Nature of Science in Chemistry

Give short answer.

i. How does chemistry help a doctor to know about the chemical nature of medicine?
Chemistry helps doctors understand the chemical nature of medicines by revealing their composition,
interactions, and effects on the body. This knowledge enables doctors to prescribe effective treatments
and manage drug interactions and side effects.

ii. In what ways does technological innovation help to understand the development of new
materials?
Technological innovation helps develop new materials by providing advanced tools for detailed
analysis, testing, and manipulation. This allows scientists to create materials with improved properties,
enhancing their applications in various industries like medicine, electronics, and manufacturing.

iii. Differentiate between geochemistry and astrochemistry.

Geochemistry Astrochemistry
Studies chemical composition, distribution, and Focuses on chemical processes and reactions in
transformation within the Earth’s crust. astronomical environments.
Deals with rocks, minerals, soils, water, and the Explores chemical phenomena in stars, planets,
atmosphere. comets, and interstellar space.
Focuses on chemical phenomena beyond
Focuses on Earth’s materials and processes
Earth’s atmosphere
iv. With the help of an example correlated the use of science, technology, and engineering.
Solar panels exemplify collaboration among science, technology, and engineering. Scientists study
sunlight’s energy properties, technologists develop photovoltaic cells to convert it into electricity, and
engineers design solar farms, enabling the generation of sustainable energy for communities.

v. With the help of the Venn diagram compare and contrast organic and inorganic chemistry.

vi. What are the uses of nuclear chemistry?

Uses of nuclear chemistry:
 Radioisotopes are used in medical imaging and cancer treatment.
 Nuclear reactions generate power in nuclear power plants.
 Radioisotopes are used in industrial applications for material testing and quality control.

3. Define chemistry and its interactions with other matter and energy.
Chemistry is the science that investigates the materials of the universe and the changes these
materials undergo. It deals with the composition, structure, properties, behavior, and changes of
matter and energy, explaining natural phenomena and developing new substances, drugs, and
technologies.

4. Describe the applications of inorganic chemistry and its importance in our daily lives?
Inorganic chemistry is very important in our daily life.
 Lithium-ion batteries are essential for powering electronics, toys, and electric vehicles.
 Widely used in industrial processes to increase efficiency and reduce production costs.
 Involved in creating ceramics, metals, and superconductors used in construction, manufacturing, and
technology.

5. With the help of few examples highlight the relation between science, technology and
engineering.
Rust Prevention:
Science: Studies chemical reactions causing iron to rust.
Technology: Develops coatings and inhibitors to prevent rust.
Engineering: Designs and applies rust prevention methods to structures and vehicles.
Solar Energy:
Science: Explores the principles of photovoltaic cells to convert sunlight into electricity.
Technology: Develops efficient solar panels.
Engineering: Designs and builds solar power systems for homes and businesses.
Water Filtration:
Science: Investigates contaminants and their removal processes.
Technology: Creates advanced filtration materials and methods.
Engineering: Constructs and implements water filtration systems for clean drinking water.

6. Evaluate the role of chemistry in environmental science.

Chemistry is crucial in environmental science. It helps identify and analyze pollutants, develop ways to
reduce pollution, and create sustainable practices, leading to cleaner air, water, and soil.

7. How does geochemistry help us to solve the problems such as pollution and climate change?
Geochemistry helps solve pollution and climate change by studying the Earth’s chemical composition.
It tracks pollutant sources, analyzes their impact, and helps develop methods to reduce emissions and
manage natural resources sustainably.

8. How is organic chemistry applied in medicines, biochemistry and industrial science?

Medicines: Organic chemistry synthesizes drug compounds for treating illnesses.
Biochemistry: It studies biological processes such as metabolism.
Industrial Science: Organic chemistry is used to create materials, fuels, and chemicals for various
industrial applications.

Unit 2: Matter
Give short answer
1. Can you write the formula of the carbon dioxide gas that we exhale?
The formula for the carbon dioxide gas that we exhale is CO₂. It consists of one carbon atom and two
oxygen atoms.

2. Define the element, Compound, Mixture.

Element: A pure substance made of only one type of atom.
Example: Oxygen (O₂).
Compound: A substance formed when two or more different atoms chemically
combine. Example: Water (H₂O).
Mixture: A combination of two or more substances that are not chemically
bonded. Example: Saltwater (salt mixed with water).

Differentiate between compound and mixture.

Compound Mixture

A substance formed when two or more different A combination of two or more substances that
atoms chemically combine. are not chemically bonded

Requires chemical processes to separate its Can be separated by physical methods like
components. filtration or evaporation.

Water (H2O), Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Salad, Air, Saltwater

Differentiate between concentrated and dilute solution.

Concentrated Solution Dilute Solution

Contains a large amount of solute relative to the Contains a small amount of solute relative to the
solvent. solvent.
 Often appears darker or more intense in color. Often appears lighter or less intense in color.

For example, strong coffee, concentrated

For example, weak tea, dilute vinegar
hydrochloric acid.

Low ratio of solvent to solute. High ratio of solvent to solute.

3. Define the term Allotropes. Explain the allotropes of Carbon.

Allotropes:
The property of an element to exist in different physical forms is called allotropy. These different forms
in the same physical state are called allotropes.
Three important allotropes of carbon.
i. Diamond:
Structure: Each carbon atom is tetrahedral bonded to four other carbon atoms, forming a very rigid
and three-dimensional lattice.
Properties: Extremely hard, high melting point, excellent electrical insulator.
Uses: Cutting tools, jewelry.
ii. Graphite:
Structure: Each carbon atom is bonded to three other carbon atoms in a hexagonal arrangement,
forming layers that slide over each other easily.
Properties: Soft, slippery, good conductor of electricity, high melting point.
Uses: Lubricant, lead pencil, electrodes, batteries.
iii. Bucky balls (C-60):
Bucky balls, also known as fullerenes, have a football like fused hollow ring structure made up of
twenty hexagons and twelve pentagons. Each of its 60 carbon atoms are bonded to 3 carbon atoms.

4. What is difference between Homogeneous and heterogeneous solution?

Homogeneous Solution Heterogeneous Solution

Composition is uniform throughout. Composition is not uniform.

Particles are evenly distributed. Particles are unevenly distributed.

Consists of a single phase. Consists of two or more phases.

 Cannot be separated by physical means like Can be separated by physical means like
filtration. filtration.

Example: Saltwater Example: Sand in water

5. Differentiate between the colloids, suspension and solution.

Solution:
 A homogeneous mixture of two or more components
 Particle size is less than 1nm. Not visible by naked eye
 Particles can pass through normal as well as ultra-filter paper
 Cannot Scatter the light (due to small size)
 Does not separate
 Example: Sea water
Colloids:
 A heterogeneous mixture of two or more components
 Particle size vary from 1-103 nm. Visible by naked eye.
 Particles can pass through normal filter paper but not through ultra-filter paper
 Can Scatter the light (Tyndale effect)
 Does not separate
 Example: Milk
Suspension:
 A heterogeneous mixture of two or more components
 Particle size greater than 10 nm. Visible by naked eye by naked eye
 Particles cannot pass through normal as well as ultra-filter paper
 Can Scatter the light (Tyndale effect)
 Separate or settles down when stationary
 Example: Muddy water

6. If there are 18 protons in the Argon atom, then what is the atomic number of Argon?
The atomic number of an element is equal to the number of protons in its atom. Therefore, if there are
18 protons in the Argon atom, the atomic number of Argon is 18.

7. Describe State of matter with example.

There are four primary states of matter:
 Gas
 Liquid
 Solid
 Plasma
Description of States of Matter:
Solid: Particles are tightly packed in a fixed arrangement, resulting in a definite shape and volume. For
example, ice is a solid form of water.
Liquid: Particles are close together but not in a fixed arrangement, allowing liquids to take the shape of
their container while maintaining a constant volume. For example water.
Gas: Particles are far apart and move freely, allowing gases to fill the entire volume of their container.
For example oxygen we breathe.
Plasma: An ionized gas with free electrons, formed at very high temperatures or strong electric fields.
For example the sun and fluorescent lights.
Additional States:
Liquid Crystal: Some crystalline solids become cloudy liquids when heated, possessing properties of
both liquids and solids within a certain temperature range. Further heating turns them into transparent
liquids. For example Cholesterol Benzoate.
Bose-Einstein Condensates (BEC): Observed under extremely cold temperatures near absolute zero,
BECs are states of matter where separate atoms coalesce into a single quantum state. For example
superfluid’s and superconductors.

8. Differentiate between the following.

a. Colloids and Suspensions

Colloids Suspensions

A heterogeneous mixture of two or more

A heterogeneous mixture of two or more components
components

Particle size greater than 10 nm. Visible by

Particle size vary from 1-103 nm. Visible by naked eye.
naked eye by naked eye

Particles can pass through normal filter paper but not Particles cannot pass through normal as well as
through ultra-filter paper. ultra-filter paper

Can Scatter the light. Can Scatter the light (Tyndale effect)

Does not separate Separate or settles down when stationary

Example: Milk Example: Muddy water

b. Elements and Compounds

 Element Compound

A pure substance made of only one type A substance formed when two or more different elements
of atom. chemically combine.

Oxygen (O2), Gold (Au), Hydrogen (H2) Water (H2O), Carbon Dioxide (CO2), Sodium Chloride (NaCl)

Consists of only one kind of atom. Consists of molecules formed by atoms of different elements.

c. Concentrated and Dilute solutions

Concentrated Solution Dilute Solution

Contains a large amount of solute relative to the Contains a small amount of solute relative to the
solvent. solvent.

Often appears darker or more intense in color. Often appears lighter or less intense in color.

For example, strong coffee, concentrated

For example, weak tea, dilute vinegar
hydrochloric acid.

Low ratio of solvent to solute. High ratio of solvent to solute.

9. Examine the concept of solubility.

Solubility:
Solubility is the maximum amount of solute which dissolves in a specified amount of solvent at a
specific temperature. The solubility of a substance depends on the solvent used, as well as
temperature and pressure.
Effect of Temperature on Solubility:
The solubility of solutes depends on temperature. Depending on the nature of solute there is either:
a) Increase in solubility with temperature e.g., KCI, NH4CI
b) Decrease in solubility with temperature e.g., Na2SO4, Ca(OH)2
Table: Solubility of Some Salts in Water at Different Temperatures
Solute Solubility at 20°C (g/100g H₂O) Solubility at 100°C (g/100g H₂O)

NaCl 36.5 39.2

KCl 34.7 56

NH₄Cl 37.5 77

Ca(OH)₂ 0.173 0.066

Graph showing effect of temperature on solubility:

Unit 3: Atomic Structure

Give short answer
i. Distinguish between shell and sub-shell.
Shell Sub-Shell

Main energy levels where electrons reside Divisions within shells where electrons are found

Principal quantum number (n=1, 2, 3, …) Designated by s, p, d, f within each shell

Holds up to 2n² electrons s: 2, p: 6, d: 10, f: 14 electrons

Higher n means higher energy level Energy increases from s to f within a shell

n=2 shell 2s and 2p sub-shells

ii. Why an atom is electrically neutral?

An atom has the same number of positive protons and negative electrons which cancel each other’s
effect and net charge on atom become zero. Hence atom become neutral.

iii. How many sub-shells are there in N shell.

The N shell corresponds to the fourth energy level of an atom. In the N shell, there are four sub-shells:
s, p, d, and f.

iv. Give notation for sub-shells of M shell.

The M shell corresponds to the third energy level of an atom. The notation for the sub-shells in the M
shell is as follows:
 3s
 3p
 3d

v. List the sub-shells of M Shell in order of increasing energy.

The notation for the sub-shells of the M shell in order of increasing energy is:
3s < 3p < 3d

vi. Can you identify an atom without knowing number of neutrons in it?
Yes, an atom can be identified by its atomic number, which equals the number of protons. Each
element has a unique atomic number, defining its identity.

3. The electronic configurations listed are incorrect. Explain what mistake have been made in each
and write correct electronic configurations.
X = 1s2, 2s2, 2p4 , 3p2
Y = 1s2, 2s1, 2p1
Z = 1s2, 2s2, 2p5, 3s1
According to Aufbau principle, electrons fill the lowest energy sub-shell that is available first.
1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d …………
In X, 2p can accommodate 6 electrons. So correct electronic configurations is:
X = 1s2, 2s2, 2p6
In Y, 2s can accommodate 2 electrons. So correct electronic configurations is:
Y = 1s2, 2s2
In Z, 2p can accommodate 6 electrons. So correct electronic configurations is:
Z = 1s2, 2s2, 2p6

4. Which orbital in each of the following pairs is lower in energy?

(a) 2s, 2p
2s < 2p
(b) 3p, 2p
2p < 3p
(c) 3s, 4s
3s < 4s

5. Draw Bohr’s Model for the following atoms indicating the location for electron, protons and
neutrons:
(a) Potassium (Atomic No. 19, Mass No. 39):
 Protons: 19 in the nucleus
 Neutrons: 39 −19 = 20 in the nucleus
 Electrons: 19 electrons distributed in shells

(b) Silicon (Atomic No. 14, Mass No. 28):

 Protons: 14 in the nucleus
 Neutrons: 28−14=14 in the nucleus
 Electrons: 14 electrons distributed in shells
(c) Argon (Atomic No. 18, Mass No. 39):
 Protons: 18 in the nucleus
 Neutrons: 39 −18 = 21 in the nucleus
 Electrons: 18 electrons distributed in shells

6. Write electronic configuration for the following elements:

(a) 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p2
(b) 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2
(c) 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p1
(d) 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6

7. State the importance and uses of isotopes in various fields of life.

Importance and uses of isotopes in various fields of life.
1. Radioactive iodine-131 is used as tracer in diagnosing thyroid problem.
2. Na-24 is used to trace the flow of blood and detect possible constrictions in circulatory system.
3. Iodine-123 is used to image the brain.
4. Cobalt-60 is used to irradiate cancer cells.
5. Carbon-14 is used to trace the path of carbon in photosynthesis.
6. Radioactive isotopes are used to determine the molecular structure.
7. Radioactive isotopes are used to date rocks, soils, mummies etc.
8. Carbon-14 is used to estimate the age of carbon containing substance.

8. The atomic number of an element is 23 and its mass number is 56.

a. How many protons and electrons does an atom of this element have?
Since the atomic number represents the number of protons in the nucleus, the atom has 23 protons. In
a neutral atom, the number of electrons equals the number of protons. Therefore, the atom also has
23 electrons.

b. How many neutrons does this atom have?

The number of neutrons can be calculated using the formula:
Neutrons (N) = Mass number (A) – Atomic number (Z)
= 56 – 23
= 33
Therefore, the atom has 33 neutrons.

9. The atomic symbol of aluminum is written as . What information do you get from it?
Atomic number = 13
Atomic mass = 27
No. of protons = No. of electrons = Atomic number=13
Number of neutrons = 27 – 13 = 14
Electronic configuration:
= 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1
Period = 3
Group = 2+1 = III A
So aluminum is metal.

Unit 4: Periodic Table and Periodicity of Properties

Give short answer
i. Write the valence shell electronic configuration of an element present in the 3rd period and Group
ΙΙΙΑ.
The element present in 3rd period and group is aluminum. Aluminum (Al) is found in the 3rd period
and Group IIIA of the periodic table so it has three valence electrons. Valence shell electronic
configuration of aluminum is 3s2 3p1.

ii. Define halogens.

The elements in Group 17 (or Group VII-A) are called halogens. The name halogen is derived from the
Greek words “halous” meaning salt and “gen” meaning former. Halogens include fluorine, chlorine,
bromine, iodine, astatine, and tennessine. Astatine and tennessine are radioactive elements with little
known about their properties. All halogens are reactive non-metals and exist as diatomic molecules.

iii. Which atom has higher shielding effect, Li or Na?

Na have 10 inner shell electron and Li have 2. So Na atoms will have greater shielding effect due to
greater number of inner shell electrons.

iv. Explain why, Na has higher ionization energy than K?

Na has 3 electron shells, while K has 4. Since Na is smaller in size compared to K, its valence electron is
closer to the nucleus. Ionization energy decreases from top to bottom within a group, so Na has a
higher ionization energy than K.

v. Alkali metals belong to S-block in the periodic table, why?

Alkali metals are classified in Group 1A of the periodic table, with each element having one electron in
its valence shell. They belong to s-block due to their valence shell electrons occupying s-sub shells.

3. Arrange the elements in each of the following groups in order of increasing ionization energy.
(a) Li, Na, K
Ionization energy increases across a period and decreases down a group.
K < Na < Li

(b) CI, Br, I

Ionization energy increases across a period and decreases down a group.
I < Br < Cl
4. Arrange the elements in each of the following in order of decreasing shielding effect.
(a) Li, Na, K
The shielding effect increases with the addition of electron shells, so it increases down a group in the
periodic table.
K > Na > Li

(b) Cl, Br, I

The shielding effect increases with the addition of electron shells, so it increases down a group in the
periodic table.
I > Br > Cl

(c) Cl, Br
The shielding effect increases with the addition of electron shells, so it increases down a group in the
periodic table.
Br > Cl

5. Specify which of the following elements you would expect to have the greatest electron affinity. S,
P, CI
Electron affinity increases from left to right in a period so electron affinity of Cl is greater than S and P.

6. Electronic configuration of some elements are given below, group the elements in pairs that
would represent similar chemical properties.
A = 1s2 2s2
B = 1s2 2s2 2p6
C = 1s2 2s2 2p3
D = 1s2
E = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3
F = 1s2 2s1
G = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1
H = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2
Elements having similar electronic configuration in their outer shells have similar chemical properties
so
F = G, A = H, C = E, D = B

7. Arrange the elements in groups and periods in Q. No. 6.

IA VIIIA

IIA IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA D

F A C B

G H F

8. For normal elements, the number of valence electrons of an element is equal to the group
number. Find the group number of the following elements.
= 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1
Group number = 2 + 1 = III A

= 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4

Group Number = 2 + 4 = VI A

= 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4 4s1

Group Number = 1 = I A

= 1s2 2s2 2p4

Group Number = 2 + 4 = VI A

9. Write the valence shell electronic configuration for the following groups:
a. Alkali metals
Alkali metals belong to Group IA and have a valence shell electronic configuration of ns 1, where n
represents the period number.

b. Alkaline earth metals

Alkaline earth metals belong to Group IIA and have a valence shell electronic configuration of ns 2,
where n represents the period number.

c. Halogens
Halogens belong to Group VIIA and have a valence shell electronic configuration of ns 2np5 where n
represents the period number.

d. Noble gases
Noble gases belong to Group VIIIA and have a valence shell electronic configuration of (except helium)
ns2 np6, where n represents the period number.

10. Write electron dot symbols for an atom of the following elements
(a) Be (b) K (c) N (d) I
(a) (b) (c) (d)

11. Write the valence shell electronic configuration of the atoms of the following elements.
(a) An element present in period 3 of Group VA
3s2 3p3

(b) An element present in period 2 of Group VI A

2s2 2p4

12. Copy and complete the following table:

Atomic number Mass number No. of Protons No. of Neutrons No. of electrons

11 23 11 12 11

14 29 14 15 14

22 47 22 25 22

13 27 13 14 13

13. In which block, group and period in the periodic table where would you place each of the
following elements with the following electronic configuration?
Block Group Period

a. 1s2 2s2 s IA 2

b. 1s2 2s2 2p5 p VIIA 2

 c. 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 s IIA 3

d. 1s2 s VIIIA 1

Unit 5: Chemical Bonding

(i) State octet and duplet rules
Octet rule:
The tendency of atoms to acquire eight electronic configurations in their outermost shell during bond
formation bonding is called octet rule.
Example:
Chlorine (Cl) belongs to Group VIIA. It has seven electrons in its valence shell. Chlorine gains one
electron to complete its noble gas electronic configuration.
Cl: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5+1ē Cl-1 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
We can also represent this by electron dot structure.

Duplet rule:
The tendency of atoms to acquire two electronic configurations in their outermost shell during bond
formation is called duplet rule.
Example:
Hydrogen (H) belongs to Group IA. It has one electron in its valence shell. Hydrogen can gain one
electron to complete its noble gas electronic configuration.
H: 1s1 +1ē H-1 1s2
We can also represent this by electron dot structure.

(ii) Explain formation of covalent bond between two nitrogen atoms.

Each nitrogen atom
(N) has five electrons
in its valence shell
and requires three
electrons to complete its octet. When two nitrogen atoms come together to form N₂, they share three
pairs of electrons via a triple bond. Each nitrogen atom contributes three electrons to complete noble
gas electronic configuration.

(iii) How does Al form cation?

Aluminum belongs to Group III A. It has three electrons in the valence shell.
Aluminum loses three electrons to complete noble gas electronic configuration.
Al: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1 Al+3 1s2 2s2 2p6
We can also represent this by electron dot structure.

(iv) How does O form anion?

Oxygen belongs to group VIA. So it has six electrons in its valence shell. Oxygen gains two electrons to
complete its noble gas electronic configuration.
O: 1s2 2s2 2p4 +2e– O-2 1s2 2s2 2p6

(v) Draw electron cross and dot structure for H2O molecule.
O has six electrons in its valence shell and needs two electrons to complete its octet. H has only one
electron and needs one electron to complete its duplet. So, O can form two single bonds with H atoms.
O is the central atom.
3. Describe the importance of noble gas electronic configuration
An element that does not have two or eight electrons in its valence shell is unstable. It achieves
stability by losing, gaining, or sharing electrons to complete a noble gas electronic configuration.

4. Explain how elements attain stability.

Elements attain stability by completing a duplet or octet. Atoms gain, lose, or share electrons to
achieve noble gas electronic configuration and become stable.

5. Describe the ways in which bonds may be formed?

There are two main ways:
1. Ionic Bond:
An ionic bond is a strong electrostatic attraction between positively charged metal ions and negatively
charged non-metal ions. Compounds that consist of ions joined by electrostatic forces are called ionic
compounds.
Example:
Mg is metal and O is non-metal. Metal atom tends to lose electrons and non-metal atoms tends to gain
electrons to complete its noble gas electronic configuration. Mg atom has two electrons in its
outermost shell. It loses two electrons to form Mg+2 ion. Since O atom has six electrons in outermost
shell, so it gains two electrons to form O-2 ion.

2Mg + O2 2MgO
For every Mg+2 ion we need one O-2 ion.

2. Covalent Bond:
A covalent bond is formed by mutual sharing of electrons between two atoms.
Example:
O has six electrons in its valence shell and needs two electrons to complete its octet. H has only one
electron and needs one electron to complete its duplet. So, O can form two single bonds with H atoms.
O is the central atom.

6. Describe the formation of covalent between two non-metallic elements.

Ans. Consider the formation of covalent bond in hydrogen molecule. A hydrogen atom has a single
valence electron. Two hydrogen atoms share their valence electron to form diatomic molecule.

H+HH:H

7. Explain with examples single, double and triple covalent bond.

Ans: Single Covalent Bond:
Covalent bond that is formed by the sharing of one electron pair is called single covalent bond.
Example:
Consider the formation of covalent bond in hydrogen molecule. A hydrogen atom has single valence
electron. Two hydrogen atom share their valence electrons to form a diatomic molecule.

Double Covalent Bond:

Double covalent bonds are formed by sharing of two electron pairs.
Examples:
Each oxygen atom (O) has six electrons in its valence shell and requires two electrons to complete its
octet. When two oxygen atoms come together to form O₂, they share two pairs of electrons via a
double bond. Each oxygen atom contributes two electrons to complete the noble gas electronic
configuration.
Triple Covalent Bond
Triple covalent bonds are formed by sharing of three electrons pairs.
Examples:
Each nitrogen atom (N) has five electrons in its valence shell and requires three electrons to complete
its octet. When two nitrogen atoms come together to form N₂, they share three pairs of electrons via a
triple bond. Each nitrogen atom contributes three electrons to complete noble gas electronic
configuration.

8. Find the number of valence electrons in the following atoms using the periodic table.
The number of valence electrons is the same as the group number.
Element Group Valence electrons
(a) Boron III A 3
(b) Neon VIII A 8
(c) Rubidium I A 1
(d) Barium II A 2
(e) Arsenic VA 5

9. Represent the formation of cations for the following metal atoms using electron dot structures.
(a) Al (atomic number = 13)
Aluminum belongs to Group III A. It has three electrons in the valence shell. Aluminum loses three
electrons to complete noble gas electronic configuration.
Al: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1 Al+3 1s2 2s2 2p6
We can also represent this by electron dot structure.

1. Sr (atomic number = 18)

Strontium belongs to Group II A. It has two electrons in the valence shell. Strontium loses two electrons
to complete the noble gas electronic configuration.
Sr: 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p65s2 Sr+2 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p6

2. Ba (atomic number = 56)

Ba belongs to Group II A. It has two electrons in the valence shell. Sr loses two electrons to complete
the noble gas electronic configuration.
Ba:1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p64d105s25p66s2Ba+2 :1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p64d105s25p6

10. A sample of sulphur from a volcano was analyzed to give the following composition of isotopes
(Atomic number of S = 16)
Isotope Abundance (%)

S-32 95.02

S-33 0.76

S-34 4.22

(a) Define the term isotope:

Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have the same number of protons but different numbers
of neutrons.

(b) Define the term relative atomic mass.

The mass of an atom of an element relative to the mass of an atom of C – 12 is called its relative atomic
mass.

(c) Calculate the relative atomic mass of sulphur.

(d) Complete the following table.
Isotope Protons Neutrons Electrons

S-32 16 16 16

S-34 16 18 16
(e) Where will you place S in the periodic table:
Sulphur is placed in Group 16 (VI A) and Period 3rd of the periodic table.

(f) How many electrons will S lose or gain to acquire a stable configuration.
Sulphur belongs to Group VI A. It has six electrons in the valence shell. Sulfur gains two electrons to
complete its noble gas electronic configuration.

(g) How many atoms of S are there in 0.3 mole of sulphur?

Number of moles = 0.3
Avogadro’s number = NA = 6.022×1023
Number of atoms = Number of Moles x NA
Number of atoms = 0.3 × 6.022 × 1023
=1.8066 × 1023 atoms
11. An atom of an element has atomic number 9 and mass number 19
(a) State the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of this atom.
Number of protons = atomic number = 9
Number of neutrons = atomic mass – atomic number
= 19-9 = 10

(b) State the number of electrons in this atom

Number of electrons = Number of protons = 9

(c) Show with electron cross dot diagrams, the formation of ions in the reaction of this atom with
sodium atom.
The element with atomic number 9 is fluorine (F). Fluorine belongs to Group VII A. It has seven
electrons in the valence shell. Fluorine gains one electron to complete its noble gas electronic
configuration.
F: 1s2 2s2 2p5 + ē F– 1s2 2s2 2p6
We can also represent this by electron dot structure.

(d) Write electronic configuration of this element.

F: 1s2 2s2 2p5

(e) Point out its group in the periodic table.

Fluorine is in Group 17 (VII A) of the periodic table.

(f) Point out its period in the periodic table.

Fluorine is in Period 2nd of the periodic table.

Think Tank
12. Magnesium oxide is a compound made up of magnesium ions and oxide ions.

1. What is the charge on these ions?

Magnesium Ion (Mg+²): +2
Oxide Ion (O–²): -2

2. How these ions get these charges?

Magnesium (Mg) loses two electrons to achieve a stable noble gas configuration, forming a Mg²⁺ ion.
Oxygen (O) gains two electrons to achieve a stable noble gas configuration, forming an O –² ion.

3. Show with electron cross-dot diagrams the formation of these ions.

Formation of Mg+2 ion:
Mg: 1s22s22p63s2 Mg+2: 1s22s22p6
We can also represent this by electron dot structure.

Formation of O-2 ion:

O: 1s22s22p4+2e– O-2: 1s22s22p6

Formation of Magnesium oxide (MgO):

Mg is metal and O is non-metal. Mg atom has two electrons in its outermost shell. It loses two
electrons to form Mg+2 ion. Since O atom has six electrons in outermost shell, so it gains two electrons
to form O-2 ion.
For every Mg+2 ion we need one O-2 ion.

13. The diagrams below show the electronic structures of an atom of calcium and an atom of oxygen.

Draw structures of the ions that are formed when these atoms react.
Ca is a metal and O is a non-metal. Metal atoms tend to lose electrons, and non-metal atoms tend to
gain electrons to complete their noble gas electronic configuration.
Ca atom has two electrons in its outermost shell. It loses two electrons to form a Ca +2 ion. Since O atom
has six electrons in its outermost shell, it gains two electrons to form an O-2 ion.

14. The table below shows the properties of four substances.

Electrical Conductivity
Substance Melting Point
In Solid State In Molten State

A High NIL NIL

B High NIL Good

C Low NIL NIL

D High Good Good

1. Which substance is a metal?
Substance D is a metal because metal conducts electricity in solid or molten state and also has high
melting points.
1. Which Substance is an ionic compound?
Substance B is an ionic compound because ionic compounds do not conduct electricity in solid state
but are good conductors of electricity in molten state. They also have high melting points.
1. Which substance is covalent bond?
Substance C is a covalent compound because it does not conduct electricity in solid or molten state
and has low melting point.
1. Which substance is a non-metal?
Substance A is a non-metal which has high melting point and is non-conductor of electricity in solid or
molten state.

Unit 6: Stoichiometry
Give short answer
i. What is mole?
A mole is an amount of a substance that contains 6.022×1023 particles of that substance. This
experimentally determined number is known as Avogadro’s number. It is represented by N A.

Empirical Formula Molecular Formula

Which gives the simplest whole number ratio of Which shows the actual number of atoms of each
atoms of each element of a compound element present in a compound.

It does not show the structure of compound It shows the structure of compound

Two or more compounds can have same empirical Two or more compounds cannot have same
formula molecular formula.

Example:CH2O, CH are empirical formula of Example: C6H12O6, C6 H6 are molecular formula of

glucose and benzene glucose and benzene
ii. Differentiate between empirical formula and molecular formula.

iii. What is the number of molecules in 9.0g of steam?

Solution:
Mass in grams = 9.0g
Molar mass of steam (H2O) = 2 x 1 + 16 = 18g
Avogadro’s number = NA = 6.022×1023
Number of molecules = ?
= 6.022×1023
= 0.5 x 6.022 x 1023
= 3.011 x 1023 Molecules
iv. What are the molar masses of Uranium-238 and
Uranium-235?
Molar mass = Atomic mass
Molar mass of uranium-238 = 238g
Molar mass of uranium-235 = 235g

v. Why one mole of hydrogen molecules and one mole of H atoms have different mases?
One mole of hydrogen molecule (H2) contains two hydrogen atoms, its molar mass is 1×2=2g. One mole
of H-atom contains only one hydrogen atom, its molar mass is 1×1=1g. That’s why one mole of
hydrogen molecules and one mole of H-atoms have different masses.

3. Define:
Ion:
Ion is a charged specie formed from an atom or chemically bonded group of atoms by adding or
removing electrons.
Ion may have positive or negative charge.
Molecular Ion:
When a molecule losses or gains electrons, the resulting species is called molecular ion. These are short
lived species and only exist at high temperature. Molecular ions do not form ionic compounds.
Formula Unit:
The simplest unit which represents an ionic compound is called formula unit.
Free radical:
Free radical is an atom or group of atoms that contains an unpaired electron. Free radical bear no
charge
Example ,

Atomic number:
The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is known as atomic number.
Mass number:
The total number of protons and neutrons in an atom is known as its mass number.
Atomic mass unit:
One atomic mass unit (amu) is defined as a mass exactly equal to one twelfth the mass of one C-12
atom.
Mass of one C-12 atom = 12 amu

4. Describe how Avogadro’s number is related to a mole of any substance.

Avogadro’s number is related to a mole of any substance by a relation.

5. Calculate the number of moles of each substance in samples with the following masses.
(a) 2.4g of He:
Mass of Helium (He) = 2.4g
Molar mass of Helium(He)= 4g
= 0.6 moles

(b) 250 mg of Carbon:

Mass of carbon (C) = 250mg = 250g/1000= 0.25g
Molar mass of carbon = 12g
= 0.021 moles

(c) 15g of sodium chloride:

Mass of sodium chloride (NaCl) = 15g
Molar mass of Sodium Chloride = 23 + 35.5 = 58.5g
= 0.256 moles

(d) 40 g of Sulphur:
Mass of Sulphur (S) = 40 g
Molar mass of Sulphur = 32g
= 1.25 moles

(e) 1.5 kg of MgO: (1kg = 1000 g)

Mass of MgO = 1.5 Kg = 1.5 x 1000 = 1500 g
Molar mass of MgO = 24 + 16 = 40g
= 37.5 moles

6. Calculate the mass in grams of each of the following samples:

(a) 1.2 moles of K
Number of moles of Potassium (K) = 1.2 moles
Molar mass of Potassium = 39g
Mass in gram =Number of moles × Molar mass
Mass in grams = 1.2 x 39 = 46.8 g

(b) 75 moles of H2
Number of moles of hydrogen(H2) = 75 moles
Molar mass of hydrogen(H2) = 2 x 1 = 2g
Mass in gram =Number of moles × Molar mass
Mass in grams = 75 x 2 = 150g

(c) 0.25 moles of steam

Number of moles of steam (H2O) = 0.25 moles
Molar mass of steam (H2O) = 2 x 1+16 = 18g
Mass in gram = Number of moles × Molar mass
Mass in grams = 0.25 x 18 = 4.5g

(d) 1.05 moles of CuSO4.5H2O

Number of moles of Copper Sulphate Penta Hydrate= 1.05 moles
Molar mass of CuSo4 .5H2O = 63.5+32+4×16+5(2×1+16)
= 63.5 +32 +64 +5(18)
= 249.5g
Mass in gram =Number of moles × Molar mass
Mass in grams = 1.05 x 249.5 = 261.96g

(e) 0.15 moles of H2SO4

Number of moles of Sulphuric Acid (H2SO4) = 0.15 moles
Molar mass of H2SO4 = 2 x 1 + 32 + 4×16 = 98g
Mass in gram =Number of moles × Molar mass
Mass in grams = 0.15 x 98 = 14.7g

7. Calculate the number of molecules present in each of the following samples

(a) Number of moles = 2.5 moles
Avogadro’s number = NA = 6.022×1023
Number of molecules = ?
Number of molecules = Number of Moles x NA
Number of molecules = 2.5 x 6.022 x 1023
= 1.505 x 1024 molecules

(b) 3.4 moles of ammonia, NH3

Number of moles = 3.4 moles
Avogadro’s number = NA = 6.022×1023
Number of molecules = ?
Number of molecules = Number of Moles x NA
Number of molecules = 3.4 x 6.022 x 1023
= 2.05 x 1024 molecules

(c) 1.09 moles of benzene, C6H6

Number of moles = 1.09 moles
Avogadro’s number = NA = 6.022×1023
Number of molecules = ?
Number of molecules = Number of Moles x NA
Number of molecules = 1.09 x 6.022 x 1023
= 6.56 x 1023 molecules

(d) 0.01 moles of acetic acid, CH3COOH

Number of moles = 0.01 moles
Avogadro’s number = NA = 6.022×1023
Number of molecules = ?
Number of molecules = Number of Moles x NA
Number of molecules = 0.01 x 6.022 x 1023
= 6.02 x 1021 molecules
8. Decide whether or not each of the following is an example of empirical formula
(a) Al2 Cl6
This formula is not in its simplest form, so this is not an empirical formula.

(b) Hg2 Cl2

This formula is not in its simplest form, so this is not an empirical formula.

(c) NaCl
This formula is in its simplest form, so this is an empirical formula.

(d) C2H6O
This formula is in its simplest form, so this is an empirical formula.

9. TNT or trinitrotoluene is an explosive compound used in bombs. It contains 7 C-atoms, 6 H-atoms,

5 N-atoms and 6-O atoms. Write its empirical formula
There are:
 7 carbon (C) atoms
 6 hydrogen (H) atoms
 5 nitrogen (N) atoms
 6 oxygen (O) atoms
The empirical formula is the simplest whole-number ratio. Therefore, the empirical formula for
trinitrotoluene (TNT) is: C7 H6 N5 O6

10. A molecule contains four Phosphorus atoms and ten Oxygen atoms. Write the empirical formula
of this compound. Also determine the molar mass of this molecule
There are:
 4 phosphorus (P) atoms
 10 oxygen (O) atoms
Molecular formula = P4O10
Molar mass of P4O10 = 4×31 + 10×16
= 124 + 160 = 284g
The empirical formula is the simplest whole-number ratio. Therefore, the empirical formula is: P 2O5

11. Indigo (C16H10N2O2) the dye used to colour blue jeans is derived from a compound known as
indoxyl (C8H7ON). Calculate the molar masses of these compounds. Also write their empirical
formulas
Indigo (C16H10N2O2)
Molar mass = 16×12 + 10 x 1 + 2×14 + 2×16
= 192 + 10 + 28 + 32
= 262g
The empirical formula is the simplest whole-number ratio. Therefore, the empirical formula is: C 8H5NO
Indoxyl (C8H7ON)
Molar mass = 8 x12 + 7×1 + 16 + 14
= 96 + 7 + 16 + 14
= 133g
The empirical formula is the simplest whole-number ratio. Therefore, the empirical formula is: C 8H7ON

12. Identify the substance that has formula mass of 133.5 amu
(a) MgCl2
Formula mass = 24 + 2×35.5
= 24 + 71
= 95 amu

(b) S2Cl2
Formula mass = 2×32 + 2×35.5
= 64 + 71
= 135 amu

(c) BCl3
Formula mass = 11 + 3×35.5
= 11 + 106.5
= 117.5 amu

(d) AlCl3
Formula mass = 27 + 3×35.5
= 27 + 106.5
= 133.5 amu
The substance with a formula mass of 133.5amu is AlCl₃

13. Calculate the number of atoms in each of the following samples.

(a) 3.4 moles of nitrogen atoms
Number of moles = 3.4 moles
Number of atoms = No. of moles x NA
= 3.4 x 6.022×1023
= 2.05 x 1024 atoms

(b) 23g of Na
Mass in grams = 23 g
Molar mass of Sodium (Na) = 23 g
= 6.022×1023
= 6.022 x 1023

(c) 5 g of H atoms
Mass in grams = 5g
Molar mass of hydrogen(H)= 1g
= 6.022×1023
= 3.01 x 1024 atoms
14. Calculate the mass of the following
(a) 3.24 x 1018 atoms of iron
Number of atoms = 3.24 x 1018 atoms
= 3.01 x 10-4 g
(b) 2 x 1010 molecules of nitrogen gas
Number of molecules = 2 x 1010 molecules
Molar mass of nitrogen gas (N2) = 2 x 14 = 28g
= 9.3 x 10-13 g

(c) 1 x 10 25 molecules water

Number of molecules = 1 x 1025 atoms
Molar mass of water (H2O)= 1×2 + 16 = 18g
= 2.99 x 102g

(d) 3 x 106 atoms of Al

Number of atoms = 3 x 106 atoms
Molar mass of Aluminum(Al)= 27 g
= 1.346 x 10-16g
15. Balance the following chemical equations.
a. Na (s) + H₂O (l) → NaOH (aq) + H₂ (g)
Balanced equation:
2Na (s) + 2 H₂O (l) → 2 NaOH (aq) + H₂ (g)
b. NH₃ → N₂ + H₂
Balanced equation:
2NH₃ → N₂ + 3 H₂
16. Potassium is Group 1 element. It is silvery white metal. It burns in air and forms both potassium
oxide and potassium nitride. The nitride ion is N3-.
(a) Predict the formula of potassium oxide and potassium nitride.
Potassium oxide (K₂O): Potassium (K) has a +1 charge, and oxygen (O) has a -2 charge. To balance the
charges, the formula is K₂O.
Potassium nitride (K₃N): Potassium (K) has a +1 charge, and the nitride ion (N³⁻) has a -3 charge. To
balance the charges, the formula is K₃N.
(b) A 0.5g sample of K was added in 100cm3 of water.
K (s) + H2O (l) → KOH (aq) + H2(g)
Show that 1.28 x10-2 mole of K were added to the water.
Mass of K = 0.5 g
Molar mass of K = 39 g/mol
= 1.28 x10-2 mole
(c) Balance above chemical equation.
2K (s) + 2H2O (l) → 2KOH (aq) + H2(g)
(d) Transform above chemical equation into ionic equation.
Write the substances that are soluble in water in their dissociated form
K (s) + H₂O (l) → K⁺ (aq) + OH⁻ (aq) + H₂ (g)
(e) Calculate the number of atoms present in the sample of K.
Number of moles of K = 1.28×10−2moles
Avogadro’s number NA = 6.022×1023
Number of atoms = No. of moles x NA
= 1.28×10−2 x 6.022×1023
= 7.7 × 1021 atoms

(f) Predict period number of potassium in the periodic table.

Potassium (K) is in Period 4 of the periodic table.

Unit 7: Electrochemistry
Give short answers
(i) What is oxidation state?
Oxidation state or oxidation number is defined as the number of apparent charges that an atom will
have in the molecule.
The elements that show an increase in oxidation number are oxidized. The elements that show a
decrease in oxidation number are reduced.

(ii) What is the oxidation number of Cr in chromic acid (H 2CrO4)?

The sum of oxidation state of all the atoms is zero.
2×1 + x + 4 (-2) = 0
2 + x -8 = 0
x–6=0
x=+6

(iii) Identify reducing agent in the following reaction.

CuO + H2 Cu + H2O
First assign oxidation number to each atom.
+2 -2 0 0 2(+1) -2
CuO + H2 Cu + H2O
The oxidation number of Cu decreases, Cu is reduced so CuO3 is an oxidizing agent. Similarly, the
oxidation number of H increases, H is oxidized. Therefore, H2 is reducing agent.

(iv) Why tin plated steel is used to make food cans?

Tin plated steel is used to make food cans. This is because the components of food beverages and the
preservatives contain organic acids or their salts. They may form toxic substances by reacting with iron.
These acids and salts are corrosive. Tin plating is non-poisonous and prevents corrosion.

(v) Explain one example from daily life which involves oxidation-reduction?
Examples from daily life which involves oxidation-reduction is rusting of iron. Oxygen and water are
necessary for iron to rust. A region of metal surface that has relatively less moisture, act as anode.
Fe (s) → Fe+2 (aq) + 2ē
Another region on the surface of metal that has relatively more moisture act as cathode. The electrons
released in the oxidation process reduce atmospheric oxygen to hydroxyl ions.
O2 + 2H2O +4ē → 4OH–
The Fe+2 ions formed at the anodic regions flow to the cathodic regions through the moisture on the
surface. Fe+2 ions further react with oxygen to form rust, Fe2O3. xH2O

3. Compare and contrast oxidation and reduction.

Oxidation Reduction

Gain of oxygen Loss of oxygen

Loss of hydrogen Gain of hydrogen

Loss of electrons Gain of electrons

Increase in oxidation number Decrease in oxidation number

4. Define oxidation and reduction in terms of loss or gain of electrons.

Oxidation:
The process that involves the loss of electrons by an element is called oxidation.
Example:
Fe (s) → Fe+2(aq) +2e−
Iron (Fe) loses two electrons to form Fe+2.
Reduction:
A process that involves the gain of electrons by a substance is called reduction.
Example:
O2 + 4e− + 2H2O → 4OH−
Oxygen (O₂) gains four electrons to form hydroxide ions (OH⁻).

5. Explain how food and beverage industries deal with corrosion.

Tin plated steel is used to make cans. Food and beverages industries use tinplated steel cans. This is
because the components of food beverages and the preservatives contain organic acids or their salts.
They may form toxic substances by reacting with iron. These acids and salts are corrosive. Tin plating is
non-poisonous and prevents corrosion.

6. State the substances which are oxidized or reduced. Give reason for your answer.
(a) N2 + 3H2 → NH3
0 0 -3 +3
N2 + 3H2 → NH3
There is a decrease in oxidation state of N. Therefore N– atoms undergo reduction.
There is an increase in oxidation state of H. Therefore H-atoms undergo oxidation.

(b) CO2 + 2Mg → 2MgO + C

Ans. +4 2(-2) 0 +2 -2 0
CO2 + 2Mg → 2MgO + C
There is a decrease in oxidation state of O. Therefore O-atoms undergo reduction.
There is a increase in oxidation state of Mg. Therefore Mg-atom undergo oxidation.

(c) Mg + H2O → MgO + H2

+→+
There is a decrease in oxidation state of H. Therefore H-atoms undergo reduction.
There is an increase in oxidation state of Mg. Therefore Mg-atoms undergo oxidation.

(d) H2S + Cl2 → 2HCl + S

+→2+
There is a decrease in oxidation state of Cl. Therefore Cl-atoms undergo reduction.
There is an increase in oxidation state of S. Therefore S-atoms undergo oxidation.

(e) 2NH3 + 3CuO → 3Cu + N2 + 3H2O

2 + 3 → 3+ +
There is a decrease in oxidation state of Cu. Therefore Cu-atoms undergo reduction.
There is an increase in oxidation state of N. Therefore N-atoms undergo oxidation.

7. (a) Define oxidation number or oxidation state.

Oxidation state or oxidation number is defined as the number of charges an atom will have in a
molecule or a compound.
The elements that show an increase in oxidation number are oxidized.
The elements that show a decrease in oxidation number are reduced.

(b) Find the oxidation state of Nitrogen in the following compounds.

(i) NO2
The sum of oxidation state of all the atoms is zero
x + 2 (-2) = 0
x–4=0
x -4 = 0
x=4

(ii) N2O
The sum of oxidation state of all the atoms is zero
2x + (-2) = 0
2x – 2 = 0
2x = 2
2x = 4
22
X=1

(iii) N2O3
The sum of oxidation state of all the atoms is zero
2x + 3 (-2) = 0
2x –6 = 0
2x = 6
2x = 6
22
X=3

(iv) HNO3
The sum of oxidation state of all the atoms is zero
+1 +x + 3 (-2) = 0
1+x–6=0
x -5 = 0
x=5

8. Find the oxidation state of S in the following compound

(a) H2S
The sum of oxidation state of all the atoms is zero
2(+1) x = 0
2+x=0
x = -2
Oxidation number for N in H2S is -2.

(b) H2SO3
The sum of oxidation state of all the atoms is zero.
2(+1) + x + 3(-2) = 0
2+x–6=0
x–4=0
X=4
Oxidation number for S in H2SO3 is +4.

(c) Na2S2O3
The sum of oxidation state of all the atoms is zero
2(+1) + 2x + 3(-2) = 0
2 + 2x – 6 = 0
2x -4 = 0
2x = 4
2x = 4
22
X=2
Oxidation number for S in Na2S2O3 is +2

9. Define oxidizing and reducing agents.

(a) Oxidizing agents:
An oxidizing agent is the reactant containing the element that is reduced (gains electrons) in a chemical
reaction.
Example:
2Na + Cl2 → 2NaCl
Chlorine (Cl₂) is Oxidizing Agent, because it gains electrons to form chloride ions (Cl⁻).
Reducing agents:
A reducing agent is the reactant containing the element that is oxidized (loses electrons) in the
chemical reaction.
Example:
Sodium (Na) is Reducing Agent, because it loses electrons to form sodium ions (Na⁺).

(b) Identify the oxidizing agents and reducing agents in the following reactions.
(i) H2S + Cl2 → 2HCl + S
First assign oxidation number to each atom.
2(+1) -2 0 +1 -1 0
H2S + Cl2 → 2HCl + S
The oxidation number of Cl decreases, Cl is reduced so Cl2 is an oxidizing agent.
Similarly, the oxidation number of S increases, S is oxidized, therefore S is reducing agent.

ii) 2 FeCl2 + Cl2 → 2FeCl3

First assign oxidation number to each atom
+2 2(-1) 0 +3 3(-1)
2 FeCl2 + Cl2 → 2FeCl3
The oxidation number of Cl decreases, Cl is reduced so Cl2 is an oxidizing agent. Similarly, the oxidation
number of Fe increases, Fe is therefore oxidized. FeCl2 is reducing agent.

(iii) 2KI + Cl2 → 2KCI + I2

First assign oxidation number to each atom.
2+ → 2 +
The oxidation number of Cl decreases, Cl is reduced. So Cl2 is an oxidizing agent. Similarly, the oxidation
number of I increases, I is oxidized. Therefore, KI is reducing agent.

(iv) Mg + 2HCl → MgCl2 + H2

First assign oxidation number to each atom.
+ 2→ +
The oxidation number of Cl decreases, Cl is reduced. So Cl2 is oxidizing agent.
Similarly, the oxidation number of Mg increases, Mg is oxidized. Therefore, Mg is reducing agent.

10. Hydrogen peroxide reacts with silver oxide and lead (II) sulphide according to the following
equations.
(i) H2O2 + Ag2O → 2Ag + H2O + O2
(ii) 4H2O2 + PbS → PbSO4 + 4H2O
Is hydrogen peroxide an oxidizing or reducing agent in these reactions? Give your reasons.
2(+1) 2(-1) 2(+1) -2 0 +2 -2 0
i) H2O2 + Ag2O → 2Ag + H2O + O2
Hydrogen peroxide is reducing agent. Because the oxidation number of Ag decreases, Ag is reduced. So
Ag2O is oxidizing agent.
Similarly, the H is oxidized. Therefore, H2O2 is reducing agent.
ii) 2(+2) 2(-2) +2 -2 +2 +6 4(-2) +2 -2
4H2O2 + PbS → PbSO4 + 4H2O
Hydrogen per oxide is an oxidizing agent. Because oxidation number of S increases, S is oxidized. So
PbS is reducing agent.
Similarly, oxidation number of H decreases, H is reduced. Therefore, H2O2 is oxidizing agent.

Unit 8: Energetics
Give short answer.
1. Define exothermic and endothermic reactions.
Exothermic Reactions: A chemical reaction that proceeds with the evolution of heat is called an
exothermic reaction. In an exothermic reaction, the chemical system transfers energy to the
surroundings as the reactants are converted to products.
Example: Burning of fuels.
Endothermic Reactions: A chemical reaction that proceeds with the absorption of heat is called an
endothermic reaction. In these reactions, heat is transferred from the surroundings to the system.
Example: Sublimation of dry ice.

2. Define enthalpy of a chemical reaction.

The enthalpy of reaction is the amount of heat or thermal energy evolved or absorbed during a
chemical reaction. It reflects the change in the heat content of the system as reactants are converted
into products.
 The enthalpy change (ΔHo) is negative, when reaction is Exothermic
 The enthalpy change (ΔHo) is positive, when reaction is Endothermic

3. What is anaerobic respiration?
Anaerobic respiration: Respiration that does not require oxygen to break down glucose to release
energy is called anaerobic respiration.
Glucose → Lactic acid + Energy
Anaerobic respiration releases less energy than aerobic respiration.

4. Define activation energy.

Activation energy is the minimum energy required for particles to collide effectively and react. It must
overcome electron repulsion and ensure correct orientation. If particles lack this energy, no reaction
occurs. Higher activation energy means a slower reaction rate, while lower activation energy speeds up
the reaction.
 5. What is the role of a catalyst in a chemical reaction.
A catalyst speeds up a chemical reaction by lowering the activation energy needed. It remains
unchanged after the reaction and does not affect the overall energy change. This allows reactions to
happen faster and more efficiently, even at lower temperatures. Enzymes are biological catalysts in
living organisms.

6. Differentiate between aerobic and anaerobic respiration.

Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration
Does not require oxygen; breaks down glucose without
Requires oxygen to break down glucose.
it.
Produces carbon dioxide, water, and energy. Produces lactic acid and energy.
Releases more energy because it fully oxidizes Releases less energy as glucose is only partially broken
glucose. down.
Relies on lipids for additional energy when glucose is
Primarily uses glucose for energy.
insufficient.

3. How can you determine the enthalpy of a chemical reaction?

First write balanced chemical reaction in gaseous state and apply the formula.
ΔH = Sum of bond dissociation energies of reactants − Sum of bond energies of products.

4. Explain, how does the process of respiration provides us energy?

Respiration provides energy by oxidizing glucose in the body, releasing energy through an exothermic
reaction. There are two types of respiration processes.
1. Aerobic Respiration: This process requires oxygen and breaks down glucose into carbon dioxide
and water, releasing a significant amount of energy.
2. Anaerobic Respiration: This process occurs without oxygen, breaking down glucose into lactic
acid and releasing less energy.
When glucose oxidation is insufficient, lipids are oxidized to provide additional energy.

5. Draw labeled reaction pathway diagram for an exothermic and an endothermic reaction.
Exothermic Reaction:
Endothermic Reaction:

6. Calculate the enthalpy of reaction between hydrogen and chlorine to form hydrogen chloride from
the given bond energy data. Bond energy of H-H, CI-CI, H-Cl are 436kJ/mol, 243kJ/mol and 432kJ/mol
respectively.
Balanced Chemical Equation:
H2(g)+Cl2(g) → 2HCl(g)
ΔHo = ?
Bond Energy of H-H = 436kJ/mol
Bond Energy of Cl-Cl = 243kJ/mol
Bond Energy of H-Cl = 432kJ/mol
Sum of Bond dissociation energies of reactants=436+243 = 679kJ/mol
Sum of Bond dissociation energies of products = 2×432 = 864kJ/mol
ΔH∘= Sum of Bond dissociation energies of reactants− Sum of Bond energies of products
= 679 kJ/mol − 864 kJ/mol
ΔH∘ = − 185 kJ/mol

7. Justify the statement that the process of respiration is crucial for us.
Respiration is crucial for us because it releases energy from glucose, which is essential for all bodily
functions. This biochemical process, particularly aerobic respiration, efficiently provides the energy
required for growth, repair, and maintenance of cells, supporting overall health and survival.

Unit 9: Chemical Equilibrium

Give short answer.
1. Differentiate between forward and reverse reactions.
Forward Reaction Reverse Reaction
It is written from left to right. It is written from right to left.
Reactant produce products Products produce reactants.
Initially rate is fastest and gradually slows down. Initially rate is zero and gradually speeds up.
 2. What is chemical equilibrium?
Chemical equilibrium is the state of a reaction where the forward and reverse reactions occur at the
same rate. At this point, the concentrations of reactants and products remain constant.

3. Write two chemical equations of reversible reactions.

Chemical equations of reversible reactions:
 2SO2(g)+O2(g)

2SO3(g)
 N2(g)+3H2(g)

2NH3(g)

1. Write down the conditions for equilibrium.

Conditions for equilibrium are:
 The concentration of reactant or product remains unchanged.
 The temperature of the system remains constant.
 The pressure or volume of the system remains constant.

3. Coal reacts with hot steam to form CO and H2. These substances react further in the presence of a
catalyst to give methane and water vapour.
CO + 3H2

CH4 + H2O
Write forward and reverse reactions for it.
Forward Reaction:
CO + 3H2 CH4 + H2O
Reverse Reaction:
CH4 + H2O CO + 3H2

4. How does temperature affect cobalt chloride equilibrium?

When hydrated cobalt (II) chloride (a pink solid) is heated, it loses water and becomes anhydrous
cobalt (II) chloride (a blue solid), causing the equilibrium to shift to the right. However, when water is
added to anhydrous cobalt (II) chloride, it absorbs the water, and the equilibrium shifts to the left,

CoCl2⋅6H2O (pink solid)

reforming hydrated cobalt (II) chloride.

CoCl2 (blue solid) + 6H2O

 Unit 10: Acids, Base and Salts
Give short answer.
1. Write the equation for the self-ionization of water.
The reaction in which two water molecules produce ions is called as the self-ionization or auto
ionization of water. Simple ionization of water can be written as:
H 2O
H+ + OH–
A water molecule that loses a proton becomes a negatively charged hydroxide ion (OH-). The other
water molecule which gains the proton becomes positively charged hydronium ion (H3O+). This can be
written as:
2H2O
H3O+ + OH–

2. Define and give examples of Arrhenius acids.

Arrhenius Acids:

An acid is a substance that ionizes in water to produce H+ ions. For example:

HCl
H+ + Cl–
H 2O
HNO3
H+ + NO3-1
Since HCl and HNO3 produce H+ ions, therefore HCl and HNO3 are acids.

3. Why HCl acts as a strong acid?

HCl acts as a strong acid because it ionizes completely in aqueous solution. All the molecules of HCl
dissociate in water, producing H⁺ and Cl⁻ ions. They ionize 100% in aqueous solution. This complete
ionization is characteristic of strong acids
H 2O
HCl
H+ + Cl–

4. Why NH, acts as Bronsted-Lowry base?

According to Bronsted-Lowry theory an acid is a proton donor and a base is a proton acceptor.
Water: Donates a proton and is converted to OH⁻. Therefore, water is a Bronsted acid.
Ammonia: Accepts a proton and is converted to NH₄⁺. Therefore, ammonia is a Bronsted base.

5. Why ammonia acts as a weak base.

A base that ionizes to a little extent is called a weak base. Such bases produce fewer OH ions in
aqueous solution.
Ammonia acts as a weak base because it does not ionize completely in aqueous solution. It accepts a
proton from water to form ammonium ions (NH₄⁺) and hydroxide ions (OH⁻), but this ionization is not
complete.
NH3 + H2O
NH4+ + OH−

3. Ammonium hydroxide and nitric acid react and produce ammonium nitrate and water. Write
balanced chemical equation for this neutralization reaction.
The balanced chemical equation between ammonium hydroxide and nitric acid to form ammonium
nitrate and water is.
NH4OH + HNO3 NH4NO3 + H2O

4. Write balanced chemical equations for the following neutralization reactions.

i. Sulphuric acid + Magnesium hydroxide Magnesium sulphate + water
H2SO4 + Mg(OH)2 MgSO4 + 2H2O

ii. Sulphuric acid + Sodium hydroxide Sodium sulphate + water

H2SO4 + 2NaOH Na2SO4 + 2H2O

iii. Hydrochloric acid + Calcium Hydroxide Calcium Chloride + water

2HCl + Ca(OH)2 CaCl2 + 2H2O

5. Identify Bronsted-Lowry acids or bases in the following reactions.

i. HNO3 + H2O H3O+ + NO–3
HNO₃: Donates a proton and is converted to NO₃⁻. Therefore, HNO₃ is a Bronsted acid.
H₂O: Accepts a proton and is converted to H₃O⁺. Therefore, H₂O is a Bronsted base.

ii. NH3 + HNO3 NH4NO3

HNO₃: Donates a proton and is converted to NO₃⁻. Therefore, HNO₃ is a Bronsted acid.
NH₃: Accepts the proton and forms NH₄⁺. Therefore, NH₃ is a Bronsted base.

6. Give the Bronsted-Lowry definition of an acid. Write an equation that illustrates the definition.
In 1923 J.N Bronsted and T.M Lowery independently proposed another theory to overcome the
shortcomings of Arrhenius theory. According to Bronsted-Lowry theory an acid is a proton donor. For
example:
In the above reaction HCl donates proton. So HCl is an acid.

7. Identify Bronsted acids and Bronsted bases in the following reactions. Classify water as proton
donor or proton acceptor.
i. CH3COOH + H2O CH3COO– + H3O+
 CH₃COOH donates a proton and becomes CH₃COO⁻, therefore CH₃COOH is an acid.
 H₂O accepts a proton and becomes H₃O⁺, therefore H₂O is a base.

ii. HCO3– + H2O CO3-2 + H3O+ (H+ and proton is same)

 HCO₃⁻ donates a proton, so it is the Bronsted-Lowry acid.
 H₂O accepts a proton, so it is the Bronsted-Lowry base.

iii. NH3 + H2O NH4+ + OH–

 H₂O donates a proton and becomes OH⁻, so H₂O is an acid.
 NH₃ accepts the proton and becomes NH₄⁺, so it is a base.

iv. HCl + HCO3– H2CO3 + Cl–

 HCl donates a proton, so it is the Bronsted-Lowry acid.
 HCO₃⁻ accepts a proton, so it is the Bronsted-Lowry base.

v. HS– + H2O S-2 + H3O+

 HS⁻ donates a proton, so it is the Bronsted-Lowry acid.
 H₂O accepts a proton, so it is the Bronsted-Lowry base.

8. Classify water as proton donor and proton acceptor.

Water is amphoteric in nature. It behaves as acid as well as bese. For example,

H₂O accepts a proton and becomes H₃O⁺, therefore H₂O is a base.

H₂O donates a proton and becomes OH⁻, therefore H₂O is an acid.

9. Write equations showing the ionization of the following as Arrhenius acids.

a. HI(aq)
HI
H+ + I–
b. HNO2 (aq)
HNO2
H+ + NO2-1
According to Arrhenius theory an acid is a substance that ionizes in water to produce H +. So HI and
HNO2 are acids.

Unit 11: Environmental Chemistry – Air

Give short answer
i. List two main sources of acid rain.
The two main sources of acid rain are:
1. Sulphur dioxide (SO₂) from fossil fuels used in power plants.
2. Nitrogen oxides (NO and NO₂) from car exhausts.

ii. List four human activities which contribute to air pollution.

Four human activities that contribute to air pollution are:
1. Burning fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum, and natural gas.
2. Motor vehicles (cars and other motor vehicles).
3. Factories burning coal or oil.
4. Power plants that burn coal or oil.

iii. What is the importance of catalytic converter?

Catalytic converters are important because they help reduce air pollution. They change harmful gases
from car exhausts, like carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides, into less harmful substances like carbon
dioxide and water. This helps keep the air cleaner.

iv. What is the role of automobile in air pollution?

Automobiles play a significant role in air pollution. Nearly half of air pollution comes from cars and
other motor vehicles. They release harmful gases, such as carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and
sulfur oxides, into the air by burning fossil fuels like petroleum and natural gas.

v. Define global warming.

The warming of the atmosphere due to our influence on the greenhouse effect is called global
warming. Global warming is caused by disturbing the natural balance of greenhouse gas concentrations
in the atmosphere.
Substances responsible for global warming:
 Carbon dioxide (CO₂)
 Methane (CH₄)
 Water vapour

3. Describe sources of air pollutants.

Sources of Air Pollutants:
Natural Sources:
1. Forest Fires: Release smoke and dust particles into the air.
2. Dust Storms: Contribute dust particles to the atmosphere.
3. Volcanoes: Emit clouds of dust, poisonous gases, and ash.
4. Termites and Cows: Release large amounts of methane.
5. Electrical Discharges: Produce nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere.
Human Activities:
1. Burning Fossil Fuels: Coal, petroleum, and natural gas used in power plants, vehicles, and
industrial processes release various pollutants.
2. Motor Vehicles: Emit significant amounts of nitrogen oxides and carbon monoxide.
3. Factories and Power Plants: Release sulphur oxides, nitrogen oxides, and carbon monoxide
from burning coal or oil.
4. Incomplete Combustion: Produces carbon monoxide and particulate matter from burning
wood, fuels, and fossil fuels.
5. Incineration: Releases pollutants into the air.

4. Describe acid rain and its effects.

Acid Rain:
Acid rain is defined as rain having pH less than 5.6. Acid rain can often fall hundreds of kilometres from
its source. Acid rain corrodes metals, stone structures and statues
Gases that cause acid rain:
 Sulphur dioxide (SO₂)
 Nitrogen oxides (NO, NO₂)
Effect of acid rain:
Acid rain may often fall hundreds of kilometers away from their sources. Acid rain corrodes metals,
stone buildings and statues. Marble statues are slowly eroded by acid rain.
Sulphuric acid eats away metals to form water soluble salts and hydrogen.
Fe + H2S04 FeSO4 + H2
Marble buildings and statues:
Marble buildings and statues are disintegrated by acid rain.
CaC03 + H2SO4 CaS04 + H2O + CO2
CaCO3 + 2HNO3 Ca(NO3)2 + H2O + C02
Acid rain also kills fish, and destroys trees. Lakes and river may become too acidic for living things to
survive. Trees destroyed by acid rain. Fish are killed by acid rain.

5. Describe global warming.

Global warming:
The warming of the atmosphere which is due to our influence on the greenhouse effect is known as
global warming.
Substances responsible for global warming:
 Carbon dioxide (CO₂)
 Methane (CH₄)
 Water vapour
Effect of Global warming:
1. Temperature of the earth will gradually increase.
2. The earth’s climate may change, affecting both the rate of rainfall and how much it rains.
3. Increased risks of flooding in some regions and drought in others.
4. Polar ice may melt, causing a significant increase in sea levels.
5. The atmosphere becomes hotter.

6. What is ground level ozone. Explain.

Ground-level ozone, often called smog, is a secondary pollutant produced by complex reactions
between nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds (VOC) under sunlight. These reactions, called
photochemical reactions, mainly occur in industrial and urban areas with emissions from industrial
units and car engines. Ground-level ozone can irritate respiratory organs, cause asthma, and damage
vegetation, reducing crop yields and harming forests.

7. Why is global warming often referred to as the greenhouse effect?

Global warming is called the greenhouse effect because greenhouse gases like water vapor, methane,
and carbon dioxide trap heat in the atmosphere. These gases absorb and re-radiate infrared radiation
from the Earth’s surface, keeping the planet warm. Increased greenhouse gases from human activities
enhance this effect, raising temperatures and causing global warming.

8. Sulphur dioxide is a common pollutant from burning coal. State two effects caused by this
pollutant.
Two effects caused by sulphur dioxide are:
1. It aggravates respiratory conditions such as asthma, bronchitis, emphysema, and other lung
diseases.
2. It is responsible for acid rain and haze.
 Unit 12: Environmental Chemistry – Water
Give short answer.
1. List the impurities present in rain water.
The impurities present in rainwater are:
 Oxygen
 Nitrogen
 Carbon dioxide
 Dust particles
 Nitric acid (during thunderstorms)
 Minerals (dissolved from rocks and soils)
 Substances from decaying plants and animals.

2. List toxic substances present in household wastes.

Toxic substances present in household wastes:
 Soaps and detergents
 Paints
 Oil
 Chemical contents (in household water)
 Bacterial contents

3. In what ways, industrial wastes pollute water.

i. Ways Industrial Wastes Pollute Water:
ii. Industrial waste contains highly toxic compounds and heavy metals.
iii. Common toxic heavy metals include Pd, Cd, Cr, Hg, As, Sb.
iv. Leather tannery water contains high levels of chromium (VI) salts.
v. Chromium (VI) ions are highly toxic and can cause cancer.

4. What is water pollution?

Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies due to human activities such as household waste,
agricultural waste, surface waste, pesticides, oil leaks, detergents, septic tanks, petroleum, and natural
gas production.

5. List some waterborne diseases.

Some water borne diseases:
 Cholera
 Typhoid
 Dysentery
 Hepatitis

6. What are pathogenic microorganisms?

An organism of microscopic size, usually a bacteria or virus, that causes disease. These organisms are
transmitted through food, water and direct contact. These organism may cause typhoid fever,
dysentery and hepatitis.
3. How does tap water differ from distilled water?
Tap Water Distilled Water
Comes from natural sources like streams, rivers,
Made by boiling and condensing water.
lakes, reservoirs, and groundwater.
Contains minerals and some impurities. Free of impurities and contaminants.
Treated to be safe for drinking. Lacks essential minerals.
Used for household and general purposes. Used in laboratories for specific tasks.
Has normal electrical conductivity. Has very low electrical conductivity.

4. Why are municipal water supplies treated with aluminium sulphate?

Municipal water supplies are treated with aluminum sulfate for coagulation. When aluminum sulfate is
added to water, it reacts to form a gelatinous mass of aluminum hydroxide, which helps to carry down
dirt particles and bacteria, making the water clearer and safer for use.

5. What are some health effects of biological contamination of water?

Some health effects of biological contamination of water are:
1. Dysentery causes severe abdominal cramps and diarrhea.
2. Cholera leads to severe diarrhea and dehydration.
3. Typhoid results in high fever and irregular pulse.
4. Hepatitis causes liver inflammation and can lead to jaundice.

6. Identify the negative effects of water pollutants on life.

Negative effects of water pollutants:
1. Pollutants can kill aquatic life.
2. Heavy metals in water can cause serious health issues like neurological problems and cancer.
3. Biological contaminants can cause diseases like cholera, typhoid, and hepatitis.
4. Excess nitrates and phosphates can lead to harmful algae blooms.
5. Polluted water can become unsafe for drinking.

7. Water scarcity is an important issue in Pakistan. Give your comments on it.

Water scarcity in Pakistan is a serious problem due to:
1. Growing population needs more water.
2. Overuse of water faster than it can be replenished.
3. Climate change causing unpredictable weather.
4. Pollution making water unsafe.
5. Poor water management and inefficient practices.

8. What are fertilizers?

Fertilizers are substances that provide essential elements for plant growth, mainly nitrogen (N),
phosphorus (P), and potassium (K). They dissolve in water to give nutrients to plants in a readily
available form.

Unit 13: Organic Chemistry

Give short answer.
1. What is catenation?
The chemical diversity of organic compounds arises from carbon’s ability to bond with other carbon
atoms to form long chains and rings. This self-linking ability is known as catenation. This property
allows carbon to create a wide variety of complex organic compounds.

2. Define isomerism.
Compounds having same molecular formula but different structural formula is called isomers and this
process is called isomerism.
Example:
n-Butane:
CH₃-CH₂-CH₂-CH₃
iso-Butane:

3. Give three examples of unsaturated compound.

Unsaturated Compounds:
Hydrocarbons containing carbon-carbon multiple bonds are called unsaturated.
Ethene 1-Pentene 1-Butyne

4. Define a functional group.

An atom or groups of atoms that give a family of organic compounds its characteristics (chemical and
physical properties) is called a functional group.
Example:
Methane: CH₄
Methyl Alcohol: CH₃ – OH
Methyl Chloride: CH₃ – Cl

5. What is the difference between an alkene and an alkyne?

Alkene Alkyne
Contains one or more double bonds. Contains one or more triple bonds.
General Formula: C n H ₂n General Formula: C n H ₂n – 2
Example: Example:
Double bond(s) between carbon atoms Triple bond(s) between carbon atoms

3. Identify the following compounds on the basis of functional groups they contain and encircle the
functional group.

4. What is the name of alkane having four carbon atoms in the chain?
Butane have four carbon atoms.
Molecular Formula: C₄H₁₀
Structural Formula:
Condensed Structural Formula: CH₃-CH₂-CH₂-CH₃

5. Give the structural formula of two simple alkanes and one alkyne.
Alkanes:

Alkyne:

6. What is meant by the term functional group?

An atom or groups of atoms that give a family of organic compounds its characteristics (chemical and
physical properties) is called a functional group.
Example:
Methane: CH₄
Methyl Alcohol: CH₃ – OH
Methyl Chloride: CH₃ – Cl

7. Identify following as an alcohol, aldehyde or ketone.

i. HCHO, which is used to manufacture polymers, such as urotropine which is used to treat urinary
tract infection.
Aldehyde because of CHO- group is attached

ii. CH3COCH3, which is used in nail polish remover.

Ketone because of CO- group is attached.

iii. CH3CH2OH, which is used in the preparation of many organic substance such as plastics, cosmetics,
tinctures etc.
Alcohol because of OH group is attached to alkyl group.
 Unit 14: Hydrocarbons
Give short answer.
1. Give three examples of saturated hydrocarbons.
Hydrocarbons containing carbon-carbon multiple bonds are called unsaturated.
Ethene 1-Pentene 1-Butyne

2. Draw structure for ethane.

Ethane consists of two carbon atoms (C) connected by a single bond.

3. Draw structural formulas of an alkane containing five carbon atoms.

Alkane (Pentane) Alkene (1 – Pentene) Alkyne (2 – Pentyne)

4. What do you mean by dehydration reaction? Give one example

Dehydration means a chemical reaction that involves the loss of a water molecule from
the reacting molecule.
Example:
Alcohols dehydrate when their vapours are passed over heated alumina.
 5. What is meant by cracking?
A large hydrocarbon (alkane) molecule breaks into smaller hydrocarbons when heated at high
temperatures such as 450 – 7500C and high pressure. This process is called thermal cracking. This
process produces a mixture of alkanes and alkenes. For example, when decane is heated at high
temperature and high pressure, it breaks down into octane and ethene.

3. Discuss methods for the preparation ethane.

Methods for the preparation of ethane:
By the Hydrogenation of Alkenes and Alkynes:
Ethane can be prepared by hydrogenating alkenes or alkynes. In the presence of finely divided nickel at
200-300°C and high pressure, or in the presence of platinum (Pt) or palladium (Pd) at room
temperature, the hydrogen molecules add across the carbon-carbon multiple bonds of alkenes or
alkynes, producing alkanes.

By the Reduction of Alkyl Halides:

When an alkyl halide is treated with Zn in presence of an aqueous acid, an alkane is produced. Usually
aqueous solution of HCL or CH, COOH is used.

Zn reacts with aqueous acid to liberate atomic hydrogen called nascent hydrogen. Nascent hydrogen
reduces alkyl halide. Addition of nascent hydrogen is called reduction.
By the Cracking of Larger Hydrocarbons:
A large hydrocarbon (alkane) molecule breaks into smaller hydrocarbons when heated at high
temperatures such as 450 – 7500C and high pressure. This process is called thermal cracking. This
process produces a mixture of alkanes and alkenes. For example, when decane is heated at high
temperature and high pressure, it breaks down into octane and ethene.

4. Describe properties of alkanes.

Alkane molecules are essentially non-polar. They are less dense than water and do not dissolve in it.
Chemically, alkanes do not react with most ionic compounds. The lack of reactivity makes them useful
solvents. For example, hexane is used to extract vegetable oils from corn, soybeans, cotton seeds, etc.
Alkanes containing up to four carbon atoms are colourless and odourless gases. Alkanes, containing
five to seventeen atoms, are colourless and odourless liquids. Higher alkanes are solids that are also
colourless and odourless.

5. Write a chemical equation to show the preparation of an alkane from an alkene and an alkyne.
Ethane can be prepared by hydrogenating alkenes or alkynes. In the presence of finely divided nickel at
200-300°C and high pressure, or in the presence of platinum (Pt) or palladium (Pd) at room
temperature, the hydrogen molecules add across the carbon-carbon multiple bonds of alkenes or
alkynes, producing alkanes.

Unit 15: Biochemistry

Give short answer.
1. Give three reasons why living organisms need food.
i. Food provides the fuel needed for all bodily functions and activities.
ii. Food supplies essential nutrients for growth, repair, and maintenance of tissues.
iii. A balanced diet helps prevent diseases and supports overall health.

2. What is a balanced diet? What is the importance of balance diet?

A balanced diet provides all the nutrients in suitable amounts needed to carry out life processes. It
includes a variety of foods in limited amounts and proportions to satisfy the needs for calories,
proteins, minerals, vitamins, and other nutrients.
Importance of a Balanced Diet:
 Reduces high blood pressure.
 Lowers high cholesterol.
  Prevents diseases like obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, cancer, and skeletal problems.
 Increases bone health and muscle strength.

3. State four functions of proteins. Give one example to illustrate your answer.
 Proteins are a source of energy for the body.
 Proteins help the body to grow.
 Proteins repair tissues in the body.
 Proteins maintain body tissues and cells.
Example: Proteins found in eggs, help repair and maintain body tissues, provide energy, and support
growth.

4. Suggest two major foods a mother could give to her growing child? And why.
Meat or Fish: These are rich in proteins, which are essential for the child’s growth, wound healing, and
overall development. Proteins help in building and repairing body tissues, making them crucial for a
growing child.
Fruits and Vegetables: These provide essential vitamins and minerals, which are vital for the child’s
immune system, bone health, and overall well-being. A balanced intake of these nutrients ensures the
child stays healthy and develops properly.

5. Carbohydrates are a major source of energy. Defend the statement.

Carbohydrates are a major source of energy because they are broken down into glucose, which fuels
our body’s cells, tissues, and organs. Each gram of carbohydrate provides 4 kilocalories of energy.
When carbohydrates are not available, the body uses proteins and fats as alternative energy sources,
but glucose is the preferred fuel, especially for the brain.

6. Fatima has fond of junk food like French fries, burgers, and pizza. What will happen if Fatima only
eats junk food? What should she add to her routine food?
If Fatima only eats junk food like French fries, burgers, and pizza, she may face health issues such as
weight gain, high cholesterol, and increased risk of diseases like diabetes and heart disease due to the
high fat, sugar, and salt content. To improve her health, she should add more vegetables, fruits, whole
grains, and lean proteins to her routine food.

3. What are lipids? How are lipids important to our body?

Lipids are fatty, waxy, or oily compounds insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents. They
include fats and oils.
Importance of Lipids:
 Store energy.
 Provide insulation and protection for the body.
 Help absorb fat-soluble vitamins.

4. How do you maintain a balanced diet?

To maintain a balanced diet, I:
 Eat a variety of foods in the right amounts.
 Include carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, vitamins, minerals, and water in my diet.
  Focus on eating more vegetables and fruits.

5. What percentage of fat is required in a balanced diet? Why is the percentage of fat being lowest in
major food components? Justify
In a balanced diet, fat should make up about 33% of the total intake. The percentage of fat is the
lowest among major food components because fats provide more energy (9 kilocalories per gram)
compared to carbohydrates and proteins (4 kilocalories per gram). Therefore, to balance energy intake
and prevent excessive calorie consumption, the fat percentage is kept moderate.

6. What are the sources and functions of nucleic acids?

Sources of Nucleic Acids:
 Seeds
 Grain
 Fish eggs
Functions of Nucleic Acids:
 DNA carries genetic information and allows it to be passed to the next generation.
 RNA helps in converting genetic information into proteins.

7. Imagine you are a nutritionist task to design a meal plan for athletes participating in a marathon.
Explain the role of carbohydrates can affect an athlete’s performance during the marathon.
Carbohydrates, like oatmeal, whole-grain bread, pasta, rice, bananas, and sweet potatoes, are the
main energy source for running. They break down into glucose, fueling muscles and maintaining
energy. Adequate intake before and during the marathon keeps glucose levels stable, delaying fatigue
and enhancing performance, ensuring athletes have enough stored energy throughout the race.

Unit 16: Empirical Data Collection and Analysis

Give short answers
(i) What is system international? Why SI units are standardized for better communication and
collaboration.
The International System of Units (SI) is a globally recognized system for measuring physical quantities.
SI units are standardized to enhance communication and collaboration by providing a universal
language for scientists, engineers, and others across different countries and disciplines.
This standardization ensures consistency, accuracy, and clarity in measurements, facilitating seamless
exchange of information and data worldwide.

(ii) In a race, why it is essential to use seconds or minutes as the unit for measurement for recording
the time instead of hours?
Using seconds or minutes as the unit for recording race times allows for more precise measurement
and comparison between competitors, as race events typically involve shorter time intervals.
Hours would be too large a unit for such events, making it less practical and accurate for timing
individual performances.
(iii) Differentiate between accuracy and precision.
Aspect Accuracy Precision
Definition Closeness of a measured value to the Consistency and repeatability of measured
true or actual value. values.
Focus Concerned with correctness or Concerned with consistency and reliability
trueness of measurements. hitting close to the same spot on a target.
Goal To minimize systematic errors and To minimize random errors and fluctuations.
biases.
Example Hitting the bulls eye on a target. Consistency hitting close to the same spot on
a target.

(iv) A chemist has a sample of mass 0.003 kilograms. How will he convert this mass to milligrams?
To convert mass from kilograms to milligrams, the chemist would multiply by 106 because there are 103
milligrams in 1 gram and 103 grams in 1 kilogram.

(v) What is the use of prefixes in measurements?

Prefixes in measurements are used to denote multiples or fractions of the base unit, making it easier to
work with very large or very small quantities.

(vi) What are the advantages of using scientific tools like measuring cylinders, stopwatch and
thermometers in measurements?
Using scientific tools like measuring cylinders, stopwatches, and thermometers offers several
advantages:
i. Accuracy:
These tools provide precise measurements, reducing human error in readings.
ii. Consistency:
They ensure consistent results, aiding in reliable data collection and analysis.
iii. Efficiency:
Scientific tools expedite the measurement process, saving time and effort.
iv. Standardization:
They adhere to standardized units and procedures, promoting uniformity in measurements.
v. Versatility:
These tools can be used across various scientific disciplines, enhancing their utility and value.

UNIT-17 SEPARATION TECHNIQUES

Give short answers
(1)Why is it important to separate materials from a mixture?
Separating materials from a mixture is important because it allows isolate and identify individual
components, remove impurities, extract valuable substances, and purify materials for various
applications.
The separation of components in a mixture is very important in many science fields. When scientists
need to study one particular component of a mixture, various separation methods are used. These
methods take advantage of the differences in the physical properties of the substances to be
separated.
(ii) What is distillation?
Distillation:
Distillation is a separation technique used to separate components of a liquid mixture by a process of
heating and cooling, which exploits the differences in the volatility of each of the components. The
liquid that is obtained by performing the condensation of vapor is called the distillation.
Distillation is carried out at the solvent's boiling points. Boiling takes place when the vapor pressure is
equivalent to the atmospheric pressure.

(iii) What is filtration?

Filtration:
Filtration is a separation technique used to separate the components of a mixture containing an
undissolved solid in a liquid. The exact method used depends on the purpose of the filtration, whether
it is for the isolation of a solid from a mixture or removal of impurities from a mixture.
Filtration is a chemical process that is used to separate solids from liquids or gases with the use of a
filter paper or filtering device. The filter is essential for allowing the easy passage of the liquid but not
the solid particles that are present in the liquid. The fluid that we get after the filtration is known as
Filtrate.
The most common form of filtration is known as Gravity Filtration. The suspension to be filtered is
called Slurry and the porous medium used to retain the solids is known as the filter medium.

(iv) What is evaporation?

Evaporation:
Evaporation is a separation method use to separate components of a mixture in which a solid is
dissolved in a liquid, where the liquid changes into the gaseous phase and solid is left behind. The
application is based on the fact that solids do not vaporize easily, whereas liquids do.
For example:
In many parts of the world, salt is obtained from seawater by evaporation. Water evaporates due to
the heat coming from the Sun.

UNIT-18 QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS

Q2. Give short answers.
(i) How is ammonia detected by a litmus paper?
Ammonia can be detected by litmus paper because it is basic. When ammonia gas, comes into contact
with litmus paper, it causes the litmus paper to turn blue. The red litmus paper will turn blue. Turning
the litmus paper blue confirm the presence of any basic gas like ammonia.

(ii)How can you identify carbon dioxide?

Carbon dioxide can be identified by passing it through limewater. If carbon dioxide is present, it will
turn the limewater milky due to the formation of calcium carbonate.
The lime water will turn milky due to the production of calcium carbonate which is insoluble.
CO2 + Ca(OH)2 → CaCO3
This method is a confirmatory test for Carbon dioxide.

(iii) How can you detect hydrogen gas?

Hydrogen gas can be detected by its characteristic "pop" sound when ignited in the presence of a
flame.
A popping voice with a flame is observed which will confirm the presence of hydrogen gas.
2H2(g) + O2(g) → +2H2O(l)
This happens as a reaction of hydrogen with oxygen in the presence of flame and the formation of
water vapours.

(iv) How can you detect sulphur dioxide?

Sulfur dioxide can be detected by its pungent odor, similar to the smell of burnt matches.
The following reaction occurs in which purple colour of KMnO4 will be discharged. It shall indicate the
presence of SO2 gas.
2KMnO4 + 3S02+ H2O2 → MnO2 + 2K2SO4 + 2H2SO4
This method is often used in analytical chemistry and environmental monitoring to detect and measure
SO2 levels in gases.

(v) Differentiate between oxidizing and reducing flame?

Difference between oxidizing and reducing flame:
Characteristic Oxidizing Flame Reducing Flame
Color Blue or blue-white Yellow or yellow-orange
Temperature High temperature Lower temperature than
oxidizing flame
Oxygen Content Abundant oxygen Limited oxygen or excess fuel
Reaction with metals Oxidizes metals(forms oxides) Reduces metal oxides to
elemental form
Example Flame in a well-ventilated Flame in a poorly- ventilated
Bunsen burner Bunsen burner

UNIT-19 Chromatography
Q2. Give short answers.
(i) Define chromatography.
Chromatography is a laboratory technique used to separate and analyze mixtures of substances based
on their different affinities for a mobile phase (such as a solvent) and a stationary phase (solid or
liquid).

(ii) Define locating agent.

Locating agent:
A locating agent is a substance or a solution which is used to locate the components which have been
separated by chromatography but are not visible due to being colourless.
For example, a mixture of amino acids can be separated by paper chromatography or by thin layer
chromatography (TLC) but they are not visible, to locate them ninhydrin is sprayed on the
chromatogram. Ninhydrin reacts with amino Acids and develops into a colourful chromatogram.

(iii) What is Rf value?

Rf factor (retardation factor) is a measure of affinity of a component with mobile phase or stationary
phase If Rf value is greater it means that the component is more affine towards the mobile phase than
to stationary phase.
Distance traveled by solute
Rf=
Distance traveled by solvent
Calculate the R values for various inks by the formula given. In this way we can separate a mixture of
various inks by chromatography.

(iv) Define paper chromatography.

Paper chromatography is a technique used to separate mixtures of substances into their individual
components. It involves placing a spot of the mixture on a strip of porous paper and allowing it to be
drawn up by a solvent. As the solvent moves through the paper, it carries the components of the
mixture at different rates, leading to their separation based on their differing affinities for the paper
and the solvent. Simple paper chromatography, for example, can be used to separate a color mixture.
Thus, in order to obtain a measure of the extent of movement of a component in a paper
chromatography experiment, "Rf value" is calculated for each separated component in the developed
chromatogram. An Rf value is a number that is defined as the distance traveled by the component from
the application point.

(v) What do you mean by paper chromatogram?

A paper chromatogram is the result of a paper chromatography experiment. It's a visual representation
of the separated components of a mixture on the paper strip after chromatography has been
performed.
Interpreting a chromatogram:
Separation by chromatography produces a chromatogram. A paper chromatogram can be used to
distinguish between pure and impure substances:
 A pure substance produces one spot on the chromatogram.
 An impure substance produces two or more spots.
A paper chromatogram can also be used to identify substances by comparing them with known
substances. Two substances are likely to be the same
If:
 They produce the same number of spots, and these match in color.
 The spots travel the same distance up the paper (have the same R, value)