. >>> int(False)
8. 0
9. >>> int("10")
10. 10
11. >>> int("10.5")
12. ValueError: invalid literal for int() with base 10: '10.5'
13. >>> int("ten")
14. ValueError: invalid literal for int() with base 10: 'ten'
15. >>> int("0B1010")
16. ValueError: invalid literal for int() with base 10: '0B1010'

Note:
-->We can convert from any type to int except complex type.
-->If we want to convert str type to int type, compalsury str should
contains only integral value and should be specified in base-10.

2) float():
We can use float() to convert other type values to float type.

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1. >>> float(10)
2. 10.0
3. >>> float(10+4j)
4. TypeError: can't convert complex to float
5. >>> float(True)
6. 1.0
7. >>> float(False)
8. 0.0
9. >>> float("10")
10. 10.0
11. >>> float("10.5")
12. 10.5
13. >>>float("ten")
14. ValueError: could not convert string to float: 'ten'

Note:
--> We can convert any type value to float type except complex
type.
--> Whenever we are trying to convert str type to float type compulsory
str should be either integral or floating point literal and should be
specified only in base-10.

3) bool():
We can use this function to convert other type to bool type

1. >>> bool(0)
2. False
3. >>> bool(1)
4. True
5. >>> bool(10)
6. True
7. >>> bool(0.123)
8. True
4) str():
We can use this method to convert other type values to str type.

1. >>> str(10)
2. '10'
3. >>> str(10.5)
4. '10.5'
5. >>> str(True)
6. 'True'
7. >>> str(10+4j)

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8. '(10+4j)'

5) Bytes Data Type:

Bytes data type represents a group of byte numbers

just like an array. Ex:

1) >>> x=[10,20,30,40]
2) >>> b=bytes(x)
3) >>> type(b)
4) <class 'bytes'>
5) >>> b[0]
6) 10
7) >>> b[-1]

Conclusion 1:
The only allowed values for byte data type are 0 to 256. BY mistakes if
we are trying to provide any other values then we will get value
error.
Ex: >>> x=[10,20,300,40]
>>> b=bytes(x)
ValueError: bytes must be in range (0, 256)

Conclusion 2:
Once we create bytes data type value, we can't change it values, if we
are trying to change we will get an error.
Ex: >>> x=[10,20,30,40]
>>> b=bytes(x)
>>> b[2]=50

TypeError: 'bytes' object does not support item assignment

-->Any person who is doing certain activity is called as an operator.
-->Operator is a symbol that performs certain operations.
-->Python provides the following set of operators.

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Operators:

Python Operators
Operators are used to perform operations on variables and
values.
Python divides the operators in the following groups:

--> Arithmetic operators

--> Assignment operators
--> Comparison operators
--> Logical operators
--> Identity operators
--> Membership operators
--> Bitwise operators

Python Arithmetic Operators:

Assume variable a holds 10 and variable b holds 20, then

Operator Description Example
+ Addition Adds values on either side of the a+b=
operator. 30
- Subtraction Subtracts right hand operand from a–b=-
left hand operand. 10
* Multiplies values on either side of a*b=
Multiplication the operator 200
/ Division Divides left hand operand by right b/a=2
hand operand
% Modulus Divides left hand operand by right b%a=
hand operand and returns 0
remainder
** Exponent Performs exponential (power) a**b =10

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calculation on operators to the

power 20
// Floor Division - The division of 9//2 = 4
operands where the result is the and
quotient in which the digits after the 9.0//2.0
decimal point are removed. But if = 4.0, -
one of the operands is negative, 11//3 = -
the result is floored, i.e., rounded 4, -
away from zero (towards negative 11.0//3 =
infinity) − -4.0

Python Assignment Operators:

Assume variable a holds 10 and variable b holds 20, then

Operator Description Example
= Assigns values from right side c=a+b
operands to left side operand assigns
value of a
+ b into c
+= Add It adds right operand to the left c += a is
AND operand and assign the result to equivalent
left operand to c = c +
a
-= Subtract It subtracts right operand from the c -= a is
AND left operand and assign the result equivalent
to left operand to c = c -
a
*= Multiply It multiplies right operand with the c *= a is
AND left operand and assign the result equivalent
to left operand to c = c *
a

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/= Divide It divides left operand with the right c /= a is

AND operand and assign the result to equivalent
left operand to c = c /
a
%= It takes modulus using two c %= a is
Modulus operands and assign the result to equivalent
AND left operand to c = c %
a
**= Performs exponential (power) c **= a is
Exponent calculation on operators and assign equivalent
AND value to the left operand to c = c **
a
//= Floor It performs floor division on c //= a is
Division operators and assign value to the equivalent
left operand to c = c //
a

Python Comparison Operators:

These operators compare the values on either sides of them

and decide the relation among them. They are also called
Relational operators.

Assume variable a holds 10 and variable b holds 20, then −

Operator Description Example
== If the values of two operands are (a == b)
equal, then the condition becomes is not
true. true.
!= If values of two operands are not (a != b)
equal, then condition becomes true. is true.
<> If values of two operands are not (a <> b)

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equal, then condition becomes true. is true.

This is
similar to
!=
operator.
> If the value of left operand is greater (a > b) is
than the value of right operand, then not true.
condition becomes true.
< If the value of left operand is less than (a < b) is
the value of right operand, then true.
condition becomes true.
>= If the value of left operand is greater (a >= b)
than or equal to the value of right is not
operand, then condition becomes true. true.
<= If the value of left operand is less than (a <= b)
or equal to the value of right operand, is true.
then condition becomes true.

Python Logical Operators:

There are following logical operators supported by Python

language. Assume variable a holds 10 and variable b holds 20
then
Operator Description Example
and Logical If both the operands are true then (a and b)
AND condition becomes true. is true.
or Logical If any of the two operands are non- (a or b)
OR zero then condition becomes true. is true.
not Logical Used to reverse the logical state of Not(a
NOT its operand. and b) is
false.

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Python Identity Operators:

Identity operators compare the memory locations of two

objects. There are two Identity operators explained below −
Operator Description Example
is Evaluates to true if the variables x is y,
on either side of the operator here is results
point to the same object and false in 1 if id(x)
otherwise. equals id(y).
is not Evaluates to false if the variables x is not y,
on either side of the operator here is
point to the same object and true not results in
otherwise. 1 if id(x) is not
equal to id(y).

Python Membership Operators:

Python’s membership operators test for membership in a

sequence, such as strings, lists, or tuples. There are two
membership operators as explained below −
Operator Description Example
in Evaluates to true if it finds a variable in x in y,
the specified sequence and false here in
otherwise. results in
a 1 if x is
a
member
of
sequence
y.
not in Evaluates to true if it does not finds a x not in y,
variable in the specified sequence and here not

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false otherwise. in results

in a 1 if x
is not a
member
of
sequence
y.

Python Bitwise Operators:

Bitwise operator works on bits and performs bit by bit operation.

Assume if a = 60; and b = 13; Now in the binary format their
values will be 0011 1100 and 0000 1101 respectively.
Following table lists out the bitwise operators supported by
Python language with an example each in those, we use the
above two variables (a and b) as operands −
a = 0011 1100
b = 0000 1101
-----------------
a&b = 0000 1100
a|b = 0011 1101
a^b = 0011 0001
~a = 1100 0011

There are following Bitwise operators supported by Python

language
Operator Description Example
& Binary AND Operator copies a bit to the (a & b)
result if it exists in both (means
operands 0000 1100)
| Binary OR It copies a bit if it exists in (a | b) = 61
either operand. (means
0011 1101)

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^ Binary XOR It copies the bit if it is set in (a ^ b) = 49

one operand but not both. (means
0011 0001)
~ Binary Ones (~a ) = -61
Complement (means
1100 0011
in 2's
It is unary and has the effect
complement
of 'flipping' bits.
form due to
a signed
binary
number.
<< Binary Left The left operands value is
a << 2 =
Shift moved left by the number of
240 (means
bits specified by the right
1111 0000)
operand.
>> Binary Right The left operands value is
a >> 2 = 15
Shift moved right by the number of
(means
bits specified by the right
0000 1111)
operand.

input():

Input () function can be used to read data directly in our

required format. We are not required to perform type casting.
Ex:

1) x=input(Enter value")
2) type(x)
3) 10==>int
4) "prsoftwares"==>str
5) 10.5==>float
6) True==>bool

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Note:

--> But in python-3 we have only input () method and

raw_input() method is not available.
--> Python-3 input () function behavior exactly same as
raw_input() method in python-2. I.e. every input value is treated
as str type only.
--> Raw_input() function of python-2 is renamed as input()
function in python-3.

Ex:
1) >>> x=input ("Enter some value :")
2) Enter some value: 10
3) <Class 'str'>
4) Enter some value: True

Q: w.a.p to read employee data from the keyboard

and print that data.
1) eno=int(input("Enter Employee No: "))
2) ename=input("Enter Employee Name: ")
3) esal=float(input("Enter Employee Salary: "))
4) eadd=input("Enter Employee Address: ")
5) emarried=bool(input("Enter Employee Married?[True | False]: "))
6) print("Confirm Information")
7) print("Employee No :",eno)
8) print("Employee Name :",ename)
9) print("Employee Salary :",esal)
10) print("Employee Address :",eadd)
11) print("Employee Married? :",emarried)
Q: w.a.p to read multiple values from the keyboard in a single line:

1) a,b=[int (x) for x in input("Enter two numbers:").split()]

2) print(a,b)
3) print("Product is :", a*b)
Q: w.a.p to read 3 float numbers from the keyboard with , separator and
print their sum

1) a,b,c=[float(x) for x in input("Enter 3 float numbers :").split(",")]

2) print("The sum is :",a+b+c)

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Note:
split() function can take space as separator by default, But we can pass
anything as separator.

Q:How to read different types of data from the

keyboard.
1) a,b,c=[eval(x) for x in input("Enter 3 values :").split(",")]
2) print(type(a))
3) print(type(b))
4) print(type(c))
5) o/p:Enter 3 values :10,True,10.3
6) <class 'int'>
7) <class 'bool'>
8) <class 'float'>

eval():

-->eval function take a string and evaluate the result.

1) >>> x=eval("10+20+30")
2) >>>x
3) >>>60
4)
5) x=eval(input("Enter expression :"))
6) print(x)
7) Enter expression :10+2*3/4
8) 11.5

-->eval() can evaluate the input to list, tuple, set etc...Based on

provided input.
Ex: w.a.p to accept list from the keyboard and display.

1) l=eval(input("Enter list :"))

2) print(type(l))
3) print(l)
o/p: Enter list :[10,20,30]
<class 'list'> [10, 20, 30]

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Q:How to read different types of data from the

keyboard

1) a,b,c=[eval(x) for x in input("Enter 3 values :").split(",")]

2) print(type(a))
3) print(type(b))
4) print(type(c))
5) o/p:Enter 3 values :10,True,10.3
6) <class 'int'>
7) <class 'bool'>
8) <class 'float'>

Note:
-->split() always accept sting only as a separator.
-->If we are not using eval() then it is treated as str.
Ex:
1) a,b,c=[eval(x) for x in input("Enter 3 values :").split("5")]
2) print(type(a))
3) print(type(b))
4) print(type(c))

o/p: Enter 3 values :105True510.3

<class 'int'>
<class 'bool'>
<class 'float'>

Output Streams:
We can use print() function to display output.

Form-1: print() without argument

just it prints new line character.

Form-2: print(String)
print("Hello world")-->We can use escape characters also

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Ex: print(“prsoftwares”)

print("Hello \n world") print("Hello \t world")

-->We can use repetetion operator(*) in the string

print(10*"hello") print("hello"*10)

-->We can use + operator also print("Hello" + "World")

Note:
--> If both arguments are string type then + operator acts as
concatenation operator.
--> If one argument is string type and second is any other type
like int then we will get an error.
--> If both arguments are number type then + operator avts as
arithmetic addition operator.

Q: what is diff between

print("Hello"+"world")==>Helloworld
print("Hello","world")==>Hello word

Form-3: print() with variable number of arguments

Ex: 1) a,b,c=10,20,30

O/p: The values are: 10 20 30

-->By default output values are separated by space. If we want
we can specify separator by using "sep" attribute.

Ex:
1) a,b,c=10,20,30
2) print(a,b,c,sep=',')
3) print(a,b,c,sep=':')

o/p: D:\pythonclasses>py test.py 10,20,30

10:20:30

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Form-4:print() with end attribute

1) print("Hello")
2) print("PR")
3) print("SoftWARES")
o/p: Hello
PR SoftWARES

-->If we want output in the same line with space

1) print("Hello",end=' ')
2) print("PR",end=' ')
3) print("Soft")

o/p: D:\pythonclasses>py test.py Hello PR Soft

Form-5:print(object) statement
-->We can pass any object(like list, tuple, set etc) as argument
to the print statement.

Ex:
1) l=[10,20,30,40]
2) t=(10,20,30,40)
3) print(l)
4) print(t)

Form-6:print(String, variable list):

-->We can use print() statement with string and any number of
arguments.
Ex:
1) s="PRSOFTWARES"
2) a=50
3) s1="PROGRAMMING"
4) s2="Python"
5) print("Hello",s,"Your age is :",a)
6) print("You are teaching", s1,"and", s2)

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o/p: Hello PRSOFTWARES Your age is : 50

You are teaching PROGRAMMING and Python

Form-7:print(formatted string):
%d===>int
%f===>float
%s===>string type

syn: print("formatted string" %(variable list)) Ex:

1) a=10
2) b=20
3) c=30
4) print("a value is %d" %a)
5) print("b value is %d and c value is %d" %(b,c))

Form-8:print() with replacement operator { }

Ex:
1) name="Prsoftwares"
2) salary=10000
3) company="premsofts"
4) print("Hello {0} your salary {1} and your company is {2}
".format(name,salar
y,company))
5) print("Hello {} your salary {} and your girlfriend {} is
waiting".format(name,salary,compnay))
6) print("Hello {x} your salary {y} and your girlfriend {z} is
waiting".format(z=gf,x=nam
e,y=salary))

o/p: Hello Prsoftwares your salary 10000 and yor girlfriend

premsofts is waiting Hello Prsoftwares your salary 10000 and
your girlfriend premsofts is waiting Hello Prsoftwares your
salary 10000 and your girlfriend premsofts is waiting

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FLOW CONTROL
-->Flow control describes the order in which statements will be

executed at runtime.

Conditional Statements:

1).if:
if condition: statement
or
if condition: statement-1 statement-1 statement-1
--> If condition is true then statements will be executed.

2).if-else:
if condition:
Action-1 else:
Action-2

-->If condition is true Action-1 will be executed otherwise

Action-2 will be executed

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3).if-elif-else: syn:
if condition1:
Action-1
elif condition-2:
Action-2
elif condition-3:
Action-3 else
Action-3

String data type:

Removing spaces from the string:

-->We can use the following 3-methods.

1).rstrip()==>To remove spaces at right hand side.
2).lstrip()==>To remove spaces at left hand side.
3).strip()==>To remove spaces both sides

Counting substring the given string:

-->We can find the number of occurances of substring present

in the given string by using count() method.
1).s.count(substring)==>It will search through out the string
2).s.count(substring,begin,end)==>It will search from begin
index to end-1 index.

Replacing a string with another string:

Syntax:
S=”prsoftwares”
s.replace(oldstring,newstring)
ex-s.replace(“s”,”ss”)
--> Inside s, every occurance of old string will be replaced with
new string.

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Splitting of string:

-->We can split the given string according to specified

separator by using split() method. Syn: l=s.split(separator)
-->The default separator is space. The return type of split()
method is list.
Ex:
a=”python training institute”
a.split(“ ”)

Joining of Strings:

-->We can join a group of strings (list or tuple) wrt the given
separator. Syn: s=separator.join(group of strings)

Ex:
1) t=('prsoftwares','premsofts','belongs to Mr.Prem')
2) s='-'.join(t)
3) print(s)

Changing Case of a string:

-->We can change case of a string by using the following 5-

methods.
1).upper (): To convert all characters to upper case
2).lower (): To convert all characters to lower case
3).swap case(): Converts all lower case characters to upper
case and all upper case characters to lower case.
4).title (): To convert all the characters to title case. i.e first
character in every word should be upper case and all remaining
characters should be lower case.
5).capitalize(): Only first character will be converted to upper
case and all remaining characters can be converted to lower
case.

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Checking Starting and ending part of the string:

-->Python contains the following methods for this purpose.

1).s.startswith(substring)
2).s.endswith(substring)

To check type of characters present in a string:

1). isalnum():Returns True if all the characters are

alphanumerics(a-z, A-Z, 0-9)
2). isalpha():Returns True if all the characters are only
alphabate symbols(a-z, A-Z)
3) .isdigit():Returns True if all the characters are digits only(0-9)
4) .islower():Returns True if all the characters are lower case
alphabet symbols.
5) .isupper():Returns True if all the characters are upper case
alphabet symbols.
6). istitle():Returns True if the string is in title case
7) .isspace():Returns True if string contains only spaces.

Formatting The string:

-->We can format the string with variable values by using

replacement operator{ } and format() method.
Ex:
1) name="Prem"
2) salary=500000
3) age=25
4) print("{}'s salary is {} and his age is
{}".format(name,salary,age))
5) print("{0}'s salary is {1} and his age is
{2}".format(name,salary,age))
6) print("{x}'s salary is {y} and his age is
{z}".format(z=age,y=salary,x=name))

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

List Data Structure:

--> If we want to represent a group of individual objects as a
single entity where insertion order preserved and duplicates are
allowed, then we should go for list.
--> Insertion order is preserved.
--> Duplicates objects are allowed.
--> Heterogeneous objects are allowed.
--> List is dynamic because based on our requirement we can
increase the size and decrease the size.
--> In the list elements will be placed with in square brackets
and with comma separator.
--> We can differentiate duplicate elements by using index and
we can preserve insertion order by using index. Hence index
will play very important role.
--> Python supports both +ve and -ve indexes. +ve index
means from left to right where as
-ve index means right to left.

--> List objects are mutable. i.e we can change the content.

Creation of list objects:

1).We can create empty list objects as follows......

Ex: list=[ ]
print(list)
print(type(list))

2).If we know elements already then we can create list as

follows.
Ex: list=[10,20,30,40]

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

3).With dynamic input:

1) list=eval(input("Enter List:"))
2) print(list)
3) print(type(list))

4).With list() function:

1) l=list(range(10))
2) print(l)
3) print(type(l))

5).with split() function:

1) s="Learning Python Is Very Easy"

2) l=s.split()
3) print(type(l))
4) print(l)

6).By using Index:

--> index starts from 0.

--> List supports both +ve & -ve indexes.
1) list=[10,20,30,40]
2) print(list[1])==>20
3) print(list[0])==>10
4) print(list[-1])==>40
5) print(list[10])==>List index out of range

7).By using slice operator:

Syn:
list2=list1[start:stop:step]
start-->It indicates the index where slice has to start. default
value is 0.

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

List Vs mutability:

-->Once we create a list object, we can modify its content.

Hence list objects are mutable. Ex:
1) n=[10,20,30,40]
2) print(n[ 3])
3) n[1]=50
4) print(n)

Traversing the elements of list:

-->The sequential access of each element in the list is called as

traversal.

1).By using while loop:

1) n=[0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10]
2) i=0
3) while i<len(n):
4) print(n[i])
5) i=i+1

2).By using for loop:

1) n=[0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10]
2) for i in n:
3) print(i)

3).To display only even numbers:

1) n=[0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10]
2) for i in n:
3) if i%2==0:
4) print(i)

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

Important functions of List:

To get the information about list:

1. len():
Returns number of elements present in the list.
Ex:
1) l=[10,20,30,40]
2) len(l)==>4

2. count():
It returns the number of occurences of specified item in the list
Ex:
1) n=[1,2,2,2,2,3,3]
2) print(n.count(1))==>1
3) print(n.count(2))==>4
4) print(n.count(3))==>2

3. index():
It returns index of first occurance of the specified element.
Ex:
1) l=[1, ,2,3,3,4]
2) print(l.index(1))==>0
3) print(l.index(2))==>1
4) print(l.index(3))==>3
5) print(l.index(4))==>5

Note:

If the specified element not present in the list then we will get
ValueError. Hence
before index() method we have to check whether item present
in the list or not by using in operator.

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

2).Manipulating elements of list:

1). append() function:

We can use append() function to add item at the end of the list.
Ex:
1) l=[ ]
2) l[]
3) l.append("A")
4) l.append("B")
5) l.append("C")
6) l
['A', 'B', 'C']

Ex: To add all elements to list upto 100 which are divisible by10
1) list=[ ]
2) for i in range(101):
3) if i%10==0:
4) list.append(i)
5) print(list)

2).insert() function:
To insert an item at specified index position.
Ex:
1) >>> n=[1,2,3,4]
2) >>> n.insert(1,333)
3) >>> n [1, 333, 2, 3, 4]

Difference between append() and insert():

append():

In list when we add any element it will come in last. i.e it will be
last element. insert():
In list we can insert any element in a particular index number

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

Note:

If the specified index is greater than max index then element

will be inserted at
last position. If the specified index is smaller than min index
then element will be inserted at first position.

3).extend() function:

--> To add all items of one list to another list. Syn: l1.extend(l2)
--> All items present in l2 will be added to l1.
Ex:
1) order1=["Python","Java",".Net"] 2)
order2=["RC","KF","FO"]
3) order1.extend(order2)
4) print(order1)

4) .remove() function:

We can use this function to remove specified item from the list.
If the item present multiple times then only first occurence will
be removed.
Ex:
1) n=[10,20,30,10,30]
3) print(n)

o/p: D:\pythonclasses>py test.py [20, 30, 10, 30]

-->If the specified item not present in the list we will get
ValueError
Ex:
1) n=[10,20,30]
2) n.remove(50)
3) print(n)

o/p: ValueError:list.remove(x):x not in list

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

Note:
Hence before using remove() method first we have to check
specified element present in the list or not by using in operator.
Ex:
1) l=[10,20,30,40,10,30]
2) x=int(input("Enter element to be removed:"))
3) if x in l:
4) l.remove(x)
5) print("Removed successfully...")
6) else:
7) print("Specified element is not available")

5).pop() function:

--> It removes and returne the last element of the list.

--> This is only the function which manipulates list and returns
some element.
Ex:
1) n=[10,20,30,40]
2) print(n.pop())
3) print(n.pop())
4) print(n)

o/p: D:\pythonclasses>py test.py 40 30

[10, 20]
--> If the list is empty then pop() function raises indexerror. Ex:

1) n=[ ]
2) print(n.pop())

o/p: IndexError: pop from empty list

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

Note:

1. pop() is the only function which manipulates the list and

returns some value.
2. In general we can use append () and pop () functions to
implement stack datastructure by using list, which follows LIFO
(Last In First Out) order.

-->In general we can use pop() function to remove last element

of the list, but we can use to remove elements based on index.

n.pop(index)==>To remove and return element present at

specified index. n.pop()==>To remove and return last element
of the list

Differences between remove() and pop():

remove() pop()
1.We can use to remove 1.We can use to remove
Specified element from the last element.
list
2.It can't return any value. 2.It returned removed
element

3.If specified element not 3.If list is empty then we

Available then will get an
we wil get ValueError. error.IndexError.

Note:

List objects are dynamic i.e based on our requirement we can

increase and
decrease the size.
append(),insert(),extend()==>For increasing size/growable

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

nature remove(),pop()==>For decreasing size/shrinking nature

3).Ordering elements of the List:

=============================
1. reverse():
We can use reverse() order of elements of list.
Ex:

1) n=[10,20,30,40]
2) n.revrse()
3) print(n)

o/p: [40,30,20,10]

2. sort() function:
In list by default insertion order is preserved. If we
want to sort the elements of list according to
default natural sorting order then we should go for
sort() method.

For Numbers==>default sording order is

ascending order.
For Strings==>default sorting order is
alphabetical order.

Ex:

1) n=[20,10,40,30]
2) n.sort()
3) print(n)

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

o/p:[10,20,30,40]
To sort in reverse of default natural sorting order:
-------------------------------------------------------------------
---
-->We can sort according to reverse of default
natural sorting order by using reverse=True
argument.
Ex:

1) n=[10,30,20,40]
2) n.sort()
3) print(n)==>[10,20,30,40]
4) n.sort(reverse=True)
5) print(n)==>[40,30,2010]
6) n.sort(reverse=False)
7) print(n)==>[10,20,30,40]

Aliasing and cloning of List objects:

================================
The process of giving another reference variable
to the existing list is called as aliasing.
Ex:

1) x=[10,20,30,40]
2) y=x
3) y[1]=333
4) print(x)
5) print(y)

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

o/p:D:\pythonclasses>py test.py
[10, 333, 30, 40]
[10, 333, 30, 40]
1).By using slice operator:
-------------------------------------
Ex:
1) x=[10,20,30,40]
2) y=x[:]
3) y[1]=333
4) print(x)
5) print(y)

o/p:D:\pythonclasses>py test.py
[10, 20, 30, 40]
[10, 333, 30, 40]

2).By using copy() function:

---------------------------------------
Ex:

1) x=[10,20,30,40]
2) y=x.copy()
3) y[1]=333
4) print(x)

Using Mathematical operators for list objects:

======================================
==
-->We can use + and * operators for list objects.

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

1).Concatenation operator(+):
We can use + to concatinate 2 lists into a single
list.
Ex:

1) a=[10,20,30]
2) b=[40,50,60]
3) c=a+b
4) print("c:",c)

Ex:

o/p:D:\pythonclasses>py test.py
c: [10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60]

1) a=[10,20,30]
2) b=[40,50,60]
3) c=a.extend(b)
4) print("a:",a)
5) print("b:",b)
6) print("c:",c)

o/p:D:\pythonclasses>py test.py a: [10, 20, 30, 40,

50, 60]
b: [40, 50, 60]
c: None

Note:

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

To use + operator compulsory both arguments

should be list objects, otherwise we will get an
error.
Ex:

c=a+40==>TypeError: can only concatenate list

(not "int") to list c=a+[40]==>valid

2).Repetition operator(*):
-----------------------------------
We can use repetition operator * to repeat the
elements of list specified number of
times.
Ex:

1) x=[10,20,30]
2) y=x*3
3) print(y)==>[10,20,30,10,20,30]

Comparing List objects:

=====================
We can use comparison operators for list objects.
Ex:

1) x=["Dog","Cat","Rat"]
2) y=["Dog","Cat","Rat"]
3) z=["DOG","CAT","RAT"]
4) print(x==y)==>True

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

5) print(x==z)==>False
6) print(x!=z)==>True

clear() function:
-----------------------
We can use clear() function to remove all elements
of list.
Ex:

1) n=[10,20,30,40]
2) print(n)
3) n.clear()
4) print(n)

o/p:D:\pythonclasses>py test.py [10, 20, 30, 40]

[]

Nested Lists:
============
Sometimes we can take one list inside another list.
Such type of lists are called as nested lists.
Ex:

1) n=[10,20,[30,40]]
2) print(n)
3) print(n[0])
4) print(n[1])
5) print(n[2][0])
6) print(n[2][1])

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

o/p:D:\pythonclasses>py test.py [10, 20, [30, 40]]

10
20
30
40

Tuple Data Structure

-->Tuple is exactly same as List except that it is
immutable. i.e once we create tuple object, we
can't perform any changes in that object.
-->Hence tuple is read only version of list.
-->If our data is fixed and never changes then we
should go for tuple.
-->Insertion order is preserved.
-->Duplicates are allowed.
-->Heterogeneous objects are allowed.
-->We can preserve insertion order and we can
differentiate duplicate objects by using index.
Hence index will play very important role in Tuple
also.
-->We can represent tuple elements within
parenthesis and with comma separator.
Parenthesis are optional but recommended to use.

Ex:

1. t=10,20,30,40
2. print(t)

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

3. print(type(t))

o/p:D:\pythonclasses>py test.py (10, 20, 30, 40)

<class 'tuple'>

t=()
print(type(t))==>tuple

Note: We have to take special care about single

valued tuple. COmpulsory the value should ends
with comma, otherwise it is not treated as tuple.
Ex:

1. t=10
2. print(t)
3. print (type(t))

Tuple Creation:
---------------------
1.t=():
Creation of empty tuple

2.t=(10,) or t=10,
Creation of single valued tuple, paranthesis are
optional, should ends with comma.

3.t=10,20,30 or t=(10,20,30)
Creatin of multiple values tupl & parenthesis are
optional.

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

4. By using tuple() function:

1. l=[10,20,30,40]
2. t=tuple(l)
3. print(t)
4. print(type(t))
Accessing elements of tuple:
==========================
We can access either by index or by using slice
operator.
1. By using index:

1. t=(10,20,30,40)
2. print(t[0])==>10
3. print(t[-1])==>40
4. print(t[100])==>IndexError

2. By using slice operator:

1. t=(10,20,30,40,50,60)
2. print(t[2:5])
3. print(t[2:100])
4. print(t[::2])

o/p:
(30, 40, 50)
(30, 40, 50, 60)
(10, 30, 50)

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

Tuple Vs immutability:
====================
-->Once we create tuple, we can't change its
content.
-->Hence tuple objects are immutable. Ex:

1. t=(10,20,30,40,50)
2. t[1]=60==>TypeError: 'tuple' objects does not
support item assignment.

Mathematical operators for tuple:

==============================
-->We can apply + and * operators for tuple.
1.concatination operator(+):
1. t1=(10,20,30,40)
2. t2=(10,20,50,60)
3. t3=t1+t2
2. Multiplication operator or repetition operator(*):
1. t1=(10,20,30,40)
2. t2=t1*2
3. print(t2)

o/p:(10, 20, 30, 40, 10, 20, 30, 40)

Important function in tuple:

=========================
1. len():
To return number of elements present in tuple

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

Ex:

1. t=(10,20,30,40)
2. len(t)==>4

2. count():
To return number of occurences of given element
in the tuple.
Ex:

1. t=(10,20,30,10,10)
2. t.count(10)==>3

3).index():
-->Returns index of first occurence of the given
element.
-->If the specified element is not available then we
will get ValueError.
Ex:

1. t=(10,20,30,30,10,40)
2. t.index(30)==>2
3. t.index(50)==>ValueError

4. sorted():
To sort elements based on default natural sorting
order.
Ex:

1. t=(40,20,50,10,30)

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

2. t1=sorted(t)
3. print(t)
4. print(t1)

Ex:
o/p:
(40, 20, 50, 10, 30)
[10, 20, 30, 40, 50]==>After sorting it will return as
list

1. t=(40,20,50,10,30)
2. t1=tuple(sorted(t))
3. print(t)
4. print(t1)

o/p:
(40, 20, 50, 10, 30)
(10, 20, 30, 40, 50)

Ex:

1. t1=sorted(t,reverse=True)
2. print(t1)==>[50,40,30,20,10]

5. min() and max() functions:

These functions returns min and max values
according to default natural sorting
order. Ex:

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

1. t=(40,20,50,10,30)
2. print(min(t))==>10
3. print(max(t))==>50

Ex:
1. t="Prsoftwares"
2. print(min(t))==>a
3. print(max(t))==>w

6. cmp():
-->It compares the elements of both tuples.
-->If both tuples are equal then returns 0.
-->If the first tuple is less than second tuple then it
returns -1
-->If the first tuple is greater than second tuple
then it returns +1
Note: cmp() function is available only in python-2
but not in python-3

Tuple Packing and Unpacking:

-------------------------------------------
-->We can create a tuple by using packing a group
of variables. Ex:

1. a=10
2. b=20
3. c=30
4. d=40
5. t=a,b,c,d

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

6. print(t)

o/p:(10, 20, 30, 40)

-->Here a,b,c,d are packed into a tuple t. This is
nothing but tuple packing.

-->Tuple unpacking is the reverse process of tuple

packing.
-->We can unpack a tuple and assign its values to
different variables. Ex:

1. t=(10,20,30,40)
2. a,b,c,d=t
3. print("a=",a,"b=",b,"c=",c,"d=",d)

Note:

o/p:
a= 10 b= 20 c= 30 d= 40

At the time of tuple unpacking the number if

variables and number of values

should be same. otherwise we will get an error.

Ex:

1. t=(10,20,30,40)

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

2. a,b,c=t
3. print("a=",a,"b=",b,"c=",c)
Difference between List and Tuple
List Tupl
e
1.List a group of comma 1.Tuple is a group of
separated values within square comma separated values
brackets and square brackets within parenthesis
are mandatory. parenthesis are optional.
Ex: l=[10,20,30] Ex: t=(10,20,30) or t=10,20,30
2.List objects are mutable 2.Tuple objects are
i.e once we creates list immutable i.e once we
object we can perform any creates tuple objects we
changes in that object. can't change it
ex:l[1]=50 content.
Ex:t[1]=50-->ValueError
3.If the content is not fixed 3.If the content is fixed and
and keep on never
changing then we should go changes then we should go
for list. for tuple.
4.Comprehensions are 4.There is no
available. comprehensions.

Set Data Structure

-->If we want to represent a group of unique

values as a single entity then we should go for set.
-->Duplicates are not allowed.
-->Insertion order is not preserved. But we can sort
the elements.
-->Indexing and slicing not allowed for the set.
-->Heterogeneous elements are allowed.
-->Set perform any changes in that object based

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

on our requirement.
-->We can represent set elements with curly
braces and with comma separation.
-->We can apply mathematical operations like
union, intersection, difference etc on set objects.

Creation of Set Objects:

---------------------------------
Ex:

1. s={10,20,30,40}
2. print(s)
3. print(type(s))

o/p:

{40,10,20,30}
<class 'set'>

-->We can create set objects by using set()

function. s=set(any sequence)

Ex:

Ex:

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

l=[10,20,30,40,10,20]
s=set(l)
print(s)

s=set(range(5))
print(s)

s={ }==>It treated as dictionary but not an empty

set. Ex:
s={ }
print(type(s)) o/p: <class 'dict'>
Ex:

1. s=set()
2. print(s)
3. print(type(s))

o/p:

set()
<class 'set'>

Important functions of set:

--------------------------------------
1. add(x):
Add item x to the set.
Ex:

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

1. s={10,20,30}
2. s.add(40)
3. print(s)

2. update(x,y,z):
-->To add mutiple items to the set.
-->Arguments are not individual elements and
these are iterable elements like list, range etc..
-->All elements present in the given iterable
objects will be added to the set.
Ex:

1. s={10,20,30}
2. l=[40,50,60]
3. s.update(l,range(5))
4. print(s)

Q: What is difference between add() and update()

functions in set?
-->We can use add() to add individual items to the
set, where as we can use update() function to add
multiple items to the set.
-->add() function can take only one argument
where as update function can take any number of
arguments but all arguments should be iterable
objects.

Q: Which are valid?

s.add(10) Valid

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

s.add(10,20,30) Invalid
s.update(30) Invalid
s.update(range(1,10,2),range(0,10,2)) Valid

3. copy():
-->Returns copy of the set
-->It is cloned object.
Ex:
1. s={10,20,30}
2. s1=s.copy()
3. print(s1)

4. pop():
It removes and returns some random element from
the set.

Ex:

o/p:
{40, 10, 20, 30}
40
{10, 20, 30}

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

5. remove(x):
-->It removes specified element from the set.
-->If the specified element not present in the set
then we will get KeyError. Ex:

1. s={40,20,30,10}
2. s.remove(30)
3. print(s)==>{40,20,10}
4. s.remove(50)==>KeyError:50

6. discard(x):
-->It removes specified element from the set.
-->If the specified element not present in the set
then we won't get any error. Ex:

1. s={40,20,30,10}
2. s.discard(30)
3. print(s)==>{40,20,10}
4. s.discard(50)
5. print(s)==>{40,20,30,10}

7. clear():
-->To remove all elements from the set. Ex:

1. s={10,20,30}
2. print(s)
3. s.clear()

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

4. print(s)

o/p:
{10,20,30}
set()
Mathematical operations on the set:
================================
1).union():
x.union(y)==>We can use this function to return all
elements present in both sets.
Syn: x.union(y) or x|y Ex:
1. x={10,20,30,40}
2. y={30,40,50,60}
3. print(x.union(y))#{40, 10, 50, 20, 60, 30}
4. print(x|y) #{40, 10, 50, 20, 60, 30}

2).intersection():
x.intersection(y) or x & y
-->Returns common elements present in both x
and y Ex:

1. x={10,20,30,40}
2. y={30,40,50,60}
3. print(x.intersection(y))#{40, 30}
4. print(x&y)#{40, 30}

3).difference():
x.difference(y) or x-y
-->Returns the elements present in x but not in y.
Ex:

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

1. x={10,20,30,40}
2. y={30,40,50,60}
3. print(x.difference(y))#{10, 20}
4. print(x-y)#{10, 20}

5. print(y-x)#{50, 60}

4).symmetric_difference():
x.symmetric_difference(y) or x^y
-->Returns element present in either x or y but not
in both. Ex:

1. x={10,20,30,40}
2. y={30,40,50,60}
3. print(x.symmetric_difference(y))#{10, 50, 20,
60}
4. print(x^y)#{10, 50, 20, 60}

Membership operators:(in, not in)

-----------------------------------------------
Ex:

1. s=set("premsofts")
2. print(s)
3. print('p' in s)
4. print('z' in s)

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

o/p:{'p', 'r', 'e', 'm', 's', 'o', 'f', 't', 's'}

True
False

Set comprehension:
----------------------------
-->set comprehension is possible.

s={i *i for i in range(5)} print(s)#{0, 1, 4, 9, 16}

s={2 **i for i in range(2,10,2)} print(s)#{16, 256, 64,

4}

set objects won't support indexing and slicing:

------------------------------------------------------------------
Ex:

1. s={10,20,30,40}
2. print(s[0]) TypeError: 'set' object does not
support indexing
3. print(s[1:3]) TypeError: 'set' object does not
support indexing

Q: w.a.p to eliminate duplicates present in the list.

Approach-1:

1. l=eval(input("Enter List Of Values:"))

3. print(s)

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

o/p:Enter List Of Values:[10,20,10,20,30,40,30]

{40, 10, 20, 30}

Approach-2:

1. l=eval(input("Enter List Of Values:"))

2. l1=[ ]
3. for x in l:
4. if x not in l1:
5. l1.append(x)

6. print(l1)

o/p:
D:\pythonclasses>py test.py
Enter List Of Values:[10,20,20,10,30,40] [10, 20,
30, 40]

Q:w.a.p to print different vowels in the given word?

1. w=input("Enter word to search for vowels:")

2. s=set(w)
3. v={'a','e','i','o','u'}
4. d=s.intersection(v)
5. print("The different vowels present
in",w,"are:",d)

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

Dictionary Data Structure

-->We can use list, tuple and set to represent a

group of individual objects as a single entity.
-->If we want to represent a group of objects key-
value pairs then we should go for dictionary.

Ex:

rollno-----name
phone number---address
ip address----domain name
product name----price

-->Duplicate keys are not allowed but values can

be duplicated.
-->Heterogeneous objects are allowed for both key
and values.
-->Insertion order is not preserved.
-->Dictionaries are mutable.

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

-->Dictionaries are dynamic.

-->Indexing and slicing concepts are not
applicable.

Note:
In C++ and java Dictionaries are known as "Map"
where as in perl and Ruby it is
known as "Hash"

How to create dictionary?

=======================
d={ } or d=dict()
-->We are creating empty dictionary. We can add
entries as follows.

1. d={}
2. d1=dict()
3. print(type(d))
4. d[100]="Prsoftwares"
5. d[200]="Premsofts"
6. d[300]="Prem"
7. print(d)#{100: 'Prsoftwares', 200: 'Premsofts',
300: 'Prem'}

-->If we know the data in advance then we can

create dictionary as follows
d={100:'Prsoftwares',200:'Premsofts',300:'Prem'}
d={key:value,key:value}

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

How to access data from the dictionary?

--------------------------------------------------------
-->We can access data by using index.

d={100:"Prsoftwares",200:"Premsofts",300:"Prem"}
print(d[100])==>Prsoftwares print(d[300])==>Prem

-->If the specified is not available then we will get a

KeyError print(d[400])==>KeyError:400

-->We can prevent this by checking whether key is

already available or not by using has_key()
function or by using in operator.

Ex:d.has_key(400)==>Returns 1 if key is available

otherwise returns 0.

-->But has_key() function is available in python-2

but not in python-3. Hence compulsory we have to
use in operator.

Ex:
if 400 in d:
print(d[400])

Q: w.a.p to enter name and percentage marks in a

dictionary and display information on the screen.

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

1. rec={ }
2. n=int(input("Enter Number Of Students: "))#3
3. i=1
4. while i<=n:
5. name=input("Enter Student Name:")
6. marks=int(input("Enter % of Marks:"))
7. rec[name]=marks
8. i=i+1
9. print("Name of the student","\t","% of marks")
10. for x in rec:
11. print("\t",x,"\t\t",rec[x])

How to update dictionaries?

---------------------------------------
Ex:

1.
d={100:"Prsoftwares",200:"Premsofts",300:"Pr
em"}
2. print(d)
3. d[400]="python"
4. print(d)
5. d[100]="JAVA"
6. print(d)

How to delete elements from dictionary:

---------------------------------------------------------

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

del d[key]:
---------------
It deletes entry associated with the specified key.
If the key is not available then we will get
KeyError.
Ex:

1.
d={100:"Prsoftwares",200:"Premsofts",300:"Pr
em"}
2. print(d)
3. del d[300]
4. print(d)
5. del d[400]

6. print(d)

d.clear():
------------
To remove all entries from the dictionary.
Ex:

1.
d={100:"Prsoftwares",200:"Premsofts",300:"Pr
em"}
2. print(d)
3. d.clear()

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

4. print(d)

o/p:D:\pythonclasses>py test.py
{100: 'Prsoftwares', 200: 'Premsofts', 300: 'Prem'}
{}

del d:
--------

Ex:

To delete total dictionary. Now we can't access d.

1.
d={100:"Prsoftwares",200:"Premsofts",300:"Pr
em"}
2. print(d)
3. del d
4. print(d)

o/p:D:\pythonclasses>py test.py
{100: 'Prsoftwares', 200: 'Premsofts', 300: 'Prem'}
NameError: name 'd' is not defined

Important functions of dictionary:

------------------------------------------------

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

1).dict():
To create a dictionary. d=dict()==>It creates empty
dictionary
1.
d=dict({100:"Prsoftwares",200:"Premsofts"})==
>It creates dictionary with specified elemen
ts
2. print(d)
3.
d=dict([(100,"Prsoftwares"),(200,"Premsofts")])
==>It creates a dictionary with the given lis
t of tuple lements.
4. print(d)
5.
d=dict(((100,"PRSOFTWARES"),(200,"PREM
SOFTS")))==>It creates a dictionary with the given
tuple of tuple lements.
6. print(d)

o/p:D:\pythonclasses>py test.py
{100: 'Prsoftwares', 200: 'Premsofts'}
{100: 'Prsoftwares', 200: 'Premsofts'}
{100: 'PRSOFTWARES', 200: 'PREMSOFTS'}

2).len():
Returns the number of items in the dictionary.

3).clear():

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

To remove all the elements from the dictionary.

4. get():
To get the value associated with the key.
d.get(key):
If the key is available then returns the
corresponding value otherwise returns None. It
wont raise any error.

d.get(key,defaultvalue):
If the key is available then returns the
corresponding value otherwise returns default
value.

Ex:

1.
d={100:"Prsoftwares",200:"Premsofts",300:"Pr
em"}
2. print(d[100])#Prsoftwares
3. print(d[400])#KeyError:400
4. print(d.get(300))#Prem
5. print(d.get(400))#None
6. print(d.get(100,"Guest"))#Prsoftwares
7. print(d.get(400,"Guest"))#Guest

5).pop():
d.pop(key):
It removes the entry associated with the specified
key and returns the corresponding value.

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

If the specified key is not available then we will get

KeyError.
Ex:

1.
d={100:"Prsoftwares",200:"Premsofts",300:"Pr
em"}
2. print(d)
3. print(d.pop(300))
4. print(d)
5. d.pop(400)

o/p:D:\pythonclasses>py test.py
{100: 'Prsoftwares', 200: 'Premsofts', 300: 'Prem'}
Prem
{100: 'Prsoftwares', 200: 'Premsofts'}
KeyError: 400

6).popitem():
It removes an arbitrary item(key-value) from the
dictionary and return it.
Ex:

1.
d={100:"Prsoftwares",200:"Premsofts",300:"Pr
em"}
2. print(d)
3. print(d.popitem())

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

4. print(d)

o/p:D:\pythonclasses>py test.py
{100: 'Prsoftwares', 200: 'Premsofts', 300: 'Prem'}
{100: 'Prsoftwares', 200: 'Premsofts'}

-->If the dictionary is empty then we will get

KeyError. d={ }
print(d.popitem())==>KeyError:'popitem():dictionar
y is empty'.

7).keys():
It returns all keys associated with dictionary.
Ex:

1.
d={100:"Prsoftwares",200:"Premsofts",300:"Pr
em"}
2. print(d.keys())
3. for k in d.keys():
4. print(k)

o/p:D:\pythonclasses>py test.py dict_keys([100,

200, 300])
100
200
300

8).values():
It returns all values associated with dictionary.

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

Ex:

1.
d={100:"Prsoftwares",200:"Premsofts",300:"Pr
em"}

o/p:D:\pythonclasses>py test.py
dict_values(['Prsoftwares', 'Premsofts', 'Prem'])
Prsoftwares
Premsofts Prem

9).items():
It returns list of tupes represented key-value pairs.
[(k,v),(k,v),(k,v)]
Ex:

1.
d={100:"Prsoftwares",200:"Premsofts",300:"Pr
em"}
3. print(k,"--",v)

o/p:D:\pythonclasses>py test.py 100 --

Prsoftwares
200 -- Premsofts
300 -- Prem

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

10).copy():
To create exactly duplicate dictionary (cloned
copy)
Ex:

1.
d={100:"Prsoftwares",200:"Premsofts",300:"Pr
em"}
2. d1=d.copy()
3. print(id(d))
4. print(id(d1))

o/p:D:\pythonclasses>py test.py 2791188556752

2791188556824

11).setdefault(): d.setdefault(k,v)
-->If the key is already available then this function
returns the corresponding value.
-->If the key is not available then the specified key-
value will be added as new item to the dictionary.
Ex:

1.
d={100:"Prsoftwares",200:"Premsofts",300:"Pr
em"}
2. print(d.setdefault(400,"secunderabad"))
3. print(d)

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

5. print(d)

o/p:D:\pythonclasses>py test.py secunderabad

{100: 'Prsoftwares', 200: 'Premsofts', 300: 'Prem',
400: 'secunderabad'} Prsoftwares
{100: 'Prsoftwares', 200: 'Premsofts', 300: 'Prem',
400: 'secunderabad'}

12).update(): d.update(x)
All items in the dictionary x will added to dictionary
d.
Ex:

1.
d={100:"Prsoftwares",200:"Premsofts",300:"Pr
em"}
2. d1={'a':"apple",'b':"banana",'c':"cat"}
3. d.update((d1))
4. print(d)
5. d.update([(333,"A"),(999,"B")])
6. print(d)

o/p:D:\pythonclasses>py test.py
{100: 'Prsoftwares', 200: 'Premsofts', 300: 'Prem',
'a': 'apple', 'b': 'banana', 'c': 'cat'}
{100: 'Prsoftwares', 200: 'Premsofts', 300: 'Prem',
'a': 'apple', 'b': 'banana', 'c': 'cat', 333: 'A', 999: 'B'}

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

Q: w.a.p to take dictionary from the keyboard and

print sum of values. sol:

1. d=eval(input("Enter Dictionary:"))
3. print("Sum:",s)

o/p:D:\pythonclasses>py test.py
Enter Dictionary:{'A':100,'B':200,'C':300} Sum: 600

Q:w.a.p to find number of occurances of each

letter present in the given string? sol:

1. word=input("Enter any word:")

2. d={}
3. for x in word:
4. d[x]=d.get(x,0)+1
5. print(d)
6. print(sorted(d))

7. for k,v in d.items():

8. #print(k,"occurs",v,"times")
9. print("{} occured {}".format(k,v))

o/p:D:\pythonclasses>py test.py Enter any

word:mississippi
{'m': 1, 'i': 4, 's': 4, 'p': 2}

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

['i', 'm', 'p', 's']

m occured 1
i occured 4
s occured 4
p occured 2

Q: w.a.p to find number of occurances of each

vowel present in the given string sol:

1. word=input("Enter some string:")

2. vowels={'a','e','i','o','u'}
3. d={}
4. for x in word:
5. if x in vowels:
6. d[x]=d.get(x,0)+1
7. for k,v in sorted(d.items()):
8. print(k,"occured",v,"times")

o/p:D:\pythonclasses>py test.py Enter some

string:abaiobeioeiaieus a occured 3 times
e occured 3 times i occured 4 times o occured 2
times u occured 1 times

Q:w.a.p to accept student name and marks from

the keyboard and creates a dictionary, also display
student marks by taking student name as input?

1) n=int(input("Enter the number of students:"))

2) d={}
3) for i in range(n):

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

4) name=input("Enter student name:")

5) marks=input("Enter marks:")
6) d[name]=marks
7) print(d)
8) while True:

9) name=input("Enter student name to get

marks:")
10) marks=d.get(name,-1)
11) if marks==-1:
12) print("Student not found")
13) else:
14) print("The marks of",name,"are",marks)
15) option=input("Do you want to find another
student marks[Yes|No]")
16) if option=="No":
17) break
18) print("Thanks for using our application")

o/p:D:\pythonclasses>py test.py Enter the number

of students:3 Enter student name:Premsofts
Enter marks:90
Enter student name:Prsoftwares Enter marks:98
Enter student name:Prem Enter marks:100
{'Premsofts': '90', 'Prsoftwares': '98', 'Prem': '100'}
Enter student name to get marks:Prem The marks
of Prem are 100

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

Do you want to find another student

marks[Yes|No]Yes Enter student name to get
marks:secunderabad
Student not found
Do you want to find another student
marks[Yes|No]Yes Enter student name to get
marks:Prsoftwares
The marks of Prsoftwares are 98
Do you want to find another student
marks[Yes|No]No Thanks for using our application

Dictionary comprehension:
---------------------------------------
-->Comprehension concept applicable for
dictionary also. Ex:

1. squares={x:x*x for x in range(1,6)}

2. print(squares)
3. doubles={x:2*x for x in range(1,6)}
4. print(doubles)

o/p:
{1: 1, 2: 4, 3: 9, 4: 16, 5: 25}
{1: 2, 2: 4, 3: 6, 4: 8, 5: 10}

FUNCTIONS

If a group of statements is repeatedly required

then it is not recommended to write these

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

statements every time separately. We have to

define these statements as a single unit and we
can call that unit any number of times based on
our requirement without re-writting. THis unit is
nothing but a function.
-->The main advantage of functions is code -Re-
usability.
Note:In other languages functions are known as
methods, procedures,subroutines etc...

-->Python supports
2-types of functions
1).Built in functions
2).User defined functions

1).Built in Functions:
------------------------------
The functions which are coming along with python
s/w automatically, are called as built in functions or
pre-defined functions.
Ex:
id(), type(), input(), eval().........

2).User Defined Functions:

-------------------------------------
The functions which are developed by
programmers explicitly according to business
requirements, are called as user defined functions.
Syn:
def function_name(parameter): body

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

------
-----
return value
Note: while creating functions we can use 2
keywords 1.def(mandatory)
2. return(optional)

Ex: write a function to print Hello gud mng.....

1. def wish():
2. print("Hello gud mng.............")
3. wish()

5. wish()

o/p:D:\pythonclasses>py test.py Hello gud

mng.............
Hello gud mng.............
Hello gud mng.............

Parameters:
-----------------
Parameters are inputs to the function. If a function
contains parameters, then at the time of calling,
compulsory we should provide values, otherwise
we will get error.

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

Ex: write a function to take name of the student as

input and print wish message by name

1. def wish(name):
2. print("Hello", name," gud mng.............")
3. wish("Premsofts")
4. wish("Guest")

o/p:D:\pythonclasses>py test.py Hello Premsofts

gud mng.............
Hello Guest gud mng.............

Ex: write a function to take number as input and

print its square value.

1. def squareit(number):
2. print("the square of", number," is:",number**2)
3. squareit(4)
4. squareit(5)

o/p:D:\pythonclasses>py test.py the square of 4 is:

16
the square of 5 is: 25

Return Statement:
--------------------------
Function can take input values as parameters and
executes business logic, and returns output to the
caller with the return statement.

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

Q:write a function to accept 2-numbers as input

and return sum

1. def add(x,y):
3. result=add(10,20)

5. print("The sum is:",add(10,20))

o/p:D:\pythonclasses>py test.py The sum is: 30

The sum is: 30

-->If we are not writing return statement then

default return value is None. Ex:

1. def f1():
2. print("hello")
3. f1()
4. print(f1())

o/p:D:\pythonclasses>py test.py hello

hello None

Q:write a function to check whether the given

number is even or odd?

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

1. def even_odd(num):
2. if num%2==0:
3. print(num,"is even number")
4. else:
5. print(num,"is odd number")
6. even_odd(10)
7. even_odd(15)

o/p:D:\pythonclasses>py test.py 10 is even

number
15 is odd number

Q:write a function to find factorial of given number.

1. def fact(num):
2. result=1
3. while num>=1:
4. result=result*num
5. num=num-1
6. return result
7. print(fact(5))
8. for i in range(1,5):
9. print("The factorial ",i,"is",fact(i))

o/p:D:\pythonclasses>py test.py 120

The factorial 1 is 1
The factorial 2 is 2
The factorial 3 is 6

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

The factorial 4 is 24

Returning multiple values from a function:

------------------------------------------------------------
-->In other languages like C, C++ and java,
function can return atmost one value. BUt in
python, a function can return any number of
values.

Ex:

1. def sum_sub(a,b):
2. sum=a+b
3. sub=a-b
4. return sum,sub
5. x,y=sum_sub(100,50)
6. print("sum is: ",x)
7. print("sub is: ",y)

o/p:D:\pythonclasses>py test.py sum is: 150

sub is: 50 Ex:
1. def calc(a,b):
2. sum=a+b
3. sub=a-b
4. mul=a*b
5. div=a/b
6. return sum,sub,mul,div
7. t=calc(100,50)
8. print(t)
9. print(type(t))

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

10. print("The Results are:")

11. for i in t:
12. print(i)

o/p:D:\pythonclasses>py test.py (150, 50, 5000,

2.0)
<class 'tuple'>

The Results are: 150

50
5000
2.0

Types of arguments:
-----------------------------
def f1(a,b):
--------
--------
--------- f1(10,20)

-->a,b are formal arguments where as 10,20 are

actual arguments.

-->There are 4-types of actual arguments are

allowed in python
1.positional arguments
2.keyword arguments
3.default arguments

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

4.variable length arguments

1.positional arguments:
----------------------------------
These are the arguments passed to function in
correct positional order Ex:

1. def sub(a,b):
2. print(a-b)
3. sub(100,200)
4. sub(200,100)

-->The number of arguments and position of

arguments must be matched. If we change the
order then the result may be changed.
o/p:D:\pythonclasses>py test.py
-100
100

-->If we change the number of arguments then we

will get an error. Ex: sub(200,100,300)
o/p:ypeError: sub() takes 2 positional arguments
but 3 were given

2).keyword arguments:
--------------------------------
We can pass argument values by keyword i.e by
parameter name. Ex:
1. def wish(name,msg):

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

2. print("Hello",name,msg)
3. wish(name="Prsoftwares",msg="gud mng....")
4. wish(msg="gud mng....",name="Prsoftwares")

o/p:D:\pythonclasses>py test.py Hello Prsoftwares

gud mng....
Hello Prsoftwares gud mng....

-->Here the order of arguments is not important

but number of arguments must be matched.

Note:
We can use both positional and keyword
arguments simultaneously. But first we
have to take positional arguments and then take
keyword arguments, otherwise we will get an error.
Ex:

1. def wish(name,msg):
2. print("Hello",name,msg)
3. wish("Prsoftwares","Gud Mng......")==>Valid
4. wish("Prsoftwares",msg="Gud
Mng.....")==>Valid
5. wish(name="Prsoftwares","Gud
Mng........")==>Invalid
o/p:SyntaxError: positional argument follows
keyword argument
3.Default argument:
----------------------------
Sometimes we can provide default values for our

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

positional arguments Ex:

1. def wish(name="Prsoftwares"):
2. print("Hello",name,"Gud Mng.....")
3. wish()
4. wish("Premsofts")

o/p:D:\pythonclasses>py test.py Hello Prsoftwares

Gud Mng.....
Hello Premsofts Gud Mng.....

-->If we are not passing any name then only

default value will be considered.

4).Variable length arguments:

------------------------------------------
-->Sometimes we can variable number of
arguments to our function, such type of arguments
are called as variable length arguments.
-->We can declare a variable length argument with
* symbol as follows.
Syn: def f1(*n):
-->We can call this function by passing any
number of arguments including zero number,
internally all these values represented in the form
of tuple.
Ex:

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

1. def sum(*n):
2. total=0
3. for i in n:
4. total=total+i
5. print("Sum is:",total)
6. sum()
7. sum(10,20)
8. sum(10,20,30)
9. sum(10,20,30,40)

o/p:D:\pythonclasses>py test.py Sum is: 0

Sum is: 30
Sum is: 60
Sum is: 100 Ex:
Function vs Module vs Package vs Library:
======================================
-->A group of lines with some name is called as a
function.
-->A group of functions saved to a file is called as
module.
-->A group of modules is nothing but a package.
-->A group of packages is nothing but a library.

Types of Variables:
--------------------------
Python supports two types of variables.
-->Global Variable
-->Local Variable

Global variable:

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

----------------------
-->The variables which are declared outside the
function are called as global variables.
-->These variables can be accessed in all
functions of that module.

Ex:

1. a=10#global variable
2. def f1():
3. print('f1:',a)
4. def f2():
5. print('f2:',a)
6. f1()

7. f2()

o/p: 10
10

Local Variable:
---------------------
-->The variables which are declared inside a
function are called as local variables.
-->Local variables are available only for the
function in which we declared it. i.e from outside of
function we can't access.
Ex:

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

1. def f1():
2. a=10
3. print('f1:',a)
4. def f2():
5. print('f2:',a)
6. f1()

7. f2()

o/p: f1: 10
NameError: name 'a' is not defined

global keyword:
----------------------
We can use global keyword for the following 2
purposes
-->To delcare global variable inside a function.
-->To make global variable available to the
function so that we can perform required
modifications.
Ex:

1. a=10
2. def f1():
3. a=333

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

4. print('f1:',a)
5. def f2():
6. print('f2:',a)
7. f1()

8. f2()

o/p:D:\pythonclasses>py test.py f1: 333

f2: 10

Ex:

1. a=10#global
2. def f1():
3. global a
4. a=333#local
5. print('f1:',a)
6. def f2():
7. print('f2:',a)
8. f1() f2()
9. f2() f1()

o/p:D:\pythonclasses>py test.py
o/p:D:\pythonclasses>py test.py f1: 333 f2:
f2: 333 f1: 333

Ex:

1. def f1():
2. global a

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

3. a=10
4. print('f1:',a)
5. def f2():
6. print('f2:',a)
7. f1()
8. f2()

o/p:D:\pythonclasses>py test.py f1: 10

f2: 10

Note: If the global variable and local variable

having same name then we can access global
variable inside a function as follows.

Ex:

1. a=10#global variable
2. def f1():
3. a=333#local variable
4. print('f1:',a)
5. print(globals()['a'])
6. f1()

o/p:D:\pythonclasses>py test.py f1: 333

10

Recursive Functions:
------------------------------

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

A function that calls itself is known as Recursive

Function.

Ex: factorial(3):
3*factorial(2)
3*2*factorial(1)
3*2*1*factorial(0)

factorial(n):n*factorial(n-1)

The main advantages of recursive functions are:

-->We can reduce length of the code and improve
readability.
-->We can solve complex problems very easily.

write a function to find factorial of given number

with recusrion.

1. def factorial(n):
2. if n==0:
3. result=1
4. else:
5. result=n*factorial(n-1)
6. return result
7. print("Factorial of 4 is: ",factorial(4))
8. print("Factorial of 0 is: ",factorial(0))

o/p:D:\pythonclasses>py test.py Factorial of 4 is:

24
Factorial of 0 is: 1

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

Anonymous Functions:
=====================
-->Sometimes we can declare a function without
name, such type of nameless functions are called
as anonymous functions or lamda functions.
-->The main advantage of anonymous function is
just for instant use(i.e for one time usage)

Normal Function:
-------------------------
-->We can define by using def keyword.
def squareit(n):
return n*n

lambda function:
------------------------
-->We can define by using lambda keyword.
lambda n:n*n

Syntax of lambda function:

--------------------------------------
lambda argument_list:expression
Note:
By using lambda functions we can write concise
code so that readability of the
program will be improved.

Q: w.a.p to create a lambda function to find square

of given number
-------------------------------------------------------------------

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

-----------------------------

1. s=lambda n:n*n
2. print("The square of 3 is:",s(3))
3. print("The square of 5 is:",s(5))

o/p:D:\pythonclasses>py test.py The square of 3

is: 9
The square of 5 is: 25

Q: Lambda function to find sum of 2-given

numbers
-------------------------------------------------------------------
------

1. s=lambda a,b:a+b
2. print("The sum of 10 and 20 is:",s(10,20))
3. print("The sum of 100 and 200 is:",s(100,200))

o/p:D:\pythonclasses>py test.py

The sum of 10 and 20 is: 30

The sum of 100 and 200 is: 300

Q:Lambda function to find biggest of given values:

-------------------------------------------------------------------
----

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

1. s=lambda a,b:a if a>b else b

3. print("The biggest of 100 and 200
is:",s(100,200))

o/p:D:\pythonclasses>py test.py The biggest of 10

and 20 is: 20
The biggest of 100 and 200 is: 200

Note:
Lambda function internally returns expression
value and we are not required to
write return statement explicitly.
Some times we can pass function as argument to
another function. In such case lambda functions
are best choice.

-->We can use lambda functions very commonly

with filter(), map() and reduce() functions,bcoz
these functions expect function as aegument.

1).filter function:
------------------------
We can use filter() function to filter values from the
given sequence based on some condition.
Syn:
filter(function,sequence)
-->Where function argument is responsible to
perform conditional check sequence can be list or
tuple or string.

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

Q: w.a.p to filter even numbers from the list by

using filter()
-------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------
without lambda function:
------------------------------------

1. def isEven(n):
2. if n%2==0:
3. return True
4. else:
5. return False
6. l=[0,5,10,15,20,25,30]
7. print(type(filter(isEven,l)))

9. print(l1)

o/p:D:\pythonclasses>py test.py
<class 'filter'> [0, 10, 20, 30]

with lambda function:

-------------------------------

1. l=[0,5,10,15,20,25,30]
2. l1=list(filter(lambda x:x%2==0,l))
3. print(l1)

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

4. l2=list(filter(lambda x:x%2!=0,l))

5. print(l2)

o/p:D:\pythonclasses>py test.py [0, 10, 20, 30]

[5, 15, 25]

2).map() function:
---------------------------
For every element present in the given sequenece,
apply some functionality and generate new
element with the required modifications. For this
requirement we should go for map() function.

Ex: For every element present in the list perform

double and generate new list of doubles

Syn:
map(function,sequenec)
-->The function can be applied on each element of
sequence and generates new sequence.

without lambda:
----------------------- l=[1,2,3,4]
l1=[]
for i in l:
l1.append(i*2)
print(l1)

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

with lambda:
------------------

1. l=[1,2,3,4,5]
2. l1=list(map(lambda x:2*x,l))
3. print(l1)==> [2, 4, 6, 8, 10]

Ex: To find square of given numbers 1.

l=[1,2,3,4,5]
3. print(l1)==> [1, 4, 9, 16, 25]

3).reduce() function:
-----------------------------
reduce() function reduces sequence of elements
into a single element by applying the specified
function.
Syn:
reduce(function, sequence)

-->reduce() function present in functools module

and hence we should write import statement.
Ex:

1. from functools import *

2. l=[10,20,30,40,50]
3. result=reduce(lambda x,y:x+y,l)
4. print(result)

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

o/p:150

Ex:

1. from functools import *

2. l=[10,20,30,40,50]
3. result=reduce(lambda x,y:x*y,l)
4. print(result)

o/p:12000000

Ex:

1. from functools import *

2. result=reduce(lambda x,y:x+y,range(1,101))
3. print(result)

o/p:5050

Function Decorators

Decorator is a function which can take a function

as a argument and extend its functionality and
returns modified function with extended
functionality.

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

Input function-------->
Decorator Function---------->o/p function with
extended fun

The main objective decorator function is we can

extend the functionality of existing functions
without modifies that function.

Decorators help to make our code shorter and

more pythonic. This concept is veryhelpful while
developing web applications with Django.

Ex :
def wish(name):
print("Hello",name,"Good morning.........")

-->This function can always print same output for

any name. Hello Prsoftwares Good morning.........
Hello Premsofts Good morning......... Hello Prem
Good morning.........

-->But we want to modify this function to provide

different message if name is "Prem". We can do
this with out touching wish() function by using
decorator.

Ex:
----

1) def decor(func):

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

2) def inner(name):
3) if name=="Prem":
4) print("Hello Prem how is your health.....")
5) else:
6) func(name)
7) return inner
8) @decor
9) def wish(name):
10) print("Hello",name,"Good morning.........")
11) wish("Prsoftwares")
12) wish("Premsofts")
13) wish("Prem")

o/p:D:\pythonclasses>py test.py Hello Prsoftwares

Good morning......... Hello Premsofts Good
morning.........
Hello Prem Bad Morning.....

-->In the above program whenever we call wish()

function automatically decor function will be
executed.
Generators
-->Generator is a function which is responsible to
generate a sequence of values.
-->We can write generator function just like
ordinary functions, but it uses "yield" keyword to
return values.

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

Yield------>Generator--------->A sequence of values

Ex:
-----

1) def mygen():
2) yield 'A'
3) yield 'B'
4) yield 'C'
5) g=mygen()
6) print(type(g))
7) print(next(g))
8) print(next(g))
9) print(next(g))

o/p:D:\pythonclasses>py test.py
<class 'generator'> A
BC

Ex-2:
-------

1) def countdown(num):
2) print("start countdown")
3) while (num>0):
4) yield num
5) num=num-1
6) values=countdown(5)
7) for i in values:
8) print(i)

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

o/p:D:\pythonclasses>py test.py start countdown

5
4
3
2
1

Ex-3: To generate first n numbers.

-------------------------------------------------

1) def firstn(num): 2) i=1

3) while i<=num:
4) yield i
5) i=i+1
6) values=firstn(5)
7) for x in values:
8) print(x)
9) print(type(values))

o/p:D:\pythonclasses>py test.py 1
2
3
4
5
Generators
-->Generator is a function which is responsible to
generate a sequence of values.
-->We can write generator function just like

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

ordinary functions, but it uses "yield" keyword to

return values.

Yield------>Generator--------->A sequence of values

Ex:
-----

1) def mygen():
2) yield 'A'
3) yield 'B'
4) yield 'C'
5) g=mygen()
6) print(type(g))
7) print(next(g))
8) print(next(g))
9) print(next(g))

o/p:D:\pythonclasses>py test.py
<class 'generator'> A
BC

Ex-2:
-------

1) def countdown(num):
2) print("start countdown")
3) while (num>0):
4) yield num
5) num=num-1
6) values=countdown(5)

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

7) for i in values:
8) print(i)

o/p:D:\pythonclasses>py test.py start countdown

5
4
3
2
1

Ex-3: To generate first n numbers.

-------------------------------------------------

1) def firstn(num): 2) i=1

3) while i<=num:
4) yield i
5) i=i+1
6) values=firstn(5)
7) for x in values:
8) print(x)
9) print(type(values))

o/p:D:\pythonclasses>py test.py 1
2
3
4
5

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

-->We can convert generator into list as follows:

values=first(5)
l=list(values) print(l)==>[1,2,3,4,5]
<class 'generator'>

Ex-4: To generate fibonacci numbers..........

-------------------------------------------------------------

1) def fib():
2) a,b=0,1
3) while True:
4) yield a
5) a,b=b,a+b
6) for x in fib():
7) if x>100:

8) break
9) print(x)

o/p:D:\pythonclasses>py test.py 0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13
21 34 55 89

Advantages of generator functions:

-------------------------------------------------
1).When compared with class level iterations,
generators are very easy to use.
2).Improves memory utilization and performance.
3).Generators are best suitable for reading data

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

from large number of large files.

4).Generators work great for web scraping and
crawling.
5).Memory utilization, bcoz we are not required to
store all values at a time.

MODULES
-->A group of functions, variables and classes
saved into a file, which is nothing but module.
-->Every python file(.py) acts as module.
-->Advantages of modules are: Reusability,
Readability & Maintainability.

Ex: prsoftwaresmath.py
----------------------------

1) x=333
2) def add(a,b):
3) return a+b
4) def product(a,b):
5) return(a*b)

-->py prsoftwaresmath.py
-->prsoftwaresmath module contains one variable
and 2 functions.
-->If we want to use memebers of the module in
our program then we should import that module.
import modulename

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

-->We can access members by using module

name. modulename.variable
modulename.function()
test.py:

1) import prsoftwaresmath
2) print(prsoftwaresmath.x)
3) print(prsoftwaresmath.add(10,20))
4) print(prsoftwaresmath.product(10,20))

o/p: 333
30
200

Note:
Whenever we are using a module in our program,
for that module compiled file will be generated and
stored in the hard disk permanently
pycache folder

Renaming a module at the time of import(module

aliasing):
-------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------
Ex:
import prsoftwaresmath as m
-->Here prsoftwaresmath is original module name
and m is alias name.

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

-->We can access memebrs by using alias name

m.

test.py
---------

1) import prsoftwaresmath as m
2) print(m.x)
3) print(m.add(10,20))
4) print(m.product(10,20))

from......import:
----------------------
-->We can import a particular member of module
by using from....import
-->The main advantage of this is we can access
memebrs directly without using module name.

Ex:
----

1) from prsoftwaresmath import x,add

2) print(x)
3) print(add(10,20))
4) print(product(10,20))==>Name Error:name
'product' is not defined

-->We can import all the members of a module as

follows from prsoftwaresmath import *
Ex:

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

----

1) from prsoftwaresmath import *

2) print(x)
3) print(add(10,20))
4) print(product(10,20))

member aliasing:
------------------------

1) from prsoftwaresmath import x as y,add as

sum
2) print(y)
3) sum(10,20)

-->Once we defined as alias name, we should use

alias name only and we should not use original
name.

Ex:

1) from prsoftwaresmath import x as y

2) print(x)==>Name Error:name 'x' is not defined

Various possibilities of import:

-------------------------------------------

1) import modulename

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

2) import module1,module2,module3
3) import module1 as m
4) import module1 as m1,module2 as
m2,module3 as m3
5) from module import memeber
6) from module import
memeber1,member2,member3
7) from module import memeber1 as x
8) from module import *

Reloading a Module:
----------------------------
-->Bydefault module will be loaded only once
eventhough we are importing multiple times.

Ex: module1.py
----------------------
print("This is from module1")

test.py
----------

1) import module1
2) import module1
3) import module1
4) import module1
5) print("This is test module")

o/p:
This is from module1 This is from test module

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

-->In the above program test module will be loaded

only once eventhough we are importing multiple
times.

-->The problem in this approach is after loading a

module if it is updated outside then updated
version of module1 is not available to our program.
-->We can solve this problem by reloading module
explicitly based on our requirement.
-->We can reload by using reload() function of imp
module. import imp
imp.reload(module1)

Ex:
-----

1) import time
2) import module1
3) print("program entering into sleeping state")
4) time.sleep(30)
5) import module1
6) print("This is last line of the program")

o/p:D:\pythonclasses>py test.py This is from

module1
program entering into sleeping state This is last
line of the program

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

Ex:
----

1) import time
2) from imp import reload
3) import module1
4) print("program entering into sleeping state")
5) time.sleep(30)
6) reload(module1)
7) print("program entering into sleeping state")
8) time.sleep(30)
9) reload(module1)
10) print("This is last line of the program")

o/p:
This is from module1
program entering into sleeping state This is first
module1
program entering into sleeping state This is
second module1
This is last line of the program

-->The main advantage of explicit module

reloading is we can ensure that updated version is
always available to our program.

Finding members of module by using dir() function:

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

-------------------------------------------------------------------
------
-->Python provides inbuilt function dir() to list out
all the members of current module or a specified
module.

dir()==>To list out all members of current module.

dir(module name)==>To list out all the members of
specified module.

Ex:test.py
--------------

1) x=333
2) def add(a,b):
3) return a+b
4) print(dir())

o/p:D:\pythonclasses>py test.py
[' annotations ', ' builtins ', ' cached ', ' doc ', '
file ', ' loader ', ' name ', ' package ', ' spec ',
'add', 'x']
Ex-2: To display members of a particular module.
prsoftwaresmath.py
----------------------

1) x=333
2) def add(a,b):
3) return a+b
4) def product(a,b):

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

5) return(a*b)

test.py
---------

1) import prsoftwaresmath
2) print(dir(prsoftwaresmath))

o/p:D:\pythonclasses>py test.py
[' builtins ', ' cached ', ' doc ', ' file ', ' loader ', '
name ',
' package ', ' spec ', 'add', 'product', 'x']

Note: For every module at the time of execution

python interpreter will add some special properties
automatically for internal use.

Ex: ' builtins ', ' cached ', ' doc ', ' file ', '
loader ', ' name ', ' package ', ' spec ',
-->Based on our requirement we can access these
properties also in our program. Ex: test.py
---------------

1) print( builtins )
2) print( cached )
3) print( doc )
4) print( file )
5) print( loader )

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

6) print( name )
7) print( package )
8) print( spec )

o/p:D:\pythonclasses>py test.py
<module 'builtins' (built-in)> None
None test.py
<_frozen_importlib_external.SourceFileLoader
object at 0x000001F562583CF8>
main None None

The special variable name :

-------------------------------------------
-->For every python program, a special variable
name will be added internally.This variable stores
information regarding whether the program is
executed as an individual program or as a module.
-->If the program executed as an individual
program then the value of this variable is
main .
-->If the program executed as a module from some
other program then the value of this variable is the
name of the module where it is defined.
-->Hence by using this name variable we can
identify whether the program executed directly or
as a module.

Ex: module1.py

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

----------------------

1) def f1():
2) if name ==" main ":
3) print("The code executed directly as a
program")
4) print("The value of name :", name )
5) else:
6) print("The code executed indirectly as a
module from some other module")
7) print("The value of name :", name ) 8) f1()

o/p:D:\pythonclasses>py module1.py The code

executed directly as a program The value of name
: main

test.py
----------

1) import module1
2) module1.f1()

o/p:D:\pythonclasses>py test.py
The code executed indirectly as a module from
some other module The value of name : module1
The code executed indirectly as a module from
some other module The value of name : module1

working with math module:

----------------------------------------

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

-->Python provides inbuilt module math

-->This module defines several functions which
can be used for mathematical operations.
-->The main important functions are:
sqrt(x), ceil(x), floor(x), log(x), sin(x), tan(x), fabs(x)

Ex:
----

1) from math import *

2) print(sqrt(4)) #2.0
3) print(ceil(10.1)) #11
4) print(floor(10.1)) #10
5) print(fabs(-10.6)) #10.6
6) print(fabs(10.6)) #10.6

Note: We can find help of any module by using

help() function Ex:
1) import math
2) help(math)

Working with random module:

-------------------------------------------
-->This module defines several functions to
generate random numbers.
-->We can use these functions while developing
games, in cryptography and to generate numbers

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

on fly for authentication.

1).random():
-----------------
This function always generates some float value
between 0 and 1(not inclusive).
0<x<1
Ex:

1) from random import *

2) for i in range(10):
3) print(random())

o/p:D:\pythonclasses>py test.py
0.7690917847505055
0.12958902402812178
0.4865336117685294
0.21174369485166067
0.22533721686631736
0.24270745076560807
0.6156350105877338
0.3588237251403473
0.5609192891678808
0.46565274922504374

2).randint():
-----------------
To generate random integer between two given
numbers(inclusive) Ex:

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

1) from random import *

2) for i in range(10):

3) print(randint(1,100))#Generates random int

values between 1 and 100(inclusive)

o/p:D:\pythonclasses>py test.py 70
88
20
73
16
8
27
72
80
71

-->Generate 5 6-digit random numbers Ex:

1) from random import *

2) for i in range(5):
3)
print(randint(0,9),randint(0,9),randint(0,9),randi
nt(0,9),randint(0,9),randint (0,9),sep=''”)

o/p:D:\pythonclasses>py test.py 420863

352322
626559

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

689042
735553

3).uniform():
------------------
-->It returns random float values between 2-given
numbers(not inclusive)

Ex:
-----

1) from random import *

2) for i in range(10):
3) print(uniform(1,10))

o/p:D:\pythonclasses>py test.py
1.456481671599132
8.262379808015648

8.294591177579873
2.4766196390802415
3.9929683121049644
6.908124318470733
5.113015507787097
1.9677692845675518
8.48400436311528
7.760067312991328

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

random()==>in between 0 and 1(not inclusive)

randint()==>in between z and y(incluseve)
uniform()==>in between x and y(not inclusive)

4).randrange([start],stop,[step]):
--------------------------------------------
-->Returns a random number from the range.
start<=x<stop
-->start argument is optional and default value is 0.
-->step argument is optional and default value is 1.

randrange(10)==>generates a number from 0 to 9

randrange(1,11(==>generates a number from 1 to
10 randrange(1,11,2)==>generates a number from
1,3,5,7,9

Ex 1:
-------

1) from random import *

2) for i in range(10):
3) print(randrange(10))

Ex 2:
--------

1) from random import *

2) for i in range(10):
3) print(randrange(1,11))

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

Ex 3:
--------

1) from random import *

2) for i in range(10):
3) print(randrange(1,11,2))

5).choice():
---------------
-->It wont return random number.
-->It will return a random object from the given list
or tuple,str.

Ex 1:
-------

1) from random import *

2) list=["sunny","bunny","chinny","vinny","pinny"]
3) for i in range(10):
4) print(choice(list))

Ex 2:
-------

1) from random import *

2) list=("sunny","bunny","chinny","vinny","pinny")
3) for i in range(10):
4) print(choice(list))

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

Ex 3:
-------

1) from random import *

2) list={"sunny","bunny","chinny","vinny","pinny"}
3) for i in range(10):
4) print(choice(list))

o/p:D:\pythonclasses>py test.py
TypeError: 'set' object does not support indexing

Ex 4:
-------

1) from random import *

2) for i in range(10):
3) print(choice("prsoftwares"))

Ex: To generate random pwd of 6-length where as

1,3,5 are aplhabate symbols and 2,4,6 are digits.

1) from random import *

2) for i in range(5):

3)
print(chr(randint(65,65+25)),randint(0,9),chr(ra
ndint(65,65+25)),randint(0,9

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

),chr(randint(65,65+25)),randint(0,9),sep='')

o/p:D:\pythonclasses>py test.py L0Z4J6

X1M8N6 A8L2U1 V7O2Z5 S9U2S1

PACKAGES

-->It is an encapsulation mechanism to group

related modules into a single unit.
-->Package is nothing but folder or directory which
represents collection of python modules.
-->Any folder or directory contains init .py file, is
considered as a python package. This can be
empty.
-->A package can contains sub packages also.
-->Python 3.3 has implicitly namespace packages
that allows to create a package without
init .py file.

-->The main advantages of package statements

are: 1).We can resolve naming conflicts.
2).We can identify our components uniquely 3).It
improves modularity of the application.

Ex1:
-----
D:\pythonclasses

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

|--test.py
|--pack1
|-module1.py
|- init .py

init .py:
----------------
empty file.

module1.py:
------------------
def f1():
print("Hello this is from module1 present in pack1")

test.py(version-1):
-------------------------
import pack1.module1 pack1.modul1.f1()

o/p: Hello this is from module1 present in pack1

test.py(version-2):
-------------------------
from pack1.module1 import f1 f1()

Ex 2:
-------
D:\pythonclasses
|--test.py

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

|--com

init .py:
----------------

|--module1.py
|-- init .py
|--prsoft
|--module2.py
|-- init .py

empty file

module1.py:
-----------------
def f1():
print("Hello this is from module1 present in com")

module2.py:
-----------------
def f2():
print("Hello this is from module 2 present in
com.prsoft")

test.py:

By Mr.Prem Agarwal
 PRSOFTWARE CORE PYTHON MATERIAL

----------

o/p:
Hello this is from module1 present in com
Hello this is from module 2 present in com.prsoft

By Mr.Prem Agarwal