Part one

DR. Abdalla.Olimat
2021/2022

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 CHAPTERS ONE AND TWO
INTRODUCTION AND BASIC CONCEPTS
Thermodynamics is the science of heat and temperature and, in particular, of the
laws governing the conversion of thermal energy into mechanical, electrical, or
other forms of energy. Thermodynamics is a macroscopic science concerning such
properties as pressure, temperature, and volume. It addresses the gross
characteristics of large aggregations of molecules and not the behavior of
individual molecules. The name thermodynamics stems from the Greek words therme
(heat) and dynamis (power).
In this chapter, the classical approach to thermodynamics is featured.

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Applications of thermodynamics

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 Thermodynamic system: a quantity of fixed mass matter or space
enclosed within prescribed boundaries.
Surroundings: everything external to the system,
System boundary: interface separating system and surroundings.
Universe: combination of system and surroundings.
The system, surroundings, system-boundary for a universe are shown
below

Sketch of a universe composed of a system, its surroundings, and the system boundary.5
Types of the system
1- Isolated system: a system which is not influenced by its surroundings. No
mass or energy transfer a cross the boundaries.
2-Control Volume (open system): mass and energy may cross .The control
volume is bounded by the Control Surface: boundary of the control volume.
control volume → potentially variable mass, open.
3-Control mass (closed system): no mass crosses the boundaries, only
energy crosses the boundaries. system → fixed mass, closed.

Rigid → no work
Insulated (adiabatic) → no heat transfer

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Lecture 1 7
Comparison of system (fixed mass), piston-cylinder compression, and control volume
(fixed volume), compression in a flow device, approaches

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Classical thermodynamics will treat macroscopic effects only (global
influence) of the particles on the system under consideration.
Statistical thermodynamics individual molecular effects (microscopic). We
could use Newtonian mechanics for each particle collision to calculate the net
force on the wall.
Instead our approach amounts to considering the average over space and time
of the net effect of millions of collisions on a wall.

Continuum
We will in fact assume that matter can be modeled as a continuum
Continuum is the limit in which discrete changes from molecule to molecule
can be ignored and distances and times over which we are concerned are much
larger than those of the molecular scale. This will enable the use of calculus in
our continuum thermodynamics. 10
 Properties and state of a substance
A substance may exit in various states.
State is the condition of a system at any instant of time .
Property is quantity which only depends on the state of the system and is independent
of the history of the system. such as pressure,temperature,and density.
There are two important classes of properties we consider in thermodynamics:
1-Extensive Property: a property which depends on the mass (or the extent) of the
system such as total volume, total energy.
2- Intensive Property: a property which is independent of the mass of the system
such as temperature , pressure and density.
A mole is a quantity of substance having a mass numerically equal to its molecular
weight. Designating the molecular weight by M and the number of moles by n, the
mass m of the substance is m = n M. When an extensive property is reported on a unit
mass or a unit mole basis, it is called a specific property. For example, the volume per
mole is ύ, whereas the volume per unit mass is υ , and the two specific volumes are
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related by ύ= M v
In this class we will mainly be concerned with two types of equilibrium:
1- Mechanical equilibrium is characterized by equal pressure.
2-Thermal equilibrium is characterized by equal temperature.
Phase is a quantity of matter that is homogeneous throughout.
Homogeneity in physical structure means that the matter is all solid, or all liquid ,
or all vapor (or equivalently all gas).
Phase Boundaries are interfaces between different phases.
An example of a single phase is ice. Another single phase is liquid water. A glass
of ice water is a two-phase mixture with the phase boundaries at the edge of each
ice cube.
Change of State is implied one or more properties of the system has changed.
A pure substance is one that is uniform and invariable in chemical composition.
A pure substance can exist in more than one phase, but its chemical composition
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must be the same in each phase.
Process is a succession of changes of state.
Cycle is series of processes which returns to the original state. The cycle is a
thermodynamic “round trip.
isothermal: constant temperature.
isobaric: constant pressure.
isochoric: constant volume.
Quasi equilibrium (process ideal process) is a process in which the deviation from
thermodynamic equilibrium is infinitisimal,and all the state in which the process may
be considered at equilibrium.
Thermal equilibrium :if the temperature is the same throughout the entire
system.
Mechanical equilibrium is related to pressure, and a system is in mechanical
equilibrium if there is no change in pressure at any point of the system with time.
Chemical equilibrium if system chemical composition does not change with
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time, that is, no chemical reactions occur.
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 The Steady-Flow Process
Steady implies no change with time. The opposite of steady is unsteady, or transient.
Uniform implies no change with location over a specified region.

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We will mainly use the system International (SI) units in this course.
1- Mass /kilogram (kg): a mass equal to the mass of the international prototype of
the kilogram (a platinum-iridium bar stored in Paris), roughly equal to the mass
of one liter of water at standard temperature and pressure, and pound mass(Ibm)
for British standard.
2- Length/meter (m): the length of the path traveled by light in vacuum during a
time interval of 1/299792458 of a second, and foot (ft) for British standard.,
3- Time/second (s) the duration of 9192631770 periods of the radiation
corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground
state of the cesium 133 atom, and second: (s) English time units are identical to
those of SI.
Newton second law ,F=ma where F Newton
Ibf=1 Ibm×32.174/gc
F=ma/gc in British standard ,gc =32.174 Ibm ft/Ibf.s2 , F in Ibf
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Density is defined as mass per unit volume

The reciprocal of density is the specific volume υ, which is defined as volume

per unit mass. That is,

Mass basis υ =m3/kg

Molar basis= ύ=m3/kmol

specific gravity, or relative density, defined as the ratio of the density of a substance to the

density of some standard substance at a specified temperature (usually water at 4°C,for which

𝝆H2O 1000 kg/m3). That is,

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The weight of a unit volume of a substance is called specific weight and
is expressed as

Pressure,P,is the normal component of force per unit area. P=F/A. 1 Pa=1 N/m2

In thermodynamics, we are almost always concerned with the absolute

pressure as opposed to the gauge pressure. Most common pressure gauges
do not measure the absolute pressure; instead they measure the difference
between the absolute pressure and the atmospheric pressure. The two are
related via the formula

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Force and weight

32.174 lbm =1 slug

The pound symbol lb is actually the

abbreviation of libra, which was the ancient
Roman unit of weight.

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Work is a form of energy, can simply be defined as force times distance;
therefore, it has the unit “newton-meter (N · m),” which is called a joule (J).

calorie is the amount of energy needed to raise the

temperature of 1 g of water at 14.5°C by 1°C.
1 cal = 4.1868 J.
1 Btu = 1.0551 kJ).

Btu (British thermal unit)

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