Photocatalytic Membrane Basics

Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry 93 (2021) 101–116
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jiec
Photocatalytic-membrane technology: a critical review for membrane

fouling mitigation
Nazanin Nasrollahia , Leila Ghalamchia , Vahid Vatanpourb,* , Alireza Khataeec,d,e,*
a
Department of Applied Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Tabriz, Tabriz 5166616471, Iran
b
Department of Applied Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Kharazmi University, 15719-14911 Tehran, Iran
c
Research Laboratory of Advanced Water and Wastewater Treatment Processes, Department of Applied Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Tabriz,
51666-16471 Tabriz, Iran
d
Department of Environmental Engineering, Gebze Technical University, 41400 Gebze, Turkey
e
Institute of Research and Development, Duy Tan University, Da Nang 550000, Vietnam
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Article history: The present paper provides an overview of the hybrid photocatalytic-membrane process and its new
Received 7 August 2020 properties such as permeability, hydrophilicity, rejection, antifouling and photodegradation efficiency.
Received in revised form 15 September 2020 The integration of photocatalysts and membranes could be occurred in three major steps firstly
Accepted 30 September 2020
photocatalysts mixed matrix membranes, secondly photocatalysts immobilized on the surface of
Available online 8 October 2020
membranes, and thirdly membranes for the separation of photocatalysts from their suspensions.
Different combinations of photocatalysts (TiO2, CuO or ZnO) and membrane processes are presented and
Keywords:
characterized in the review paper. Positive or negative effect of different configurations of photocatalysis
Photocatalyst
Mixed matrix membrane
and membrane processes are discussed on the antifouling and antibacterial properties of the
Photocatalytic-membrane reactors membranes. This review outlines the coupling of photocatalysts with the membranes can reduce the
Fouling fouling of the membranes due to three mechanisms: elevation of membrane hydrophilicity, induction of
Photoelectrocatalysts antibacterial properties and degradation of foulants by produced radicals. However, reactive radicals can
Degradation. destroy polymeric membranes. Moreover, a short introduction to the photoelectrocatalysts is presented
combined with membrane processes.
© 2020 The Korean Society of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights
reserved.
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Photocatalysts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Membrane processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
The hybrid of photocatalysts and membranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Photocatalytic-membrane reactors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Photoelectrocatalysts and membranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Sono-photocatalysis/membrane separation process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Photocatalysts and mixed matrix membranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
TiO2 and TiO2 composites based photocatalyst in mixed matrix membranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
ZnO photocatalyst and mixed matrix membrane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
CuO photocatalysts and mixed matrix membranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Mechanism of photocatalyst on membrane fouling control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Influence of operating parameters on photocatalytic process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Influence of pH on photocatalytic degradation of pollutants in wastewaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Oxidizing agents effect on photocatalytic degradation of pollutants in wastewater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Catalyst loading effects on photocatalytic degradation of pollutants in wastewaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
* Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: vahidvatanpour@khu.ac.ir (V. Vatanpour), a_khataee@tabrizu.ac.ir, alirezakhataee@duytan.edu.vn (A. Khataee).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jiec.2020.09.031
1226-086X/© 2020 The Korean Society of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
102 N. Nasrollahi, L. Ghalamchi, V. Vatanpour et al. / Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry 93 (2021) 101–116
Effect of photocatalyst loading on membrane fouling . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

The effect of hydrophilicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Effect of antibacterial properties and antibiofouling .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Declaration of interests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Introduction treatment of solid-wastes and regeneration of the adsorbent will

be required, which add more cost to the process. Recent studies
Wastewater treatment technology becomes significantly im- have been devoted to the use of photocatalysis in the removal of
portant during water shortage under the declining the natural pollutants such as dyes from wastewaters. Particularly, because of
water resources [1]. Membrane-based processes are considered as the ability of this method to completely mineralize the target
a unique technology in water and wastewater treatment possess- pollutants. Photocatalysis is considered to be a sustainable
ing several advantages such as high-efficient, easy use, no phase environmental technology with applications in the degradation
change, great selectivity, normal operating temperature condition of organic and inorganic pollutants to harmless substances [11–
and low energy consumption [2,3]. However, the fouling phenom- 13]. A photocatalyst can be activated by the photonic activation.
enon can limit these varied applications due to the hydrophobic The general photocatalytic technology is done in four steps of
nature of membrane materials. Membrane fouling generally occurs absorption of light with favorable energy (proper with catalyst)
in forms of foulant adhesion/deposition [4] and thermodynamic separation of electron-hole pair, reactant adsorption onto active
filtration resistance of gel/cake layer [5]. In biological-membrane sites, main reaction and desorption of final products [14–16].
wastewater treatment systems such as membrane bioreactor Separating and recycling of catalysts from treated water have been
(MBR), the extracellular polymeric substance (EPS) formed and considered as an obstacle to the application of the photocatalytic
adhered onto the membrane surface active layer. The membrane process in aqueous media [17–19]. A novel photocatalytic-
fouling remained the major drawback impending the broader membrane can degrade the foulant and prevent the membrane
application of MBR [6]. The accumulation of foulants on the from the fouling [2,20]. Moreover, the membrane separates a
membrane surface can block membrane pores resulting in a low photocatalyst from treated wastewater. To fabricate the photo-
flux of membrane, reduction of the membrane life, and finally an catalytic-membrane, highly efficient catalyst materials, such as
increase in the cost of membrane technology [7]. Thus, the titanium dioxide (TiO2) have been used in the membrane matrix
fabrication of endowing membranes with degraded foulant [21]. When UV or visible light acts as a catalyst motivator strikes
property is much critical and valuable. A combination of the catalyst surface, some reactions occur to result in the
membrane technology with an advanced oxidation process (AOPs) production of hydroxyl radicals [22]. Consequently, the produced
can be a promising and effective process for fulfilling this goal. In hydroxyl radicals can convert the attached organic foulant into
addition, other traditional physical techniques likes: adsorption, harmless inorganic substances. Recently, many scientists focused
coagulation by chemical agents, ion exchange on synthetic on the fabrication of high-performance photocatalytic-membranes
adsorbent resins, etc. have been also used for removal of pollutants with remarkable self-cleaning, hydrophilicity and antibacterial
[8–10]. However, transferring organic compounds from water to properties [3,23–26]. Our review paper presents the importance of
another phase and creating secondary pollution are the main fabricating photocatalytic-membranes, membrane photoreac-
removal methods of these techniques. Consequently, a further tores, and the role of the photocatalysts in the photocatalytic-
Table 1
Positive and negative points of photocatalytic-membrane technology compered with other membrane processes.
Treatment process name Advantages Disadvantages Ref

Membrane process Reduce use of chemicals Little efficiency on removal of [27]
Broad spectrum removal ability in single step some materials likes NOM, Taste and odors
Exceptional performance
Membrane bioreactors Lower sensitivity to contaminants peak Membrane biofouling [28]

Higher effluent quality Relatively expensive to install and operate
Decrease sludge production Frequent membrane monitoring and maintenance
Limitation imposed by pressure, temperature and pH
Adsorption-membrane process Higher efficiency Non-degradation pollutant [29,30]

Lower costs
Increase process rate
Application in metal ion sorption
Powder activated carbon membrane Excellent quality effluent with various Fouling control requires a special attention [31]
influents.
Suitability for pants upgrading
Photocatalytic-membrane Higher efficiency by improving hydrophilic- Equipment require [32]

ity Need experts to synthesize photocatalysts
High performance
Lower fouling
Degradable foulant
More life time of membrane
N. Nasrollahi, L. Ghalamchi, V. Vatanpour et al. / Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry 93 (2021) 101–116 103
membranes in foulant degradation. Table 1 shows the comparison photocatalytic-membrane reactors (PMRs), where photocatalysis
photocatalytic-membrane technology with other membrane and membrane processes are coupled together [35].
processes.
Membrane processes
Photocatalysts
Membrane technology accomplishes important separation
TiO2 could break down the water used under sunlight was and purification and has appeared as a favorable wastewater
found by Fujishima and Honda [33] in 1972 thereafter photo- treatment with an efficient separation effect, low energy
catalysts classified into different categories [34]. In the common consumption, low contamination, significant equipment integra-
classification of photocatalysts, oxide and non-oxide photocata- tion, and continuous process properties [49–52]. In general,
lysts are two headings. Numerous subgroups for oxide photo- microfiltration (MF) and ultrafiltration (UF) membranes have
catalysts are TiO2, Bi2O3, ZnO, CuO, Fe3O4, etc. and for non-oxide been used for the reclamation of surface waters. Moreover, the
photocatalysts are CdS, CuS, ZnS, etc. [35–41]. In addition to the nanofiltration membrane (NF) with molecular weight cut-offs
nature of synthesized photocatalysts, the efficiency of this process (MWCO) of around 150-350 Da are proper for wastewater
is affected by the light source irradiation. Commonly, the band-gap treatment and environmental remediation because of high
energy (Ea) of photocatalysts should be equal or smaller than inorganic ion removal applications [53]. In pressure-driven
photon energy irradiated by a photo-activated photocatalyst. There membrane process a pressure gradient between influent and
is a direct relationship between the irradiation intensity and the permeate sides is employed as the driving force to separate the
efficiency of photocatalyst process; more efficient photocatalysis particles and solutes based on size, shape and charge. Fig. 2
reactions would be the result of stronger irradiation intensities illustrates the pressure-driven membrane process mechanism.
[42–46]. Fig. 1 shows the general photocatalyst mechanism In PMRs, the pressure-driven membranes such as NF, UF, and
processes. The activation of photocatalysts could happen by the MF should play the role of both a separator for the photocatalyst
irradiation of UV or visible light- related to the space between the and a selective barrier for the contaminant molecules including
valence band and conduction band- named "energy band" or "band pharmaceuticals, humus and dyes as well as by-products of
gap". photodecomposition processes [5]. Organic, mixed matrixed
To have a photocatalyzed reaction, electrons in the band gap membranes, and inorganic membrane materials have been used
should be excited and skip to the conduction band. Charge carriers in PMRs for an efficient wastewater treatment. The main organic
are created and photocatalyzed process can be operated during membranes fabricated from polymers include polyethersulfone
this activation [47]. Accordingly, migration of generated e-/h+ pairs (PES) [54], polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) [55], polyethylene (PE)
to semiconductor surface and taking part in redox reactions briefly [56] etc. due to their high mechanical strength, excellent radiation,
describe this process. Three different active pieces that play the and chemical resistance. However, these membranes are very
main roles in photocatalytic reactions are: h+, hydroxyl radical disposed to damage under photocatalysis conditions in PMRs, such
(OH) as the primary oxidant of pollutant degradation in aqueous as abrasion of membrane by the photocatalyst and reaction of
medium and superoxide radical (O2ˉ). Two routes were consid- polymeric chains with generated hydroxyl radicals. Inorganic
ered for OH radicals: (i) photogenerated h+ oxidized H2O and OH-
in the water environment to produce OH radicals, and (ii)
photogenerated e- reduced O2 in aqueous solution to Oˉ2 radicals,
followed by the production of OOH radicals (the result of reacting
with h+) and decomposition of OOH radicals to produce OH
radicals. The degradation of organic pollutants should be done
directly by h+, and the degradation capacity depends on the
catalyst type and oxidation condition [48]. The above mentioned
photocatalysts are applied in different fields including: photo-
catalytic hydrogen production, waste water treatment, photo-
catalytic disinfection, and air purification. Despite the many
benefits of this method, several disadvantages, such as low
photocatalyst efficiency, low recyclability, and low utilization of
sunlight restrict photocatalytic process. In the meantime, one of
the significant methods for solving the normal problems with
photocatalytic process mentioned before is the application of
Fig. 1. The simple mechanism of photocatalysis processes. Fig. 2. The schematic of membrane filtration mechanism [27].
membranes can be attractive options compared to polymeric ones performance, but the main concern was about the separation of
due to the advantages of excellent chemical and thermal stability. photocatalysts [43].
Though they are more expensive than polymeric membranes. The The brief advantages and disadvantages of two different
inherent hydrophobicity of membranes leads to fouling on configurations are presented in Table 2.
membranes and limits membrane applications [57]. A critical PMRs are one of the well-known methods for separating
challenge is the development of surface modification of mem- photocatalysts, products, and byproducts of photocatalytic reac-
branes with various photocatalysts to design membranes with tions. Selective substrates for photocatalysts and also separation
synergetic properties [43,58–60]. Mixed matrix membranes and filtration of degraded molecules are the roles played by
(MMMs) are composed of an organic polymer and embedding membrane processes in PMRs [59,67]. In the PMRs, similar to
solid phases such as zeolites or nanoparticles. The inorganic photocatalytic-membranes, the catalyst might be loaded in/on the
material in these membranes reduces the free volume through matrix of membranes or mixed with the solution medium in the
which contaminant molecules may diffuse. Moreover, these reactor. Some of significant advantages of photocatalytic-mem-
nanoparticles improve the properties of polymeric membranes brane reactors making them preferable to other technologies are:
and are fabricated easily and economically in contrast to inorganic 1) causing limited space for photocatalyst reaction, 2) using
membranes. The unique large surface-to-volume ratio and strong specific resident times for molecules in the reactor, and 3) applying
reactivity properties of nanoparticles make it an ideal candidate to simultaneous processes for the decomposition and separation of
be incorporated into polymeric matrix for highly specific pollutants from the environment. In addition, applying PMRs
applications. It was attributed to the considerable change in instead of ordinary photoreactors, avoid subsequent operations,
membrane characteristics such as thermal, mechanical, magnetic, such as coagulation-flocculation-sedimentation, which are essen-
hydrophilicity morphology, and antifouling compared to the tial for removing all byproducts and photocatalysts from the
unfilled membranes [61–63]. MMMs improve the permeability treated solution. Further removing by the separation system
and performance of membranes. Both flat sheet and hollow fiber results in energy saving and reduces the size of plant installation as
membrane configurations were applied in PMRs. The noticeable well.
developmental strides in the area of inorganic and organic hollow Most of the studies on PMRs, applied usual pressure driven
fiber membranes in PMRs with high packing densities and membrane processes such as MF [64,66,68–75], UF [76–80], and
accordingly more capacities per unit volume have led to their NF [78–81] with photocatalysts to create a promising process.
contribution to industrialization. Furthermore, membrane fouling is a common phenomenon in UF
and MF PMRs processes, which can be the result of suspension of
The hybrid of photocatalysts and membranes catalyst in the reaction media.
PMRs as hybrid systems coupling photocatalysts were fabricat-
Photocatalytic-membrane reactors ed with microfiltration and ultrafiltration membranes have been
investigated by many researchers such as a wide range of pollutant
Since last few decades research have been focused on organic removal such as pharmaceuticals [72,82], dyes [69,76], chloro-
compound removal using the photodegradation process by phenol [69], different nitrophenol compounds [77], and bisphenol
environmentalists. Fig. 3 depicts the two main groups were used A [70,71], as well as treatment of real wastewater containing dye
to apply photocatalysts: 1) mixed reactors with suspended [83], grey water [64], synthetic wastewater [84], and surface water
photocatalysts in liquid media, and 2) photocatalysts fixed on [75] were used as feed for PMRs processes. Fabrication of PMRs
the carrier of reactors (such as quartz, zeolites, stainless steel, etc.). with NF is limited to use in the removal of dyes [85], nitrophenol
Different names are used for these configurations such as compounds [85,86], humic acids [67] and pharmaceuticals [87,88]
“membrane chemical reactor” (MCR)[64], “membrane reactor” from waste water. Cooper and Ratcliff [89] reported the first
[65], and “membrane photoreactor” [65], or specific names combination of photocatalysis with MF membranes. They used
including “submerged membrane photocatalysis reactor” [66]. cross-flow filtration by an Enka Microdyne Module equipped with
Since all cited names refer to the hybridization of membrane 0.2 mm polypropylene membranes to remove photocatalyst
process and photocatalysis, it will be useful to use the general term, particles from purified water. Since then, a wide range of similar
the “photocatalytic-membrane reactor. Loss of photoactivity is the configurations of PMRs using pressure driven membrane techni-
result of immobilized photocatalyst on the substrate that has ques were published and discussed in the literature. Different
active surface for removing components from solution. However, modes were used either batch or continuous, including pressur-
to achieve a greater performance of photocatalyst, the suspension ized and de-pressurized systems. Membrane fouling is the main
of catalyst in the solution feed should provide the great concern and a key issue of this coupling technology. New
Fig. 3. Two different configurations of PMRs (1) photocatalyst in suspension media, (2) photocatalyst immobilized in/on the membrane.
Table 2
Positive and negative points of slurry and immobilized PMRs.
Variable Immobilized PMRS Slurry PMRs
Positive Negative Positive Negative

Catalyst No need to catalyst separation, the Most likely Loss of immobilized Great importance of photocatalyst reducing permeate quality
segregation activity of the catalysts are the main catalyst to permeate during separation due to catalyst penetration at
factor to use the membrane long-term filtration the beginning of filtration
Modification highly constant of catalyst content and Impossibility of photocatalyst Modification of catalyst loading to the Applying post-treatment to
of catalytic efficiency modification, due to the fixed configuration of system achieve the high quality
photocatalytic activity amount of catalyst in the permeate with
membrane matrix
Catalyst Replacing of Catalyst and membrane at Necessity of Membrane Replacing of Inactive catalyst without Increasing in catalyst
replacement the same time exchange because of decreasing membrane exchange exchange due to the loss of
in catalyst activity catalyst during the filtration
process
Pollution Pollutant degradation may be performed Decomposition efficiency is Increasing in degradation rate due to Decreasing in degradation
decompositionin feed or permeate lower than the same situation more contact between catalyst and effectiveness and increasing
with suspended catalyst pollutant of pollution contents at the
same time
Membrane Increase the hydrophilicity of membrane fouling formation due to the Possible increase of Permeate flux by Serious Membrane in the use
fouling surface and decomposition of pollutants more contents of pollutants degradation of organic pollutant gel of catalyst particles with MF,
on the gel layer of membranes, decrease than degradation capacity UF and NF membranes.
the fouling
Possibility of hydroxyl radicals or UV Impossibility of membrane damage
membrane irradiation resulting in polymer because of UV light or hydroxyl radicals
damages damages (dispersing UV irradiation anywhere in
the hybrid system)
photocatalytic-membrane reactors were reported using a new Photoelectrocatalysts and membranes

combination of membranes with photocatalysts. Applying direct
contact membrane distillation (DCMD, MD) [90–94], pervapora- As mentioned before, major pollutants and waste parts of
tion (PV) [95] and dialysis [96] instead of usual filtration polluted water or effluents are organic compounds (drug, chemical
membrane part in PMRs ultimate in less fouling of membrane components, dye molecules, VOCs and etc.), which can be removed
compared to photocatalysts usage. by very promising advanced oxidation processes. Among various
The hybrid photocatalysis-membrane process are reported by AOP methods, special features of heterogeneous photocatalysts,
only few group of researchers (Molinari and Palmisano [89], such as low cost and environmental friendly, make them a
Augugliaro et al. [65] and Ollis [97]). Four different categories of promising choice for wastewater treatment [99–101]. Oxidation of
the hybrid photocatalysis-membrane process were defined and soluble organic compounds is the phenomenon in question which
discussed by Ollis [97]: 1) MF filtration for suspended catalyst occurs on the surface of photocatalysts using solar or UV radiation.
recycle, 2) UF or RO filtration for reactant and suspended catalyst In recent years, hydrogen production as a clean fuel has received
recycle, 3) immobilized photocatalyst plus reactant recycle by UF/ much attention. Photocatalytic/-photoelectocatalytic treatment of
RO filtration, 4) UF/RO cross flow membrane plus immobilized wastewater in acid solution or reaction media without oxygen
membrane. The noted paper summarized the researches pre- results in the degradation of organic compounds and production of
sented in [76,92,98] and announced that further substantial effort hydrogen [102–104]. Metal deposition on the surface of photo-
should be planned for widespread industrial usage and develop- catalysts concluded by the photogenerated electron reduction of
ment of the hybrid photocatalysis/membrane process. Photo- different metal ions, is another advantage of photocatalysis
catalysis plus nanofiltration membrane hybridization process was treatment [105]. Powder slurry of photocatalyst is the most
studied and summarized by Molinari and Palmisano [89] wherein applied form used for wastewater treatment. Nevertheless,
they found that this combination have two major advantages of filtration should be embedded in the following step for recovery,
membrane filtration process and suspended photocatalyst regeneration and recycling.
degradation. Another review focused on the synthetic or actual Furthermore, removing the filtration process and using modu-
wastewater containing organic and inorganic pollutants, and lar reactor design are the results of applying photocatalysts in the
coupling heterogenic photocatalysts with other technologies to bulk type or as loaded on the substrate [106–108]. Doubtless, less
remove existing contaminations [65]. Mostly focused on the overall conversion, surface area, and less penetration of light
hybrid photocatalyst-membrane process that contains two main utilization are the consequences of bulk or supported photo-
differences in the catalyst manner: suspended catalyst in reactors catalyst usage. Photoelectrochemical cell can be a promising
and the immobilized type on/in a membrane. They summarized assistance to solve this problem. Effective separation of holes and
that applying hybrid process of catalyst in suspension and electrons (from photocatalyst electrode) is produced by photo-
membrane filtration represented better results in the continuous generated processes using outer positive bias (usually in the order
systems. A promising hybridization system would provide both of deficit of volt or fewer volt). An external bias established
advantages of old photoreactors and sufficient filtration of between photoanode and cathode electrode, and electrolyte
membrane process. solution or special solid polymer electrolyte were used to separate
Last few years there are several publications on the PMRs but two opposite poles.
they failed to provide the comprehensive review paper; therefore, One of the promising methods for organic compound photo-
our paper will provide the detail and updated studies on the PMRs degradation is known as photoelectrocatalysis (PEC) [109]. The
to conclude an effective combination of the photocatalyst and the main advantages of the newly completed method in comparison
membrane processes. with a simple photocatalyst is the unsuitability of oxygen usage for
e þ O2 ! O
2 ð3Þ
þ
h þ H2 O ! OHþHþ ð4Þ
þ
h þHO ! OH ð5Þ
Investigations have been conducted to improve the efficiency of

US (Ultra-Sonication) in wastewater purification; these studies are
Fig. 4. Schematic diagram of g-C3N4/CNTs/Al2O3 photoelectrocatalytic membrane
in progress in many research laboratories. Khataee et al. [123]
process [110]. synthesized two efficient ZrO2-pumice and ZrO2-tuff nanocompo-
sites via a modified sol-gel method for sono-catalysis degradation
of Rifampin (RIF). In another research, Daneshvar et al. [124] used a
waste liquid treatment with applying bias and using an external Zn Ti layer double hydroxide (LDH) for degradation of methylene
circle for forcing photogenerated electrons from the photocatalyst blue (MB) and showed that Cu2+ substitution could considerably
surface through the reaction medium. enhance the sono-catalytic properties of ZnTi-LDH.
Wang et al. [110] applied sequentially depositing method to Combination of sono-photocatalysis with the membrane
precipitate CNTs layer and g-C3N4 layer on Al2O3 membrane process could overcome the separation problems of catalyst in
support. The g-C3N4/CNTs/Al2O3 membranes exhibited multifunc- slurry form [125]. Recently, many researchers have investigated to
tion of membrane filtration, photoelectrocatalytic degradation and design sono-photocatalysis/membrane reactors to develop treat-
antifouling capability in the water treatment under visible-light ment processes in continuous mode. Sheydaei et al. [126] worked
irradiation and voltage supply. At 1.0 V, the PECM (photoelec- on the an effective lanthanide doped ZnO photocatalyst to use in a
trocatalytic membrane) process displays synergetic effect for continuous flow sono-photocatalysis/membrane separation
phenol removal, and its performance was 2.7, 2.0 and 10.1 times (SPMS) reactor. Fig. 5 shows the schematic sono-photocatalytic
higher than that of PCM (photocatalytic membrane), ECM membrane reactor. In another research, Sheydaei et al. [127]
(electrocatalytic membrane) and filtration alone processes, re- designed a one pot/hybrid reactor for continuous degradation of
spectively. The PECM process also exhibited improved membrane dyestuff effluent under visible irradiation. They mentioned that the
fouling inhibition compared with the PCM or filtration alone presence of ultrasonic waves could inhibit membrane fouling and
process when employed for NOMs removal. The high efficiency of enhance the membrane performance. They reported that the
g-C3N4/CNTs/Al2O3 PECM was originated from the high yield of hollow fiber membrane could effectively recover the N-TiO2
hydroxyl radical in this process, which should be owing to the photocatalyst from the slurry reactor and simultaneously ultra-
efficient electron-hole separation in g-C3N4 layer with the sonic improved the efficiency of removal process and mitigated the
assistance of positive voltage on CNTs layer. Fig. 4 shows that membrane fouling by cleaning the membrane surface.
electron-hole pairs are generated in the g-C3N4 layer under the Although the use of sonication could improve photocatalyst
irradiation of visible light. efficiency and reduce the membrane fouling, the uniform
Similar recent study was done by Gao et al. [111]. This research distribution of ultrasonic in the pilot-plant reactors and also,
group developed a functional composite membrane that combined stability of the polymeric membranes are the main challenges of
photoelectrocatalysis and membrane filtration. ZnIn2S4 particles this technique.
were evenly distributed on the surface of the carbon fiber felt that
served as a photoelectrocatalytic layer. Simultaneously, casting a Photocatalysts and mixed matrix membranes
PVDF coating layer enhanced the breaking strength of the carbon
fiber. They concluded that inserting of carbon fiber felt between A favorable technology applied in various fields including
PVDF membrane and ZnIn2S4 photocatalyst endowed the organic wastewater treatment, desalination of sea water, and water
membrane with high endurability and good electrical conductivity, purification is membrane technology [128]. The importance of
which can be benefit to the photoelectrocatalytic degradation of this technology is due to the numerous advantages including: low
total carbon dissolved in deionized water or the effluent of a cost in related equipment and chemical consumption, no need for
laboratory-scale MBR. further chemical addition, environmental friendly, low occupancy
The studies that used visible light as the irradiation source are space and high performance [128,129].
summarized in Table 3. The use of external electrical force could In the meantime, the usage of membranes is restricted in the
hinder the recombination of electron-hole and increase the industry because of membrane fouling as the main disadvantage of
photocatalyst efficiency. this technology usually caused by organic and biological com-
pounds [130,131]. Lower membrane flux and more energy
Sono-photocatalysis/membrane separation process consumption are the result of membrane fouling phenomenon
caused by pore blockage during the filtration process [131]. In
Sono-photocatalysis as an environmentally friendly technique addition, concentration polarization is another reason of flux
has been used for decontamination of wastewater. In the sono- decreasing and membrane fouling [131]. Accordingly, fabrication
catalysis process, ultrasonic high-frequency waves with pyrolysis of a new membrane with improved antifouling property is an
of H2O can produce the ROS (reactive oxygen species) according to expected purpose in membrane modification projects [132].
the equations (1–5) [120]. The simultaneous sono and photo- Differences in hydrophilicity of polymeric membranes result in
catalysis accelerate the treatment process [120–122]. various antifouling properties of intended membranes [133,134].
þ Unfortunately, hydrophobicity is one of the defined characteristic
CatalystþÞÞÞÞÞ ! Catalyst h þ e ð1Þ
of polymeric membranes. When protein solutions are used as feed
for membrane filtration, membrane fouling occurs on the surface.
Last few decades, many researchers have focused on improving
H2 OþÞÞÞÞÞ ! OHþH ð2Þ
membrane properties and hydrophilicity of fabricated membrane
Table 3
Brief studies of photoelectrocatalytic oxidation of organics in solution phase under visible light illumination.
Photoanode Organic pollutant Comments Photo-anode preparation method Efficiency Ref.

Bi2O3/Ti Acid orange 7 Oxalic acid etching, 90% [112]
electrodeposition and calcination
W-TiO2 Dodecyl- 5 wt%-TiO2 film is the optimum case for highest Liquid phase deposition 92% [113]
benzenesulfonate degradation
(DBS)
g-C3N4/ CNTs/Al2O3 Phenol Sequential depositing <72% FRR [110]
WO3 Glucose Reforming of glucose for hydrogen production Deposition of pre made WO3 on – [114]
(FTO)-coated glass
Dimethyl phthalate Acidic and alkaline condition improved degradation anodic oxidation and electro- 97.5% [115]
(DMP) rate of DMP deposition
ZnO/In2O3 Glucose Depositing samples on ITO glass to prepare thin-film Two step process: hydrothermal – [116]
photoelectrodes and annealing treatments
Graphene film/TiO2 Methyl blue (MB) High light absorption both in UV and visible region, Anodization and electrodeposition 65.9% [117]
nano-tube array higher transient photoinduced current strategy
TiO2/carbon/Al2O3 Natural organic Displayed 1.3 or 3 times higher removal (e.g., Sequential depositing 1.7 times higher than [118]
matters (NOMs) Rhodamine B) than that of filtration with UV irradiation only filtration
or filtration alone
N-doped TiO2-coated Phenol Surface of the N-doped TiO2/NaY zeolite membrane Sol–gel method 89% [119]
NaY zeolite exhibited a distinct red-shift in the UV–vis spectra to N-
doped TiO2
photocatalysts on or in the membrane surface [142,145–147].

Totally, there are three different methods for immobilizing
nanophotocatalysts on the polymeric membrane surface, including
1) using nanophotocatalysts solution as the membrane feed and
direct filtration [84,148], 2) adding nanophotocatalysts to mem-
brane polymeric solution before casting membrane sheets
[85,149,150], and 3) using self-assembly between nanophotocata-
lysts and anionic polymers to fabricate mixed matrix membranes
[151].
Around the world, researchers have used different kinds of
photocatalysts, such as TiO2 [152,153], ZnO [154], CuO [155,156],
Fig. 5. The schematic of continuous sono-photocatalytic membrane reactor
and α-Fe2O3 [157]. The effects of photocatalysts on membrane
containing immersed hollow fiber membranes for separation of the dispersed characterization and photocatalyst process efficiency have inves-
nanophotocatalysts [126]. tigated.
to decrease fouling [133]. Various treatments, such as plasma TiO2 and TiO2 composites based photocatalyst in mixed matrix
treatment, using hydrophilic monomer and short-chain molecules membranes
in membrane matrix, and blending with hydrophilic polymers and Among different nanoparticles used as photocatalyst in the
nanoparticles were done to enhance the hydrophilicity of different polymeric matrix of membranes, TiO2 attracted great attention
polymeric membranes [61,62,135–137]. Mixing hydrophilic inor- because of special hydrophilicity, chemical stability, non-toxicity,
ganic particles with polymeric matrix of membranes is one of the and changing the physical and chemical features of polymeric
attractive methods to change the hydrophilicity of membranes. membranes positively. Permeability and membrane antifouling as
Besides significant modifications in hydrophilicity of mixed matrix inherent features of polymeric membranes, face a great change by
membranes with organic materials, other features such as using TiO2 NPs as fillers [141,158–161]. A strong interaction
magnetic, mechanical, and thermal characteristic of the mixed between TiO2 NPs and polymer matrix resulted in its good
one are different from the bare one [61,62,138–142]. dispersion on the surface of membranes [142,162–164].
To have a brief comparison between typical physical, chemical, Kwak et al. (2001) have synthesized positively charged anatase
and biological water and wastewater treatment, one of the most TiO2 by the sol-gel method and used it by the self-assembly
effective group of decomposing organics are AOPs. Hydroxyl method in a hybrid thin film composite (TFC) polyamide
radicals are one of the strongest oxidants for converting pollutants membrane to investigate the effects of this addition. They observed
into simple and harmless molecules, produced by AOP processes. a considerable changes in both hydrophilicity and pure water flux
Different resources such as ozone, UV radiation, solar light, [165]. Moreover, the photocatalytic bactericidal activity of bare and
hydrogen peroxide and photocatalysts are used to produce blended membranes was verified by calculating the numbers of E.
hydroxyl radicals. From the 1970’s, many researches were coli bacteria. The photocatalytic and antibacterial properties of the
performed about heterogeneous photocatalyst oxidation and using blended membrane were improved by increasing the contents of
solar light as an energy source [143,144]. Although, using photo- TiO2 NPs in their matrix. Teow et al. used TiO2 NPs in the
catalysts in suspension for wastewater treatment is quite usual, membrane matrix of PVDF polymer by adding different organic
there are several disadvantages in this mode of treatment, viz. 1) solvents such as N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP), N-N-dimethyla-
photocatalyst congestion, and 2) the need for recovery and post- cetamide (DMAC), and N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF) to investi-
treatment after photocatalyst processes, which is costly and gate the effect of adding TiO2 NPs and different solvents on the
difficult to perform. In order to overcome the problems, one of the blended membrane properties. According to their published
promising methods is to immobilize photocatalysts on support or results, using NMP as a polymer solvent, resulted in bigger pore
thin films. Recycling of photocatalysts would be easier by loading size of the membrane and also low rejection of humic acid as a
fouling agent. Finally using DMAc as a solvent and TiO2 in an amounts of TiO2 particles (0-4 wt.%) in the casting solution of the
specific amount of 0.01 g/L in casting solution presented remark- PVDF membrane. They studied antibacterial property, photo-
able permeability with highest rejection (98.28%) of humic acid catalytic activity and antifouling property of the blended
[166]. Zul Adlan Mohd Hir et al. [21] used different contents of TiO2 membrane using Escherichia coliform (E. coli), Reactive black 5
in the polymeric matrix of PES membranes for photodegradation of (RB5) dye, and 1% BSA solution, respectively. This photocatalytic
methyl orange dye (MO). Increasing the amount of TiO2 particles reaction was followed by first order rate kinetics. Pore size,
up to 13 wt.% led to improve photocatalytic performance. hydrophilicity, and permeability of the modified membranes
Furthermore, high degradation efficiency (98%) and photocatalytic showed elevated improvements relative to the bare PVDF
stability of the new blended membrane, obtained by two layers of membrane. The highest antibacterial property of TiO2/PVDF
PES contained 13 wt.% TiO2 were achieved at a pH of 2 and MO membranes for E. coli bacteria and RB5 dye removal was gained
solution at a concentration of 10 mg/L). Also, high degradation by TiO2 usage about 4 wt. %.
efficiency of optimum blended TiO2/PES membranes remained Despite numerous advantages of incorporating TiO2 particles
even after 5 times of filtration. Kristina Fischer et al. [167] used a into the polymeric membrane matrix such as: low cost, great
new method for immobilization of TiO2 nanotubes on a porous hydrophilicity, high possibility in self-cleaning and increased
polymer substrate. Anodization of TiO2 nanotubes was designed organic pollutants removal under UV light [169–172], high surface
easily by sputtering a thin layer of titanium film on the top surface energy of TiO2 NPs[166] enhances the possibility of particles
of the membrane. In the next step, mild condition and a aggregation and results in low photocatalytic activity and
temperature below 120 C were used for crystallization of efficiency, as well as pore membrane blockage [173]. To solve this
photocatalytically active TiO2. High photocatalytic activity, is the problem, some solutions such as doping with metal and nonmetal
main result of enhanced surface areas of nanoneedle and nano- elements or compounds [174], using other semiconductors in its
tubular on the membrane surface. Furthermore, photocatalytic structure [175] and coupling with carbon materials [176] are
efficiency of the newly synthesized TiO2 by vapor-thermal or performed.
hydrothermal treatment increased about 6 times compared to According to the Fig. 6., Xu et al. [177] used the graphene oxide
typical TiO2 loaded on the membrane surface for methylene blue (GO)/TiO2 nanocomposite via the phase inversion technique in
degradation. Ngang et al. [32] used TiO2 NPs in the matrix of PVDF PVDF ultrafiltration membranes. As reported by the authors, GO is
membrane via the phase inversion method. Blending hydrophilic one of the promising candidates for polymeric membrane
TiO2 NPs improved physical properties and especially hydrophi- modification. Besides distinctive features of GO, including large
licity of the blended membrane relative to the neat one. Methylene surface area and charging carrier mobility, two other properties of
blue (MB) was used as a feed solution for investigation of GO change it as one of the best choices for coupling with TiO2
photodegradation processes and UV-cleaning properties of new particles [178,179].
blended membranes. A significant growth was observed in the Large surface area and oxygen-containing functional groups
photocatalytic activity with the presence of TiO2 and also lead to a stronger and closer contact between TiO2 particles and
permeability of blended. A flux recovery ratio (FRR) of 100%, and other components, which may cause less aggregation and better
high rejection (>99%) under a low pressure (0.5 bar) and UV- photocatalytic activity [180]. Moreover, refined photocatalytic
cleaning were obtained in their research, as another positive result efficiency of GO/TiO2 nanomaterial can be due to the electronic
of the photocatalyst mixed matrix membrane. properties of GO and easier electron transfer, resulting in less
In another study, Phonthammachai et al. [168] synthesized high carrier recombination [181]. A novel GO/TiO2-PVDF hybrid UF
surface area TiO2 photocatalyst directly from low cost titanium membrane presented about 50-70% improvement in photodegra-
triisopropanolamine as a precursor and dispersed different dation efficiency and 1.0-1.5 times faster degradation kinetics.
amounts of it in the polyacrylonitrile matrix. They found that Furthermore, self-cleaning property under UV radiation, a
polyacrylonitrile was an effective matrix for permeate flux and permeability growth of about 2 times that of the bare PVDF
photocatalytic degradation of 4-nitrophenol. The authors reported membranes, and keeping high BSA rejection were achieved. In a
that loading more amounts of TiO2 resulted in more photocatalytic similar study, Gao et al. [182] applied the layer-by-layer technique
activity at a lower pH value. to deposit TiO2 NPs and GO nanosheets consecutively on the bare
To further investigate on the effect of TiO2 incorporation into PES membranes. In the next step, ethanol/UV post-treatment was
the matrix of membranes, Damodar et al. [169], used different used for partial reduction of GO nanosheets. The new blended
Fig. 6. GO/TiO2-PVDF membranes and possible photocatalytic activity.

membranes exhibited methylene blue (MB) solution degradation wavelength than visible light [186]. Due to this problem, Deng and
of about 60-80% faster under UV and 3-4 times faster under Yin [187] investigated on nitrogen doped TiO2 (N-TiO2) mixed with
sunlight than PES membranes modified by TiO2 and GO, the PVDF matrix of membrane and applied the phase inversion
respectively. method to prepare blended membranes. To have a brief compari-
Natural organic compounds, such as humic acid, are one the son between TiO2/PVDF and N-TiO2/PVDF membranes, N-TiO2/
main reasons of membrane fouling that prevent wide usage of PVDF membrane showed elevated photocatalytic activity under
membrane technology for water treatment. Rao et al. [183] applied visible light irradiation and also improved pure water flux, humic
a simple hydrothermal, colloidal, and vacuum filtration method to acid (HA) rejection (above 96%), and antifouling property of PVDF
synthesize the Fe2O3/TiO2/GO composite to mix with casting blended membranes.
solution of membranes, and observed improved performance for Another environmental friendly research [162] used recycled
the modified membranes. According to their declaration, photo- newspapers as a green supportable cellulose resource for
catalytic activity and humic acid adsorption of TiO2 photocatalyst fabricating a new blended membrane via the phase inversion
were improved by Fe2O3 addition and easier photo-induced method. In the above study, N-doped TiO2 nanorods were mixed
electron-hole GO sheets led to better separation and more with polymeric matrix of the membrane as photocatalyst to
photocatalytic activity. Optimum weight ratio of the synthesized improve morphological and physicochemical properties of the
composite was 50:100:10 for Fe2O3: TiO2: GO to complete humic cellulose membrane. A strong interaction between TiO2 nanorods
acid removal under solar irradiation in a 12-h test. and hydroxyl groups of recycled cellulose via hydrogen bonding
In a different study, Zanganeh et al. [184] synthesized a novel was proved by the FTIR analysis. Phenol degradation in aqueous
self-cleaning K-B-N triple doped-TiO2 nanocomposite and used it medium under UV and visible light was performed at high
as an additive in PES nanofiltration membrane matrix. Biologi- efficiency using newly fabricated blended membranes. Further-
cally treated palm oil mill effluent (POME) was used as a more incorporation of TiO2 nanorods into an optimum content of
membrane feed to investigate the efficiency of new blended 0.5 wt.% led to better morphological and physicochemical features
membranes. According to obtained results, FRR, hydrophilicity, of the membrane relative to the neat membrane.
and consequently permeability of the blended membranes Table 4 presents examples of immobilized TiO2 photocatalyst
presented high improvements with an optimum amount of on/in the surface of membranes by different methods.
0.5 wt. % K-B-N-TiO2. In addition, COD removal efficiency of It could be concluded that the combination of the photocatalyst
biologically treated POME was measured about 98% by the use of and the membrane in the form of mixed matrix membranes could
the new triple doped PES membrane. lead to increase of membrane flux, decrease of membrane fouling.
A special group of organic pollutants, which are dispersed easily However, due to reduce of the photocatalyst affective surface area,
in soil and water, are chlorophenols. Synthesis of a new composite the photocatalytic efficiency reduces and the durability of the self-
of TiO2 in order to have a more activity and red shift was performed assembled nanoparticles on the membrane surface is pour. To
by Hoseini et al. [185] using the sol-gel method to fabricate TiO2 overcome to these challenges, the covalently attachment of active
nanoparticles with different amounts of cobalt to be used in photocatalyst on the membrane surface may be a correct route.
photocatalytic mixed matrix membranes (MMMs). The best 2,4-
dichlorophenol (2,4-DCP) degradation was performed by 1 wt.% ZnO photocatalyst and mixed matrix membrane
TiO2 nanoparticles containing 1.34 mol.% cobalt under visible light. Another inorganic nanoparticle that has attracted special
Furthermore, permeability and rejection of blended PES mem- attention as a photocatalyst in the matrix of polymeric membranes
brane with optimum content of TiO2/Co in anatase phase showed a is zinc oxide (ZnO) NPs. Some of its prominent properties, such as
great improvement (53% and 25.3% respectively). Although TiO2 catalytic activity, special physical and chemical properties,
usage in both water treatment and purification is very widespread, antibacterial potency, and much lower cost than TiO2 and Al2O3
a relatively large band gap of TiO2 (anatase), about 3.2 eV, limits its NPs, are the main reasons to use ZnO NPs as a reliable photocatalyst
process condition to use UV light because of containing shorter [194,195].
Table 4
Examples of immobilized TiO2 photocatalyst on/in the surface of membranes.
Photocatalyst Light Synthesize method Pollutant Membrane Characteristics Ref.

Source
SiO2/TiO2 nanorods/ UV Sol-gel technique Sodium dodecyl Alumina Mixing amorphous silica to titania matrix resulted in phase [188]
nano tubes benzene sulfonate template changing from anastase to rutile, the new synthesized
(SDBS) composite, improved the photocatalytic activity and better
removal efficiency
Reduced graphen UV Liquid phased deposition Methylene blue Ceramic Using dead end filtration, more than one permeate recycle [189]
oxide-TiO2 (GOT) and (LPD) (MB) & methyl ultrafiltration needed to obtained the confirmed rejection (57%MB and
Vis orange (MO) tubular 29%MO)
Light membrane
N-doped TiO2 (N- Vis Sol-gel technique 4BS dye Ceramic UF Obtained 99% dye removal, using dead end filtration [190]
TiO2) resulted in rapid cake layer formation, using visible light
resulted in poor photo activity
TiO2-P25, Near- Liquid phase deposition Diphenhydramine UF Cellulose The presence of chloride anions because of using NaCl [191]
synthesized TiO2, UV, (DP), Methyl orange solution as feed had harmful effect, resulted in acting as
graphen oxide- Vis (MO) hole and hydroxyl radicals scavengers
TiO2(GOT)
TiO2 UVA Hydrolysis of titanium tetra Diclofenac and PES and PVDF Dead end filtration system used for degradation of drugs [192]
isopropoxide (TTIP) at the ibuprofen (as non- MF wasn’t complete and no clear data about flux and
membrane surface inflammable drugs) membrane fouling reported
TiO2 nanotubes UVA Sputtering a titanium film, Diclofenac PES UF Static experiment showed that degradation rate is about [193]
followed by anodization 100 times more than dead-end flow mode, so the dead end
and crystallization mode needs to be optimized
Since having the capability to disperse homogenously in the photocatalyst existence, which resulted in producing pure water
polymeric matrix and improve hydrophilicity, mechanical and and low fouling capability.
physical properties of polymeric membranes resulted in the use of
ZnO NPs as an outstanding additive in the matrix of polymeric CuO photocatalysts and mixed matrix membranes
membranes [196,197]. Cuprous oxide (Cu2O) is a p-type semiconductor with no
Rajeswari et al. [198] used an advanced oxidation process and ferromagnetic property and low direct band gap (2.17 eV) [202]. A
membrane technology at the same time in order to treat dyes from low direct band gap compared to common photocatalysts makes
textile industry effluents. They used ZnO NPs as a photocatalyst, Cu2O a proper option for photocatalytic activity. A major problem
cellulose acetate-polyurethane (CA-PU) as a polymeric membrane in using powdered such photocatalysts as Cu2O is their limited
source, and UV light to remove Reactive Red (RR 11) and Reactive dispersion in the aqueous phase. Imperfect dispersion of photo-
Orange (RO 84). The blending technique was used to disperse ZnO catalysts in the reaction medium leads to agglomeration of its
NPs in the casting solution of the CA-PU membrane. Obtained particles and minor efficiency of the photocatalysis process. [203].
results showed the hybrid technique in an optimum situation, Accordingly, blending Cu2O photocatalysts with the polymeric
which degraded available dyes at 40 min and pH 7. Fabrication of matrix of membranes is a simple and inexpensive method owing to
blended membranes and using ZnO NPs not only resulted in the originated proper dispersion, low agglomeration, and better
photocatalytic ability, but also improved mechanical and thermal photocatalytic activity of Cu2O particles [204,205]. According to
properties of CA-PU membranes. descriptions, Singh et al. [206] used the electrodeposition method
In another study, Zinadini et al. [199] synthesized a composite to synthesize Cu2O photocatalyst; in the next step, polysulfone
of multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) and ZnO NPs, blended (PSf) mixed matrix membrane was fabricated for pharmaceutical
it in PES casting solutions to prepare mixed matrix membranes, removal. In addition to Cu2O as a photocatalyst, they also used NMP
and then investigated photocatalytic, surface, physical, and and polyethylene glycol as the polymer solvent and pore former,
antifouling properties of the blended membranes. They used respectively. A variety of characterization techniques, such as AFM,
different analyses, such as SEM, AFM, contact angle measurement, FTIR, FESEM, XRD, and FESEM-EDX were applied to investigate
and XRD to prove their observations. According to their photocatalysts, their distribution in the polymeric matrix, and
comprehensive explanation, 0.5 wt.% ZnO/MWCNTs membranes modified structure of blended membranes. Also, the antifouling
could be the optimum choice between ZnO/MWCNTs membranes property and hydrophilicity of blended membranes in different
in different properties including permeability, antifouling proper- amounts of Cu2O addition were obtained by filtration of BSA
ty, and Direct Red 16 rejection. They attributed these significant solution and the static water contact angle (SWCA) measurement,
improvements to higher hydrophilicity and lower roughness of PES respectively. To evaluate the photocatalytic activity of Cu2O
membrane surface due to mixing with the applied nanocomposite. particles in the polymeric structure, ibuprofen (IBP) solution
Fig. 7. shows the schematic mechanism of photocatalytic activity of was filtrated as the pharmaceutical sample. Permeability of the
ZnO coated MWCNTs to explain this performance in brief. Cu2O/PSf blended membrane improved about 80% compared to
Similarly, Mohd Hir et al. [200] incorporated ZnO nanoparticle bare PSf membrane. Better porosity, hydrophilicity, and successful
into the polymeric matrix of PES casting solution and used the IBP removal (about 86%) under visible light irritation proved the
phase inversion method to fabricate new blended membranes. positive modification. In a related research, Nasrollahi et al. [207]
Methyl orange (MO) dye was the feed solution to investigate the used different amounts of easily synthesized CuO NPs in the PES
photoactivity of new blended PES membranes. Photoactivity of membrane matrix and reported various properties of new blended
blended membranes improved with increased ZnO contents to membranes. According to their research, 0.1 wt.% CuO NPs addition
17 wt.% and caused 100% MO degradation with first order kinetics. to the polymer dope solution improved hydrophilicity and
The possibility of repeated use of ZnO/PES membranes was also permeability of the PES membrane by about 63%. Moreover, the
confirmed in their research. Another similar study [201] tried to best antifouling property and rejection of the PES membrane were
synthesize a multi-functional CNT/ZnO/TiO2 nanocomposite by a observed at using the same content of CuO NPs. The same research
new method and used it in the polymeric matrix of UF group used a new simply synthesized CuO/ZnO nanocomposite
membranes. TiO2 nanowires were synthesized by the hydrother- and applied it as an additive in the PES polymeric matrix of the
mal method to act as a substrate for acid treated CNT/ZnO membrane [208]. Similar growth was observed in membrane
nanorods to create a “cob-web” like hierarchically structure. surface properties, such as hydrophilicity, and roughness, as well
Significant improvements in the mechanical property and as in membrane properties such as permeability, antifouling, and
photoactivity were obtained by carbon based materials and rejection.
Fig. 7. Schematic description of photocatalyst processes by ZnO-MWCNTs/PES membrane [199].

Mechanism of photocatalyst on membrane fouling control is an important parameter. The air (oxygen) flow into the
photocatalytic system should be well regulated, as poor flow of
Influence of operating parameters on photocatalytic process oxygen can bring about an adverse effect on the photocatalytic
reaction as reported elsewhere [216].
In photocatalytic degradation of pollutants in wastewaters, the It must be noted that the addition of peroxide increases the rate
followings are operating parameters which affect the process: pH towards real reaction with adequate oxygen supply, because the
of the solution to be degraded, pH of the precursor solution solution phase may at times be oxygen starved as a result of either
(catalyst’s solution during preparation of catalyst); oxidizing agent, oxygen consumption or slow oxygen mass transfer. The presence of
calcination temperature, dopant content, and catalyst loading. persulfate positively affects the mineralization rate, despite the
These parameters will be considered one after the other as they decrease of pH as the oxidant properties of the system probably
influenced the photocatalytic processes of the degradation of prevail on the effect of pH reduction.
pollutants in wastewaters.
Catalyst loading effects on photocatalytic degradation of pollutants in
wastewaters
Influence of pH on photocatalytic degradation of pollutants in
The effects of catalyst loading on photocatalytic degradation of
wastewaters
dyes in wastewaters have been studied [8,216,222–224]. The
The interpretation of pH effects on the efficiency of dye
reason generally advanced for this is that the increase in the
photodegradation process is a very difficult task because of its
amount of catalyst increases the number of active sites on the
multiple. As well as to that of reactant pollutant and products such
photocatalyst surface, which in turn increase the number of
as acids and amines, pH changes can thus influence the adsorption
hydroxyl and superoxide radicals. Again, when the concentration
of pollutant molecule onto the photocatalysts surfaces, an
of the catalyst increases above the optimum value, the degradation
important step for the photocatalytic oxidation to take place
rate decreases due to the interception of the light by the
[209]. Bahnemann et al. [210] have already reviewed that acid-base
suspension [17]. Sun et al. [224] added that as the excess catalyst
properties of the metal oxide surfaces can have considerable
prevent the illumination, OH radical, a primary oxidant in the
implications upon their photocatalytic activity.
photocatalytic system decreased and the efficiency of the
The hydroxyl radicals can be formed by the reaction between
degradation reduced accordingly. Furthermore, the increase of
hydroxide ions and positive holes. The positive holes are
catalyst concentration beyond the optimum may result in the
considered as the major oxidation species at low pH, whereas
agglomeration of catalyst particles, hence the part of the catalyst
hydroxyl radicals are considered as the predominant species at
surface become unavailable for photon absorption, and degrada-
neutral or high pH levels [211]. It was stated that in alkaline
tion rate decrease [223].
solution, OH are easier to be generated by oxidizing more
hydroxide ions available on photocatalyst surface, thus the Effect of photocatalyst loading on membrane fouling
efficiency of the process is logically enhanced [212]. Similar
results are reported in the photocatalyzed degradation of acidic Recently, photocatalysis has been developed for the reduction
azo dyes and triazine containing azo dyes [213,214], although it of membrane fouling by removing high organic compounds due
should be noted that in alkaline solution, there is a coulombic to a high efficiency and non-selective process [60,225]. This
repulsion between the negative charged surface of photocatalyst process can be an alternative to the decontamination of water
and the hydroxide anions. This fact could prevent the formation of without the use of chemical reagents to avoid extra sludge.

OH and thus decrease the photoxidation. Additionally, this process is a promising method to alternative
It must also be noted that most of photocatalyst particles like membrane fouling because of various organic matters. For the
TiO2 particles tend to agglomerate under acidic condition and the first time, Lee et al. [226] reported the application of a
surface area available for dye adsorption and photon absorption photocatalytic-membrane reactor for HA removal from water.
would be reduced [209]. The effects of pH on photocatalytic The photocatalysis increased membrane flux. In fact, the
degradation of organic pollutants have been studied by many physicochemical properties of organic foulants were changed
researchers [215–220]. In studying the effects of pH on the by the production of HO and O2 active radicals. They proved that
photocatalytic degradation of them, two things must be borne in the organic foulant accumulation on the membrane was reduced
mind; one, industrial effluents may not be neutral, and two; pH of by the photocatalysis process.
the reaction mixture influences the surface-charge-properties of Many researchers have studied the effects of different photo-
the photocatalysts [221]. catalysts on membrane fouling mitigation. Normalized flux was
introduced as an index for the compression of different systems,
Oxidizing agents effect on photocatalytic degradation of pollutants in which is calculated according to Equation 1:
wastewater where J and J0 are the solution flux and the pure water flux,
Reports show that oxidizing agents have a great deal of respectively.
influence on the photocatalytic degradation of pollutants. It was J
demonstrated by Saquiba et al. [216] that hydrogen peroxide Normal flux ¼ ð1Þ
J0
(H2O2), ammonium persulphate ((NH4)2S2O8) and potassium
bromate (KBrO3) have individual influence on the degradation of Desa et al. [227] investigated the effect of a ZnO NPs composite
Fast Green FCF (1) and Patent Blue VF (2) using Hombikat UV 100 on membrane fouling mitigation. They proved that the membrane
and Degussa P25 as respective photocatalysts. Their results surface entrapped lower pollutants with the presence of ZnO-PEG
revealed that potassium bromate and ammonium persulfate had nanoparticles. Moreover, cross-section images of membranes did
a beneficial effect on the degradation rate for the decomposition of not show changes compared with the bare membrane. They
dye 1 in the presence of UV 100; whereas in the case of dye 2, all the revealed that ZnO-PEG NPs had the potential of membrane fouling
electron acceptors were found to enhance the rate markedly in the mitigation by significant photocatalytic degradation of the foulant.
presence of P25. Damodara et al. [169] reported an antifouling mechanism of coated
Oxygen is required as electrons scavenger to keep the photo- or blended PVDF membrane with TiO2 nanocomposite as
catalytic reaction, and the amount of oxygen going into the system presented in Fig. 8.
Fig. 8. a) The mechanism of photocatalysis process b) the mechanism of anti-fouling of treated membrane.
The effect of hydrophilicity with killing attached bacteria and those preventing the attachment
The hydrophobicity of membranes is one of the main factors in of bacterial properties.
membrane fouling [228]. Most of hydrophobic membranes adsorb The photocatalytic bactericidal ability of mixed matrix mem-
an hydrophobic foulant (e.g. organic materials), resulting in branes was reported under UV or Vis light irradiation. In most
reduced membrane performance [229]. Deposition of more cases, E. coli was selected as a Gram-negative bacterial strain.
photocatalysts with oxygenated functional groups on the surface Treated membranes are compared with bare ones. The bactericidal
has been reported to increase hydrophilicity and fouling mitiga- effect of UV or Vis photocatalyst membranes is due to the
tion. In fact, decomposition of the gel layer by organic compounds production of reactive oxygen species (e.g. O2- and OH) by the
will alleviate membrane fouling by this combination. Treatment of photocatalyst or direct UV illumination of bacteria. According to
membranes with a photocatalyst gives rise to more flux perme- literature reviews, the main mechanism for the antibacterial
ation than bare membranes. Many researchers reported that efficiency of the photocatalyst membrane was the bactericidal
modified membranes were able to degrade the foulant reagent effect of hydroxyl radical attack and lipid peroxidation reaction. In
after a favorable time of UV or Vis irradiation [49,230]. The increase most of literature on the water treatment technology, the use of
in the hydrophilicity of membranes is proved by a decrease in the TiO2 treated membranes is mostly coupled with UV-light irradia-
membrane contact angle. Table 5 shows the increase in the tion to increase the anti-biofouling properties. Kwak et al. [165]
hydrophilicity of membranes treated by photocatalysis and reported that a hybrid polyamide TFC membrane coated with TiO2
improvements in the membrane flux. could decrease E. coli cell number under UV light irradiation.
Similarly, Kim et al. [150] fabricated a photocatalytic TFC
Effect of antibacterial properties and antibiofouling membrane consisting of self-assembly of TiO2 NPs with the
Biofouling is one of the most important fouling types, especially capability of destructing microorganisms. Vatanpour et al. [62]
in membranes used in membrane bioreactors [238]. Micro- confirmed that the antibacterial property of TiO2 depended on the
organisms and bacteria in water are adsorbed on the membrane crystallinity degree of the nanocomposite. They observed that TiO2
surface and bio-fouling occurs. Fig. 9 shows the biofouling composed of 100% anatase type had a high affinity to block the
mechanism and formation process. Because of the nature of feed membrane pores and decrease the membrane application. The
and production of extracellular polymeric substance (EPS) by antibacterial capability of the photocatalyst membrane was related
bacteria, the bio-fouling occurs during membrane processes. to the catalyst location in the membrane structure. The surface or
Nowadays, the fabrication of antibacterial membranes has skin layer located on photocatalyst membranes has a more
attracted more attention due to developing membrane surface antibacterial property due to more exposure to UV light. A
Table 5
Summarization of modified composite membrane.
Membrane Modifying Photocatalyst Contact angle (CA) Brief result Ref

material method
Polysulfone Blending Nitrogen-doped GO/TiO2 Decrease CA High flux and photocatalyst properties [231]
From 818 to 59.28
Polysulfone Blending mpg-C3N4/TiO2 Decrease CA Photocatalyst degradation of pollutant, high flexibility, high [232]
From 70.88 to 58.18 stability
Polysulfone Sol-gel ZrO2-SnO2 Decrease CA Pharmaceutical wastewater fouling mitigation [233]
From 62.98 to 45.978
PES Blending CuO/ZnO Decrease CA Increase in flux, antifouling properties [208]
from 70.28 to 63.48
Polysulfone Blending Cu2O Decrease CA Increase in hydrophilicity of membrane and drug degradation [206]
From 75.58 to 45.38
PES Blending Boron doped-TiO2-SiO2/ Decrease CA Self-cleaning membrane [234]
CoFe2O4 From 62.58 to 49.38
Polyvinyl Blending TiO2@Halosite nanotube Not mention Photocatalyst properties [235]
chloride
Polyvinyl Blending Ag/TiO2 Decrease CA Hydrophilic and antibacterial membrane [236]
chloride From 688 to 628
PES Blending NH2-Ag3PO4/g-C3N4 Decrease CA Anti-biofouling membrane [49]
From 63.978 to
54.968
PVDF Coating Polydopamine/rGO/Ag3PO4 Decrease CA Photocatalyst degradation of dye [237]
From 88.28 to 59.28
Table 6 summarizes examples of composite membranes and

antibiofouling properties.
The photocatalytic membrane process can combine with other
treatment processes for increasing efficiency. For example, photo-
catalytic membrane coupled to biodegradation offers potential for
degrading volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in a photocatalytic
membrane biofilm reactor. Because the hybrid photocatalytic
membrane biofilm reactor is a cost-effective and robust alternative
to VOC treatment. In fact, with enhancing the mass transfer rate
and volatile pollutant degradation rate, to improve the elimination
capacity of pollutants and reduce the volume of bioreactor
[242,243].
Fig. 9. The biofilm production process; a and b) adsorption of microorganism, c)
EPS production, d) bio-film production and e) dispersion of microorganism [239].
Conclusion
photocatalyst membrane can be prepared by grafting or interfacial
polymerization method. The photocatalyst in the ex-situ method Our review is extensively and comprehesive focused on the
with a high dope solution viscosity was favorably located in the importance of membrane technology and photocatalyst process
skin membrane layer [240]. In contrast, higher viscosity of polymer combination, and also study the mechanism of the photocatalyst
solution causes a lower migration of nanoparticles to the process and introduce a more favorable photocatalyst. The
membrane surface during the phase inversion process [241]. advantages of photocatalyst membrane development in water
Table 6
Examples of composite membranes and antibiofouling properties.
Type of membrane polymer name Nano materials Brief result Bacteria type Ref.
UF PVDF TiO2 High flux and permeability E. coli [169]
Antibacterial
UF PES Ag/g-C3N4 High hydrophilicity and P. aeruginosa and E. coli [244]
flux
Antibacterial
Photocatalysis
UF PAN Ag/MWNTs Antimicrobial and antifouling E. coli [245]
Prevention to form biofilm
UF PS Al2O3 Anti-adhesion membrane P. aeruginosa and E. coli [246]
LTL zeolite High hyrophilicity
RO PA GO Antibiofouling - [247]
Chlorine resistance
High flux and permeability
RO PA TiO2 Antibiofouling E. coli [150]
high permeability
MF PES g-C3N4/NH2-Ag3PO4 High flux Staphylococcus aureus (Staph), [50]
Antibacterial salmonella (Sal) and E.coli
High hydrophilicity
MF PES g-C3N4/Ag3PO4 Antibiofouling Activated sludge [49]
Zn Al Cu-LDH/Ag3PO4 High permeability
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[38] N. Zhu, C. Li, L. Bu, C. Tang, S. Wang, P. Duan, L. Yao, J. Tang, D.D. Dionysiou, Y.
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Photocatalytic Membrane Basics

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Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry 93 (2021) 101–116

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry

Photocatalytic-membrane technology: a critical review for membrane

Effect of photocatalyst loading on membrane fouling . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

Introduction treatment of solid-wastes and regeneration of the adsorbent will

Treatment process name Advantages Disadvantages Ref

Membrane bioreactors Lower sensitivity to contaminants peak Membrane biofouling [28]

Adsorption-membrane process Higher efﬁciency Non-degradation pollutant [29,30]

Photocatalytic-membrane Higher efﬁciency by improving hydrophilic- Equipment require [32]

Variable Immobilized PMRS Slurry PMRs

Positive Negative Positive Negative

photocatalytic-membrane reactors were reported using a new Photoelectrocatalysts and membranes

Investigations have been conducted to improve the efﬁciency of

Photoanode Organic pollutant Comments Photo-anode preparation method Efﬁciency Ref.

photocatalysts on or in the membrane surface [142,145–147].

Fig. 6. GO/TiO2-PVDF membranes and possible photocatalytic activity.

Photocatalyst Light Synthesize method Pollutant Membrane Characteristics Ref.

Fig. 7. Schematic description of photocatalyst processes by ZnO-MWCNTs/PES membrane [199].

Membrane Modifying Photocatalyst Contact angle (CA) Brief result Ref

Table 6 summarizes examples of composite membranes and

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