CHAPTER II

Review of Related Literature and Studies

This chapter presents the review of related literature and studies.

This discusses the following topics: (A) Mathematics and Its Importance. (B) Mathematics in K-12
Curriculum, and (C) Student's Mathematics Performance as to Sex.

Mathematics and Its Importance

Mathematics is an essential discipline and skill that must be possessed and developed by an individual.
Measurement of proficiency in calculation skills is vital in learning Mathematics. Proficiency in
computation skills build one's self-confidence in applying knowledge where mathematics is a
cornerstone in the processing of information necessary both at work and in daily life (Kilpatrick and
Swafford, 2002).

According to Expert Panels on Student Success in Ontario (2004), mathematics is a fundamental human
endeavor that empowers individuals to describe, analyze, and understand the world. The fact that every
adult and therefore every child can do mathematics must be truly embraced. If the conviction that
mathematical literacy is for everyone is conveyed, the confidence in students will build their self-
confidence. Self- confidence is a key ingredient in learning and success in mathematics

According to the Michigan State Board of Education (2004), mathematical understandings and skills are
essential elements for meaningful participation in the global information society. As an example, the
Michigan K-8 Mathematics Grade Level Expectations represent a major step forward in raising
expectations in mathematics for all students. These high school expectations are intended to equip all
students with a solid background for continued post-secondary study in any area, as well as with skills
and knowledge essential for the workplace.
Engle, Grantham-McGregor, Black, Walker, & Wachs (2007) added that mastery of mathematics is a key
literacy component that influences children's success in education and in future society.

Berk and Winsler (2005) affirmed that high-quality and challenging mathematics education should
already be accessible to very young children as a vital foundation for future mathematics learning.
Throughout the early years of life, children notice and explore mathematical dimensions of their world.
They compare quantities, find patterns, navigate in space, and grapple with real problems such as
balancing a tall block building or sharing a bowl of crackers fairly with a playmate. Mathematics helps
children make sense of their world outside of school and helps them construct a solid foundation for
success in school. In elementary and middle school, children need mathematical understanding and
skills not only in math courses but also in science, social studies, and other subjects. In high school,
students need mathematical proficiency to succeed in course work that provides a gateway to
technological literacy and higher education. Once out of school, all adults need a broad range of basic
mathematical understanding to make informed decisions in their jobs, households, communities, and
civic lives.

Furthermore, Michigan State Board of Education (2004) stated that the rich learning experience
students get from learning algebra will provide opportunities for students to view this branch of
Mathematics as a tool for analyzing and describing mathematical relationships, and for modeling
problems that come from the workplace, the sciences, technology, engineering, and mathematics.

Solving word problems is a major component of mathematics curriculum and a basic life skill that
students need in order to solve the real-world problems that they will encounter in their everyday life. It
allows the student to see that there can be more than one "right" way to solve a problem and that the
information they gain from an incorrect solution can provide valuable clues for eventually finding a
correct solution (National Council of Teachers of Mathematics-NCTM, 2000).

As quoted by Gamarcha (2000), problem solving plays an important role in the study of mathematics.
The primary goal for students is to become mathematics problem solvers, because the success of
mathematics solvers involves more time in analyzing a problem, discussing and investigating

Brooks and Pui (2010) defined numeracy or mathematical literacy as the ability to use numbers and
think mathematically to measure and make calculations, to estimate, to work with money, to analyze
numerical trends and to create schedules and budgets. Numeracy has an influence on career
professions, literacy, and risk perception towards health decisions. Mathematical literacy is as important
as proficiency in reading and writing. Confidence and competence in mathematics lead to productive
participation in today's complex information society and open the door to opportunity.

Lastly, Soberal (2012) concluded that competence in mathematics is essential for functioning in
everyday life, as well as for success in our increasingly technology-based workplace. Students who take
higher-level mathematics and science courses which require strong fundamental skills in mathematics
are more likely to attend and to complete college.

Mathematics in K-12 Curriculum

Mathematics is one of the academic subjects pervading life at any age, in any circumstances. Thus, its
value goes beyond the classroom and the school.
The Mathematics program in K-12 Curriculum is designed to help the students to be successful in our
increasingly technology-based society

Its goals are to develop the critical thinking and problem solving skills of the students through an
organize and rigorous curriculum content, a well-defined set of high-level skills and processes, desirable
values and attitudes, and appropriate tools, recognizing as well the different contexts of Filipino
learners.

There are five content areas in the curriculum, as adopted from the framework prepared by
Mathematics Teachers of Education (MATHED, 2010) & Structured English Immersion (SEI, 2010)
namely: Numbers and Number Sense, Measurement, Geometry, Patterns and Algebra, and Probability
and Statistics.

Through these content areas, the learners are expected to demonstrate understanding and appreciation
of key concepts and principles of Mathematics as applied, using appropriate technology, in problem
solving, communicating, reasoning, making connections, representations, and decisions in real life.

While, K-10 Mathematics Curriculum will provide a solid foundation for Mathematics at Grades 11 to 12,
more importantly, it will provide necessary concepts and life skills needed by Filipino learners as they
proceed to the next stage in their life as learners and as citizens of our beloved country, the Philippines
(K-12 Curriculum Guide for Grade 7 Mathematics, 2012).

Students' Mathematics Performance as to Sex

Many variables have long been studied as predictors of mathematics achievement. However, gender
issues on math achievement are studied most frequently by researchers.

Latest survey of Program for International Student Assessment (PISA, 2013) on state of global education
revealed that boys perform better than girls in math. They scored higher in 37 out of the 65 countries
and economies, while girls outperform boys in 5 countries. The gender gap is relatively small though, in
only six countries is it greater than the equivalent of half a year of formal schooling
The gap is widest among top students, still wide among the weakest students and about the same for
average ones. Girls also feel less motivated to learn math and have less confidence in their abilities than
boys.

According to Halpern and Casey et al., as cited by James (2007), males are better at spatial relations and
girls poorer spatial-mechanical skills may contribute to a lack of success in areas of mathematics in
which boys do well. Females believe that they do and that belief affects their performance in math.

National Association of Educational Progress (NAEP, 2007) showed math performance by gender reveals
that among fourth-graders, males outscored their female peers by 2 points. Examining differences by
content area reveals that males scored higher on average than females in all the mathematics content
areas (numbers and operations, measurement, data analysis and probability, algebra) with the
exception of geometry in which female students scored higher. Among eighth graders, males also
outscored their female peers by 2 points, a gap similar to those seen in prior years. With the exception
of geometry and data analysis/probability, male students scored higher on average than female
students in all mathematics content areas.

In Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS 2007), males performed 6 score points
on average than females. This difference in the overall score is attributed to higher performance on one
content area: males outscored females 528 to 520, on average, in number. There were no measurable
sex differences detected in the average scores in either geometric shapes or measures domain or the
data display domain in fourth graders. Among U.S. eighth-graders, male and female performance has
reached similar levels over the four years of administration. There was no measurable difference in the
average mathematics scores of males and females. While differences were not significant, males
outperformed females in three of four mathematics content domains: number (515 v. 506), geometry
(483 v. 477), and data and chance (535 v. 527).

According to Clewel and Mullis et al. as cited by Amelink (2009), males score higher on items requiring
visual spatial skills, problem- solving, and reasoning while higher scores among females are reported on
items that deal with direct application of knowledge garnered from classroom instruction.
Internationally and across grades, males tended to perform better than females on test items involving
spatial representation, proportionality, measurement, and problems with no immediate formula. In
fourth and eighth grades, females outperformed males on items involving reading graphs, computation,
and algorithmic problem solving.
The study conducted by Bayog (2000) on the performance in Mathematics of Grade VI pupils in Lacayon
Elementary School during the school year 1999-2000 showed that female pupils performed better than
male.

Baculna (2000), in her study on the performance in Mathematics of first year high school students of
Aureliana National High School for the school year 1999-2000 revealed that both male and female
performed equally in mathematics and there was no significant difference in the performance in
mathematics of first year high school students as to gender.

Based on the studies cited, the researcher believes that teaching mathematics involves a great deal
more than just showing how to do problems and correcting tests. Which skills each student brings to the
classroom and how the instructor presents the material can make a huge difference in the outcome for
both students and teacher. An understanding of cognitive gender differences and simple
accommodations based on that understanding can improve the experience of teaching and learning
mathematics.

These literatures on gender differences provide evidences that gender issues may or may not influence
achievement in mathematics. Hence, it is crucial for educators and researchers to pay attention to
gender differences in the design of mathematics instruction.