UNIT TWO

2. CLIMATE OF AFRICA

INTRODUCTION
In unit one, you have learnt about landforms of Africa. In this unit , you will study about the
climate of Africa. The first section of the unit presents the climate types or zones and regions of
the world. In the second section, you will study the features of the climate of Africa.

Climate is an average of weather conditions in a place over a long period – 30 years or

more. It represents the sum of all interacting atmospheric processes over a given period
. Weather, on the other hand, refers to a short-term atmospheric condition such as the
temperature and precipitation on a certain day, the state of the atmosphere with
respect to heat or cold, wetness or dryness, calm or storm, clearness or cloudiness.

Climatic zones are spacious areas with a climatic similarity. The climate zones spread in an
east-west direction around the Earth and can be classified using different climatic parameters.
Climatic region refers to a continuous geographic area in which similar climate characteristics
are observed. Average temperature is the most important factor in determining climate regions
of the world, although other weather aspects like precipitation play roles.
 Grade 10 | Geography

Unit Outcomes
After completing this unit , you will be able to:
assess the climatic regions and climate types of the
world; compare climatic regions within Africa;
examine how climate provides substantial benefits for the life of
people in Africa; and
analyze the challenges posed by climate change on the
development of Africa.

Main Contents

2.1 Overview of World Climatic Regions and Types

2.2 Climate Types and Regions of Africa
2.3 Benefits of Climate for the Life of People in Africa
2.4 Climate Change and its Challenges to
Africa’s Development Vision
Unit Summary Review Exercise

2.1 OVERVIEW OF WORLD CLIMATIC

REGIONS AND TYPES

At the end of this section, you will be able to:

identify the major climate types and regions of the world; and
distinguish the different classification schemes of world climate.

KEY TERMS
Climate classifications Climate regions

Climate Weather
Climate zones

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Global climate is a description of the climate of the Earth as a whole, with all the
regional differences averaged. The world has several climatic zones. Geographers
and climatologists defined climatic region based on different climatic elements.
In fact, the Earth’s climate is driven by energy from the sun which arrives in the
form of radiation.

Activity 2.1

1. How many world climate regions and types do you know? How do
climate scientists and geographers classify world climates into
different types and regions?

2.1.1 Climate Classifications

Why classification? How do scientists classify world climates into different types?

Climate classifications help people know what types of conditions a region

usually experiences throughout the year. Rather than describing the full range of
conditions observed in a region over each month or season of a year, a
classification scheme can communicate expected conditions using just two or
three terms. Knowing a region’s climate classification can be useful when
choosing building materials for protection and durability, or when considering
what crops are likely to thrive in a region. For tourists, knowing a location’s
climate classification can help them select and pack appropriate clothing.
There are various classification schemes used by climatologists for categorizing
world’s climate into different regions. Perhaps the first attempt at climate
classification was made by the ancient Greeks, who divided each hemisphere into
three zones: torrid (tropical), temperate, and frigid.

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World Climate Zones According to Ancient Greeks

Since the beginning of the twentieth century, however, many climate-classification

schemes have been devised. Long-term records of temperature and precipitation
reveal climate patterns across continents, delineating them into climate regions.
Class names for classification systems based on weather patterns often include
geographical names such as polar, tropical, continental, and marine. These terms are
modified by terms describing temperature and moisture, or the intensity of weather
during summer or winter. The descriptors that are used in this method of
classification include moist or dry, warm or cold, and temperate or severe.

Today, climate scientists split the earth into approximately five major types:
tropical, dry, temperate, continental, and polar considering a variety of factors
including altitude, air pressure, wind patterns, latitude and geographical
characteristics such as mountains and oceans.
One of the most widely used classification schemes is made by the German
Climatologist and Botanist Wladimir Köppen (1846-1940). He divided the
world’s climates into categories based upon general temperature profiles related
to latitude. The Köppen classification uses easily obtained data: mean monthly
and annual values of temperature and precipitation.

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Köppen believed that the distribution of natural vegetation was the best
expression of an overall climate. Köppen recognized five principal climate
groups, each designated with a capital letter:
A (humid tropical), B (dry), C (humid middle-latitude, mild
winters), D (humid middle-latitude, severe winters), and E
(polar), and H (highland). Four groups (A, C, D, E) are defined
by temperature. The fifth, (group B), has precipitation as its
primary criterion, while H is determined by altitude.

Map of Köppen’s Five Principal Climate Groups

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2.1.2 World Climate Zones and Regions

Activity 2.2

1.Be in a small group and discuss the characteristics of each one of the
climate types in Köppen’s classification scheme. What other
classification schemes do you know?

Climate zones are areas with distinct climates, which occur in the east-west
direction around the Earth, and they can be classified using different climatic
parameters. Generally, climate zones are belt-shaped and circular around the
poles (see Figure 2.3). In some areas, climate zones can be interrupted by
mountains or oceans. The world’s climate pattern reflects a regular and
dependable operation of the major climate controls.
The solar radiation reaches the ground on different parts of the Earth at different
angles. On the equator, the sunlight reaches the ground almost perpendicularly,
whilst at the poles the angle of the Sun is lower or even under the horizon during
the polar night.
Throughout the seasons, the position of the Sun to the Earth changes and thus the
angle of incidence of the sunlight also changes. The angle of the Sun at noon
varies from perpendicular (90°) within the tropics up to horizontal (0° = Sun does
not or only partially appear on the horizon) within the polar circle. Thus, the
sunlight warms up the Earth around the equator much more strongly than at the
poles. Due to temperature differences caused by the differences in radiation,
recurring climatic conditions develop.
There are four major global climate zones:

1. Tropical Zone from 0°– 231/2° (between the tropics) - In the regions between the
equator and the tropics (equatorial region), the solar radiation reaches the
ground nearly vertically at noontime during almost the entire year. Thereby, it is
very warm in these regions. Through high temperatures, more water evaporates
and the air is often moist. The resulting frequent and dense cloud cover reduces
the effect of solar radiation on the ground temperature.

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2. Subtropics Zone from 23.5°– 40° - The subtropics receive the highest radiation
in summer, since the Sun’s angle at noon is almost vertical to the Earth, whilst
the cloud cover is relatively thin. These regions receive less moisture (see trade
winds), which increases the effect of radiation. Therefore, most of the deserts in
the world are situated in this zone. In winter, the radiation in these regions
decreases significantly, and it can temporarily be very cool and moist.
3. Temperate Zone from 40°– 60° - In the temperate zone, the solar radiation
arrives at a lower angle, and the average temperatures here are much
cooler than in the subtropics. The seasons and day length differ significantly
in the course of a year. The climate is characterized by less frequent
extremes, more regular distribution of the precipitation over the year and a
longer vegetation period – therefore, it is named as “temperate”.
4. Cold Zone from 60°– 90° - The polar areas between 60° latitude and the poles
receive less heat through solar radiation, since there is very low angle of the
Sun. Because of the changes of the Earth axis angle to the Sun, the day length
varies most in this zone. For instance, in the summer, polar days occur.
Vegetation is only possible during a few months per year and even it is often
sparse. The conditions in these regions make life very challenging.
The characteristics of the climate zones change with great altitude differences within a
small area, like in mountain areas, since temperatures decrease rapidly with altitude.

World Climate Zones

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2.2 CLIMATE TYPES AND ZONES OF AFRICA

At the end of this section, you will be able to:

identify the major climate types and regions of Africa;
and distinguish the controls of the climate of Africa.

KEY TERMS
Continental climates The ITCZ

Equatorial climate The tropical wet-and-dry region

Maritime climates Tropic of Cancer
Ocean current Tropic of Capricorn
Activity 2.3

1.What are the major types and zones of climate in Africa? Which factors
determine the types of climates in Africa?

The climate of Africa is characterized by a range of climates such as the

equatorial climate, the tropical wet and dry climate, the tropical monsoon climate,
the semi-arid climate (semi-desert and steppe), the desert climate (hyper-arid and
arid), and the subtropical highland climate. Temperate climates are rare across the
continent except at very high elevations and along the fringes of the continent. In
fact, the climate of Africa is more variable in rainfall amount than in
temperatures, which are consistently high. African deserts are the sunniest and
the driest parts of the continent, owing to the prevailing presence of the
subtropical ridge with subsiding, hot, dry air masses. Africa holds many heat-
related records: the hottest extended region year-round, the areas with the hottest
summer climate, the highest sunshine duration, and more.

Activity 2.4

1. Explain the relationship between position of Africa and its climate types.

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Owing to Africa’s position across equatorial and subtropical latitudes in both the
northern and southern hemisphere, several different climate types can be found
within it.
The continent mainly lies within the tropical zone between the Tropic of Cancer
and the Tropic of Capricorn, hence its interesting density of humidity.
Precipitation intensity is always high, and it is a hot continent. Warm and hot
climates prevail all over Africa, but mostly the northern part is marked by aridity
and high temperatures. Only the northernmost and the southernmost fringes of
the continent have a Mediterranean climate (see Figure 2.4).
The equator runs through the middle of Africa, as do the Tropic of Cancer and the
Tropic of Capricorn, making Africa the most tropical of all the continents. Africa’s
position is relatively unique in the sense that it almost has a mirror image of climate
zones to the north and South of the Equator with regard to latitude. When considered
in detail, the movement of air masses and their effects provide the basis for a
division of the continent into eight climatic regions. These are;

Þ the Equatorial (Tropical Wet Climate) Region,

Þ the Tropical Wet-and-Dry Region,
Þ Semi-arid Climatic Region,
Þ Hot Desert Climatic Region,
Þ Humid Subtropical Climatic Region,
Þ Mediterranean Climate Region,
Þ The Warm Temperate East Coast Climate Region
Þ Warm Temperate Continental Climate Region
Þ The Mountain Climatic Region

2.2.1 Types and Characteristics of Climate Zones in Africa

Climate is regulated by the apparent movement of the sun between the two
tropics and the associated movement of winds. Meanwhile, north or south of the
Equator the climate tends to change similarly . This gives rise to symmetrical
climatic zones in Africa consisting of the central zone of equatorial climate,
tropical zones, hot deserts ,and Mediterranean zones. Details of the types and
characteristics of each climate zones are presented below.

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I. The Equatorial Climate Region

The equatorial climate is experienced in the lowland area between latitudes 5 0 N and
50 S of the equator. This covers mainly parts of Central Africa which includes the
Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon and Cameroon. It is also experienced in the
Southern part of Nigeria, Ghana, Benin and Sera Leone. Highland and coastal areas,
especially in Eastern Africa, experience modified equatorial climate where the
temperature is much lower than it is experienced in the true equatorial climate.

In the Equatorial climate, temperatures are very high throughout the year
averaging about 26° C, the hottest months in the year are March and September
when the sun is overhead at the equator. The diurnal temperature range is very
low, about 3° C. There is often heavy cloud cover and the humidity is high
throughout the year. This region mainly receives convectional rainfall.

II. The Tropical Wet-and-Dry Region

The tropical wet-and-dry region is often called the savanna climatic region; this
implies, incorrectly, that all areas with savanna vegetation have this type of climate.
This region covers a little less than half of the total surface area of the continent,
extending toward the Equator from the semiarid areas. The great distinguishing
feature of this climatic region is the seasonal character of its rainfall. During the
period of high sun, the maritime air masses produce up to six months of rainfall, the
length of the rainy season depending on the nearness to the Equator. The rest of the
year is dry. In a few places, for example, on the coast of Mauritania and Senegal,
there is also a little rainfall in the period of low sun. As in the desert and semiarid
climatic zones, mean monthly temperatures show less variation than daily
temperatures. In western Africa, the period of low sun corresponds to the harmattan
season. The harmattan is a warm, dry, northeasterly or easterly wind that blows out
of the southern Sahara and is frequently laden with large quantities of sand and dust.

Regions with the equatorial, or tropical wet, type of climate, or variants, are the
wettest in Africa. There are two peak periods of rainfall corresponding to the
double passage of the inter-treopical convergence zone (ITCZ). Because areas
with an equatorial climate are constantly covered by warm maritime air masses,
variations in their monthly and daily temperatures are less pronounced than in the
tropical wet-and-dry regions.
Marked variations in the rhythm of equatorial climate sometimes occur. For example,
the rainfall may be monsoonal or the second rainy season may not exist at all.

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However, the most notable variation can be observed on the western African coast
from around Cape Three Points in Ghana, eastward to Benin, where the bimodal
rainfall regime prevails, and the total annual precipitation is less than 1,000 mm.
Some of the explanations about these variations include: the presence of a cold body
of water off-shore chills the lower of the maritime air mass and makes it stable; the
body of cold air that forms offshore diverts the incoming airstreams to the west and
east of the anomalously dry area; there is a strong tendency for the winds to blow
parallel to the shore during the rainy seasons; the absence of highlands deprives the
region of Orographic (mountain) rainfall; fluctuations in the offshore moisture-
bearing winds occur during the rainy season and reduce rainfall; and that local
meteorological peculiarities of thunderstorms contribute to the reduction in rainfall.

In Eastern Africa, the tropical climate type is experienced in Sudan, Ethiopia,

Kenya, Tanzania and Somalia. Similarly in Central Africa, it is experienced in
Zambia, Malawi, Angola, Namibia, Botswana and Zimbabwe.
In the northern and southern extremities of the continent, there is a dry summer
subtropical, or the Mediterranean type of climate. Rain falls only in winter
(December–January in North Africa, June–July in Southern Africa), although in
some localities it may fall in autumn (September in North Africa, April in Southern
Africa). Mean monthly temperatures are lower than in tropical climates, dropping to
about 10 °C in winter, while summer (June–July in North Africa, and December–
January in Southern Africa) temperatures may sometimes exceed those of tropical
climates. Clear and blue skies are the common characteristics of this climate region.

III. Semi-arid Climatic Region

This region fringes the desert areas and include the greater part of the land south
of the Zambezi River. They differ from true desert regions in being just within
reach of the ITCZ in the course of its seasonal movement and therefore receiving
more rainfall. Temperatures are about the same as those in the desert regions.

IV. The Hot Desert Climatic Region

Hot deserts are places where there is little or no rainfall. The hot desert region
consists of the Sahara and Kalahari deserts, which are always under the influence of
dry continental tropical air masses, and the northern Kenya–Somali desert, the
aridity of which is principally caused by the stable nature of the maritime air masses
that pass over it throughout the year. The stability of these maritime air masses is
induced by their passing over the cool body of water offshore. In addition to aridity,

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the desert climate is characterized by high mean monthly temperatures; the

diurnal (daily) temperature range is, however, greater than the annual range of the
mean monthly. The daytime temperatures are extremely high; temperatures
usually range between 30ºC - 40ºC, some places in the Sahara Desert experience
above 40°C, the highest ever recorded temperature in the region, and also in the
world, was 58°C in Azizia, Libya. At night, temperatures are very low, dropping
to below 10º C. The skies are clear and because of this, the heat received from the
sun during the day is quickly lost back into the atmosphere at night.

V. Humid Subtropical Climatic Region

This climate type is found in Eastern side of continents between 20 0 and 350 north and
south latitudes. The humid subtropical climate is a transition between the tropical and
temperate climates. In Africa this climate type is confined to the southeastern coast of
South Africa. The region is characterized by a relatively high temperature with warm
and wet climate. In Koppen’s classification the humid subtropical climate is constitutes
of two climates (Cfa and Cwa) as shown on figure 2.4.

VI. Mediterranean Climate Region

This climate is also called Warm Temperate Western Margin Climate and it is
experienced in very small areas of the continent. The Mediterranean climate is best
developed on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. It is also experienced in the
South-Western tip of Africa. Temperatures in the Mediterranean climate region
range from 10º C in winter to about 21º C in summer. These areas lie in the path of
westerly winds. In the summer season, winds blow from the land to the sea.
Therefore, they are dry winds. Winters are wet because cool moist winds blow
towards the land from the sea. The influence of moist westerly winds also makes the
winters mild. The average amount of rainfall each year is about 500-750 mm.

VII. The Warm Temperate East Coast Climate Region

The climate is experienced between latitudes 30º - 40º North of the Equator and
30º-40º South of the Equator. It is experienced along the Eastern coast of South
Africa, especially in Natal and Cape Provinces, as well as in Mozambique. These
areas are under the strong influence of the warm Mozambique current and the
warm southeast trade winds. Summer temperatures are generally high with an
average of about 26ºC. Winter temperatures are low, averaging about 10º C.
Annual rainfall is between 1000 - 1500 mm per year but it decreases as one
moves westwards into the interior.

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VIII. Warm Temperate Continental Climate Region

This climate is mainly experienced in the interior of South Africa, between the
Drakensberg Mountains and the Kalahari Desert. The rainfall amount is generally
low because the area is inland and the winds blowing from the sea reach here
when they are already dry. Most of the rain falls during the winter season and
averages about 700 mm per year. The Eastern areas are wetter than those in the
West which are close to the Kalahari Desert. The annual temperature ranges from
about 26º C in summer to about 10º C in winter.

IX. The Mountain Climatic Region

This climate region includes the high mountain areas of Kenya, Ethiopia and the
lakes region of East Africa. In some respects, the climate is similar to the warm
temperate upland climate, except the temperatures are even lower and snow
occurs on the tops of the highest peaks, such as Kilimanjaro. The area receives
more rainfall than the surrounding areas. It mostly receives relief rainfall, formed
as the warm moist winds are forced to rise up the highlands. The highest amount
of rainfall is received on the windward slopes. At the lower slopes, the mountains
are warmer and wetter. The slopes facing away from the sea are called leeward or
rain shadow slopes. They receive little or no rain. The winds here are descending
and have a cooling effect. Temperature decreases with an increase in altitude. At
the very top of high mountains, temperatures are below freezing point.

Climate Zones of Africa based on Köppen’s Classification

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2.2.2 Factors Controlling Climate of Africa

Activity 2.5

1.List the factors that control the climate of Africa. How do

these factors control the continent’s climate?

There are several factors that influence the climate of the African
continent. These include angle of the sun, latitude, air pressure, wind system and the
Intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ), major ocean currents, land and
water (maritime versus continental) influence, and altitude. These
factors determine the amount of temperature and precipitation. Below
is the description of each one of the factors.

I. Latitude and its influence on Solar Radiation received

Africa straddles the Equator from 37⁰ N to 34⁰ S, hence it lies
within the tropics. Variations in the receipt of solar energy and
temperature differences are largely a function of latitude.
Temperature is high throughout the continent because of the
continent’s location relative to Equator. As latitude increases,
the sun shines more obliquely and provides less energy. The
equator, however, faces the sun’s rays directly, so the climate is
warm year-round.

II. Pressure Systems, Winds, and the Intertropical

Convergence Zone (ITCZ)
Located on about Latitude 30o North and South of the Equator are
Sub-tropical High-Pressure Belts that dictate surface wind patterns
and influence rainfall and temperature regimes on the continent.
The Subtropical High-Pressure Systems on both sides of the Equator
generate two wind systems that converge on the equator in a zone termed as
Inter-Tropical Converge Zone (ITCZ). From the north, Subtropical
High-Pressure Belt zone blows the Northeast Trade Winds (locally
called Harmattan). The Harmattan is dry and cool and blows over
Sub-Saharan Africa from about November to April. From the south
Sub-tropical High Pressure belt zone blows the Southwest Trade
Winds (locally called Monsoon).
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The Position of I.T.C.Z in Africa January and July

The Monsoon winds are moist and bring rainfall to the coasts of West Africa.
The African continent does not extend much beyond 35 o of latitude from the
equator. The implication is that the range of climatic conditions is limited and
that the general direction of wind movement is towards the equator (or in more
accurate terms towards the inter-tropical convergence zone - ITCZ). The ITCZ
shifts with the seasonal movement of the sun across the tropics:
• In June: the northern summer season, the ITCZ is located at about 13
degrees of latitude in North Africa at the southern boundary of the Sahara.
• In December, the Northern winter season, the ITCZ moves southward
along the West African Coast and to the northern and eastern margins
of the Congo basin and continues to Madagascar.
Movements in the ITCZ are closely related to the distribution of rainfall and climatic
zones. The climatic zones assume symmetry around the equator, although the high
altitudes in some parts of the continent and the adjacent disturb the symmetry.

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III. Major Ocean Currents

Winds that tend to blow persistently over the ocean tend to drag a thin surface
layer of the water in their direction of flow. This layer of ocean water called
Ocean Current dictates the temperature and moisture characteristics of the wind
and the coastal regions over which the wind blows. When ocean currents blow
from low latitudes (near to the equator) towards higher latitudes (towards the
pole) the currents carry Warm ocean water into relatively cool regions. Such an
ocean current is called Warm Ocean Current.
Warm Ocean Currents supply moisture to winds blowing over them to develop
rainfall on the adjacent coasts. In Africa, Warm Ocean Currents include
WarmGuinea Currents - in West Africa, Warm Mozambique Currents – in
Southeast Africa. The cool surface of Cool Ocean Currents causes moisture in
winds blowing over them to condense and form fogs, etc. The winds are deprived of
their moisture so they tend to absorb rather than deposit moisture at the adjacent
coasts. Cool currents, therefore, cause dry conditions and in Africa the Cool Canary
Currents - the western coast of the Sahara Desert, the Cool Benguela Currents –
the Western coast of Kalahari Desert. The cool ocean currents tend to create rich
fishing grounds. Rich fishing grounds exist along the Morocco and Spanish Saharan
Coasts that are washed by the Cool Canary Currents. The Namibian coast that is
washed by the Cool Benguela current also has rich fishing grounds.

IV. Distribution of Land and Water

Large water bodies such as the Ocean and huge lakes modify climates in adjacent
lands. In the continental interior, where there are no large bodies of water,
temperatures get very warm in summer or during the day. The land is solid, so it
heats up more rapidly during the day. The compact nature of the land means that
only a thin surface gets heated. As a result, heat absorbed into the thin layer of
surface rocks is released very rapidly. The land surface is, therefore, very cool at
night and in winter. The interior location does not also allow rainfall to reach such
places thereby creating warm, humid, hot and dry climates. These extremities in
climate affect all states located in the interior of continents. Such climates are called
Continental Climates as against Maritime Climates experienced on lands located
along coasts. In places such as Timbuktu in Mali the diurnal and annual ranges in
temperature are very high because of continentality.

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V. Altitude
Since energy from the sun is transformed into heat on the surface of the earth, air
temperature decreases with altitude at an average rate of 6.4 o C per 1000 meters.
This change in temperature with altitude is called the Lapse Rate. Because of this
decrease in temperature with height, mountainous regions such as the Ethiopian
highlands have very cool temperatures. Very high peaks such as Mountain
Kilimanjaro located along the equator even have permanent snow cover.

While these factors help to account for the broad climatic patterns of African
continent, there are nevertheless numerous local variations to be found from
place to place within the same climatic zone.

2.3 BENEFITS OF CLIMATE FOR LIFE OF

PEOPLE OF AFRICA

At the end of this section, you will be able to:

explain the benefits of climate for the life of people of Africa.

KEY TERMS
Agriculture Surface-water supply
Human health Temperature extremes
Natural resources

Activity 2.6

1. In a group discuss the benefits of climate to the life of the people of Africa.
2. Debate on the benefits and disadvantages of climate on the life of the
people of Africa.

Climate affects nearly every aspect of our lives from our food sources to our
transport infrastructure; from what clothes we wear, to where we go for recreation. It
has a huge effect on our livelihood, our health, and our future. People’s settlement

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and living are hugely associated with climate types. For instance, some places are
overpopulated due to the better climate and associated factors. On the other hand,
regions of extreme climatic conditions like the deserts, rainforests, and polar
regions have fewer people.
Africa is a continent with a diversity of climate landscapes. It has a climate that
ranges from intense heat to bitter cold in its different parts. This diversity in turn
influences the living style of people including settlement patterns, livelihood
options, resource endowments, health ,and wellbeing. The relationship between
climate, physical resources ,and socio-economic condition of people in Africa is
briefly presented in the following section.

2.3.1 Climate and Agriculture in Africa

It is indisputable that agriculture is the backbone of Africa’s economy and accounts for
the majority of livelihoods across the continent. Agriculture is an extremely important
sector on the African continent, on average accounting for 70% of the labor force and
over 25% of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Agriculture has always been deeply
dependent on the weather, with farmers needing a steady mixture of sun, warmth, and
rains to reliably produce the crops they need. The bulk of agricultural systems in Sub-
Saharan Africa are highly climate-dependent: the region is marked by a strong
dependence on rain-fed agriculture and natural resources. Africa is one of the continents
that are most highly affected by climate change for two reasons: its geographical
characteristics of having a major land lying across the warming tropics, and the limited
human, social, and economic capacity that African countries have to adapt to the impacts
of climate change. A change in a climate, therefore, exacerbates the complexity of issues
(such as few technological inputs, the majority of Africa’s farmers working on a small-
scale or subsistence level and have few financial resources, limited access to
infrastructure, and, etc.) in the continent.

2.3.2 Climate and Health in Africa

Climate change has widespread effects on human health by impacting both
environmental and social determinants.
Humans have understood the importance of climate to human health since ancient
times. In some cases, the connections appear to be obvious. For instance, a flood can
cause drownings, a drought can lead to crop failure and hunger, and temperature

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extremes pose a risk of exposure. In other cases, the connections are obscured by
complex or unobserved processes, such that the influence of climate on a disease
epidemic or a conflict can be difficult to diagnose. In reality, however, all climate
impacts on health are mediated by some combination of natural and human
dynamics that cause individuals or populations to be vulnerable to the effects of a
variable or changing climate.

Africa is commonly described as a “climate-vulnerable” continent in which

rainfall variability, hydrological extremes, and anthropogenic climate change
have the potential to inflict significant harm on a large population.

2.3.3 Climate and Water Resources in Africa

Water is the most important of all natural resources. Without water ,life would
not be able to thrive on the Earth. It has been argued that the level of streams,
flow of streams/rivers, the volume of underground water and the like all depend
on types of climates and water availability. Therefore, persistent climate change
may lead to shrinkage in the surface-water supply as well as the quantity and
regularity of streams and rivers, and water supplies in Africa.

Activity 2.7

1. What are the benefits of climate to other physical and socio-economic

aspects of Africa? Mention the role of climate in determining lifestyle,
tourism development, fishing, and natural vegetation in the continent?

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2.4 CLIMATE CHANGE AND ITS CHALLENGES

TO AFRICA’S DEVELOPMENT VISION

At the end of this section, you will be able to:

explain the major challenges of climate change on African development vision.

KEY TERMS
Africa’s development vision Climate variability

Climate change Development policies

Climate system Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)

In many cases climate variability and climate change are interchangeably used.
However, there is a clear demarcation between the two. Variability may be due to
natural internal processes within the climate system or to variations in anthropogenic
(caused by human) external forcing. In other words, climate variations occur with or
without our actions. It is critical to assess precisely which human actions affect
climate and those that do not. Climate change, on the other hand, is a change in the
state of the climate system, identified by changes in the average conditions and the
variability of its properties, that persists for an extended period, typically decades or
longer, due to natural and/or anthropogenic processes and drivers.

Activity 2.8

1.What is climate change? How does climate change affect Africa’s

development vision?

Climate change in Africa is an increasingly serious threat for Africans as Africa is

among the most vulnerable continents to climate change. Anthropogenic climate
change is already a reality in Africa, as it is elsewhere in the world. According to the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the vulnerability of Africa to
climate change is driven by a range of factors that include weak adaptive capacity,

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 UNIT TWO CLIMATE OF AFRICA

high dependence on ecosystem goods for livelihoods, and less developed agricultural
production systems. The risks of climate change on agricultural production, food
security, water resources and ecosystem services will likely have increasingly severe
consequences on lives and sustainable development prospects in Africa.

Most studies on the potential impact of climate change have predicted that Africa is
likely to experience higher temperatures, rising sea levels, changing rainfall patterns
and increased climate variability, all of which could affect much of its population.
The actual and potential impacts of climate change in Africa are large and wide-
ranging, affecting many aspects of people’s everyday lives. Many climate models
predict negative impacts of climate change on agricultural production and food
security in large parts of Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Higher temperatures, the drying
up of soils, increased pest and disease, shifts in suitable areas for growing crops and
livestock, desertification, floods, deforestation, and erosion are all signs that climate
change is already happening. Therefore, this indicates that climate change is one of
the greatest environmental, social and economic threats facing Africa. The impact of
climate change is more serious on the world’s poorest countries, most of which are
found in Africa. Poor people already live on the frontlines of pollution, disaster, and
degradation of resources and land. For them, adaptation is a matter of sheer survival.

Unfortunately, despite growing concern, no exact and reliable figures are

available to quantify the economic costs of the negative impacts of climate
change in Africa for either individuals or society as a whole. As far as
development is concerned, climate change will have a strong impact on Africa’s
ability to achieve the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and the Africa
2063 goal and on its development policies in general, with increased pressure on
agriculture, water supply and demand, health, and political stability.
In general, African has been seriously affected due to the following reasons.
First, the African society is very closely coupled with the climate system,
hundreds of millions of people depend on rainfall to grow their foods. Second,
the African climate system is controlled by an extremely complex mix of large-
scale weather systems. Third, the degree of expected climate change is large. The
two most extensive land-based end-of- century projected decreases in rainfall
anywhere on the planet occur over Africa, particularly in North and South Africa.
Finally, the capacity for adaptation to climate change is low.

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 Grade 10 | Geography

UNIT SUMMARY

Weather and climate are the two essential concepts interchangeably used.
However, there is a clear boundary in meaning between the two. Weather refers
to a short-term atmospheric condition – for example, the temperature and
precipitation on a certain day, the state of the atmosphere with respect to heat or
cold, wetness or dryness, calm or storm, clearness or cloudiness. On the other
hand, a climate is an average of weather conditions in a place over a long
period, 30 years or more. A climate, however, is more than just a generalization
of weather, it includes extreme events and probabilities, it is the sum of all
statistical weather information describing a place or region.
There are various classification schemes used by climatologists for categorizing
the world’s climate into different regions. The ancient Greeks classified the world
climates into three: torrid, temperate, and polar. Later, since the beginning of the
twentieth century, however, many climate-classification schemes have been
devised that used long-term records of temperature and precipitation.
The most widely used and popular climate classification scheme is developed by
the German Climatologist and Botanist Wladimir Köppen (1846-1940). Köppen
classified the world climate regions into five. He used temperature for four of the
climate regions and precipitation for the fifth one. In general, there are 4 (four)
major global climate zones; namely the Tropical zone from 0°– 231/2° (between
the tropics), the Subtropics from 231/2°– 40°, the Temperate zone from 40°–60°,
and the Cold zone from 60°–90°. The characteristics of the climate zones
change with great altitude differences within a small area, like in mountain areas,
since temperatures decrease rapidly with altitude.
The climate of Africa is characterized by a range of climates such as the
equatorial climate, the tropical wet and dry climate, the tropical monsoon
climate, the semi-arid climate (semi-desert and steppe), the desert climate
(hyper-arid and arid), and the subtropical highland climate. The equator runs
through the middle of Africa, as do the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of
Capricorn, making Africa the most tropical of all the continents.
Its position is relatively unique in the sense that it almost has a mirror image of climate
zones to the north and south of the Equator with regard to latitude. There are a number
of factors that influence the climate of the African continent. These include the angle of
the sun, latitude, air pressure, wind system and the ICTZ, major ocean

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UNIT TWO CLIMATE OF AFRICA

currents, land and water (maritime versus continental) influence, and altitude.
These factors determine the amount of temperature and precipitation.
The movement of air masses and their effects provide the basis for a division of
the continent into eight climatic regions. These are the equatorial (tropical wet),
semiarid, tropical wet-and-dry, hot desert, Mediterranean, humid subtropical
marine, warm temperate upland, and mountain regions.
Climate affects nearly every aspect of our lives from our food sources to our
transport infrastructure; from what clothes we wear, to where we go for
recreation. It has a huge effect on our livelihood, our health, and our future.
People’s settlement and living are hugely associated with climate types.
However, climate change in Africa is an increasingly serious threat for Africans
as Africa is among the most vulnerable continents to climate change. Many
climate models predict the negative impacts of climate change on agricultural
production and food security in large parts of sub-Saharan Africa (SSA).
As far as development is concerned, climate change will have a strong impact
on Africa’s ability to achieve the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and the
Africa 2063 goal and on its development policies in general, with increased
pressure on agriculture, water supply and demand, health, and political stability.
One of the most important reasons for this is the continent’s low adaptive
capacities to withstand the ever-changing climate conditions.

Unit Summary and Review Exercises

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 Grade 10 | Geography

REVIEW QUESTIONS
PART I: TRUE OR FALSE ITEMS
Direction: Write “True” if the statement is
correct and write “False” otherwise.

1. The Sahel is the area of Africa that is most affected by drought.

2.Tropical desert climate is characterized by low mean annual temperature
and high diurnal range of temperature.
3. The influence of climate on human activities can be both positive and negative.

PART II: MULTIPLE CHOICE ITEMS

Direction: Choose the correct word or phrase
from the given alternatives.

4.Which of the following is not among the common classification of world

broad climatic conditions?
A. Hot climates D. Cold climates
B. Warm climates E. None of the above
C. Cool climates
5. Which one of the following factors most affects the climate of East Africa?
A. Distance from the sea D. Ocean currents
B. Latitude E. Winds
C. Altitude
6.Of all the climatic regions of Africa, the one with the highest rainfall
variability is:
A. Highland climatic region
B. Mediterranean climatic region
C. Warm temperate continental climate
D. Desert climatic region
E. Equatorial climatic region

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UNIT TWO CLIMATE OF AFRICA

7. One among the following is not true about Africa. Which one is it?
A. Nearly 2/3rd of Africa lies within the tropics.
B. Africa gets much of its rainfall in the winter season.
C. The Mediterranean climatic region has mild wet winters.
D. Eastern Africa is characterized by the Great Rift Valley system.
E. Africa has a short smooth coastline, which contributes to the fact that
its shape is compact.
8. Which one of the following ocean currents along the coast of Africa tends
to create rich fishing grounds?
A. Warm Mozambique current C. Warm Guinea Currents
B. Cool Benguela Currents D. None of the above

PART III: COMPLETION ITEMS

Directions: Complete each of the following sentences
with the correct word or phrase.

9. ___________ is the climatic region found along the southeast coast of Africa.
10.The wettest climatic region in Africa is ___________.
11.In March, the ITCZ is located around ___________.
12. Rainfall in the Mediterranean climatic region is brought by the ___________
winds.
13. The climate of the equatorial and tropical highlands of Africa is highly
dominated by ___________.
14.The most dominant type of rainfall in equatorial Africa is ___________.
15.The Mediterranean type of climate is located in the ___________ and
___________ Africa.

Unit Summary and Review Exercises

49
 Grade 10 | Geography

PART IV: SHORT ANSWER ITEMS

Direction: Give a short Answer for the following
questions.

16.What characteristics do we use to differentiate between one climatic zone

and another?
17.Africa is the only continent that can be regarded as “a mirror image of
each hemisphere” with regard to climate zones. Elaborate this statement
with examples.
18.Identify the three major ocean currents that affect the shores of African
continent and discuss how they control the local climate system. Indicate on
a map the parts of Africa affected by the impacts of the ocean currents.
19.What is the ITCZ? Discuss the processes and mechanisms in which the
ITCZ governs the climate types and zones in Africa.
20.Draw the map of Africa and show the distribution of each climate zones
using colors.

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