DIGITAL I.T.

STRAIN GUAGE & LINEAR POTENTIOMETER

It is a combined trainer so the left hand section is strain gauge trainer & right hand section
is linear potentiometer so respective sensors must be connected to the respective sections
after recognizing the individual sections.
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DIGITAL I.T. STRAIN GUAGE
❖ INTRODUCTION
Resistance wire strain gages are transducers applied to the surface of structural
members under test in order to sense the elongation or strain in due to applied loads.
The wire strain gages depend upon the fact that when the wire is stretched
elastically, its length and diameter are altered. This results in overall change
of resistance due to both the dimensional change and resistivity change.

R = RHO X A/L where RHO is the resistivity of material.

In addition to single bonded wire strain gages we can have metal foil gages,
rosette gages and semiconductor strain gages. Normally strain gages with
nominal values of 120 ohms, 240 ohms and 350 ohms are available.
Strain gage transducers find applications in measurement of such variables
as load, force, thrust ,pressure ,torque ,displacement and flow etc.
The main problem with the resistance wire strain gage is the extremely small
change in resistance as a result of change in the applied load .
This makes the circuit operation and strain gage installation very critical. Moreover
temperature effects are also required to be taken care of.

▪ Circuit operation : ()
On a mild steel bar tw o single element bakelite based strain gages with nominal
value of R =120 ohms are mounted with the help of adhesive cement, on the
upper surface and two are mounted on the lower surface. Whenall the four gages
are used in the bridge we have a four arm s ystem. If only two gages (1 from upper
surface and one from lower surface ) are used , we havea two arm system with
two resistances of 350 ohms forming other two arms. The bridge is excited with
the help of fixed 5.00 volts supply using regulator I.C. 7805. A 10 kilo ohm
helical pot (P2) and 100 kilo ohms carbon pot (P1) form the coarse and fine
balancing controls respectively.

The output of the bridge which is in the range of few hundreds of microvolts
is amplified with the help of an instrumentation amplifier whose gain is
adjusted by means of AMPLIFIER GAIN ADJUST POT (10 Kohm Pot (P3) in
maximum clockwise position, the gain of the amplifier is exactly 1000. The DPM
used is 1.999 volt or 1999 mv DPM.
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The instrumentation amplifier is having low drift, high stable gain and high CMRR.
The output is taken from the filter to avoid any unwanted noise disturbance etc.

▪ Operating Instructions:

1. Ensure that the instrument is switched off.

2. Connect the flexible wires provided with the strain gage cantilever beam
between terminals 1,2,3 and 4. You may observe the colour code provided
for the flexible wires and the colour of the binding posts. If terminals 1 and
3 are interchanged or 2 and 4 are interchanged, only the output polarity will be
changed.
3. Amp. Gain pot (P3)may be kept in the position of 100 (note that 1.00 X
100 gives a gain of 100).
4. Keep the switch in the downward position (i.e. four arm operation).
5. Turn on the mains supply. By gently moving the balance pot P1 and P2, obtain
initial balance on the meter and wait for 5 minutes to allow the strain gage
temp. to stabilise. Note that P2 is coarse balance (10 turn helical pot) and P1
is fine balance single turn pot.
6. Now apply a gentle pressure by hand on the end of cantilever beam, the DPM
should indicate some change in readings. This indicates that strain gage set
up is ready for experimentation.

▪ Use of strain gage as load cell:

1. Apply a weight of 1kg on the cantilever and adjust the gain pot so that
reading of 1.00 is obtained on the DPM or 0.100 volt s on DMM. Now
remove the weight and check for bridge balance. After one or two such
adjustments you will be able get a reading of 1.00 on the DPM. Here we may
note that the least count of this arrangement becomes equal to 0.01 kg or
10gm.
2. You can add weights up to 3 kg m a x and enter results in the following table.
3. Plot graph of applied load versus the indicated meter reading.
4. For 2 arm operation, keep switch “SELECT” in upward position In this case
only two strain gages SG1 and SG2 contribute to the output while two internal
resistances of 120 ohms each form two remaining arms of the bridge.
5. Terminals marked as strain gauge output can be connected to the data
acquisition system.

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 The sensitivity of the two arm operation is 50% of that of four arm
bridge.

▪ SAMPLE CALCULATIONS

We can see from the graph that the strain gage response is almost linear with
respect to the amount of applied load.
EXC *  R
We have Eout = -------------------(for 2 Arm bridge)
2R
R
---- = Gage factor * strain
R

= 2.00 * strain where Gage factor = 2.00

Stress
Strain = -------------- (Modulus of elasticity = 2* 10 6 kg/cm2 )
2* 10 6
M
Stress = f = ----------Where Z = moment of cross section = 1/6 bt 2
Z b = width and t = thickness of cantilever beam All
dimensions in centimeters
and M = Length * Applied load (in kg).

You can select a suitable value of gain by operating counter dial and noting
the dial reading.

▪ PRECAUTIONS:
1. All the dimensions must be consistent. One may calculate stress
and then strain and then Eout to verify with the experimental value.
Excitation voltage of the bridge can be measured across the terminals
1 and 3 of the bridge.
2. Make the connections to the binding posts and terminals very
carefully.
3. Provide a warm up time of about 10 to 15 minutes before taking
readings.
4. Ensure that the cantilever arrangement is securely fixed to the
table.
5. Operate the gain control knob very carefully.

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TABLE FOR 4 ARM OPERATION:
Sr.No. Weight on the cantilever D.P.M. readings.

1 3.0 kg 2.98 kg
2. 2.0 kg 1.98 kg
3. 1.0 kg 0.99 kg
4. 0.0 kg 0.03 kg

▪ 4 ARM CONFIGURATION :

Make all the four connections as shown in the figure ,with switch SW2 in four arm
position. Make firm connections, Sensitivity of 4 arm bridge is seen to be double in
comparison with two arm position.

Suppose for getting 1.00 indication of DPM for 1 kilogram applied load, the system
gain is 200 ( 2.0 * 100).

Now If you do not disturb the gain pot and use two arm configuration for the system,
then you would note that for 1 kilogram applied load ,the DPM indicates 0.50
(i.e. half kg).This means for two arm configuration, the output is only 50% of
that for 4 arm configuration for the same amplifier gain.

For two arm system we have

EXC * R
Eout = ---------------- .............................................. (1)
2R

and for 4 arm system we have

EXC * R
Eout = ---------------- .............................................. (2)
R

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 ▪ SAMPLE CALCULATIONS FOR 4ARM CONFIGURATION.

EXC * R
Eout = ---------------
R
Where EXC = 5 volts ………………… (A)
and R = change in strain gage resistance with nominal value of
R ohms (normally R = 120 ohms)

By Definition R /R = Strain * gage factor (GF) ……. (1)

and strain = Stress / E where E = 2* 10 6 kg/cm2
for mild steel.
If gage factor GF = 2.0 (typical Value)
then R /R = Strain * 2.0
For cantilever with length = L = 12.7 cm , b = 2.55 cm and t = 0.563cm

where Stress = f = M/ Z where Z = 1/6 bt 2

and M = W * L (bending Moment) = Modulus of elasticity.

If W = 1kg, we have,
1 * 12.7
f = ------------------------------------------- = 94.28 kg/cm2
1/6 * 2.55 * 0.563 * 0.563

Therefore ,

Stress f 94.28
Strain = ---- = ---- = ---------------------- =47.14 microstrains
E E 2 * 10 6 kg/cm2

Now R/R = Strain * gage factor (GF)

= (47.14 * 2)
------------ = 94.28 * 10 -6 …………. (2)
10 6

From equation A and 2 with 5 volts excitation

EXC * R
Eout = ---------------
R
Eout = 5.0 * 94.28 10 -6
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 E out = 471.28 microvolts = 0.471 mv ….(3)

This is theoretical value .Now for experimental value, if gain of the amplifier is
200 as set by gain control pot and DPM reading for 1 kg load with 4 arm
operation is 100 millivolt, then

Experimental value of output = 100 milivolt / 200

Eout = 0.5 mv

So Eout (Theorotical ) = 0.47 mv

Eout (experimental) = 0.5 mv

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RESISTANCE WIRE STRAIN GAGE (IT-6A)

Page 9
RESISTANCE WIRE STRAIN GAGE (IT-6A)

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STRAIN GAGE :

10mm

18mm

S.G.

10mm 5mm Lead length :18mm

Thin Bakelite cover

24mm on the top &below the strain gage.

S.G.:Resistance wire strain gage.

The resistance wire strain gage is having grid type of construction with very
thin Bakelite provided on both sides of strain gage. The strain gage is
sandwiched between very thin Bakelite papers.

The over all mechanical dimensions are indicated as above. The other
specifications of the strain gage are as below:

1.Resistance in ohms: 120 +/- 0.5 ohms

2.Gage factor: 2.00 +/- 2%

The cantilever has 4 gages mounted , with 2 on the top side and 2 on the
bottom side. When all four are used, we have 4 arms bridge.

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 +5

R4 R1

Compression Tension

O/P

R3 R2

Tension Compression

-ve

R1&R3 are on the top side . R2 &R4 ar on the lower side. Tension
compression indicates cantilever is pressed in the downward direction.

For two arm only R1 and R2 are used while R3 and R4 are 120 ohm
resistances which complete the bridge internally.

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 Study of potentiometer as linear displacement transducer

Introduction:
A majority of displacement transducers sense the static or dynamic displacement by means of
a sensing shaft or similar links mechanically coupled to the point or body whose motion is
measured .

Displacement transducers using pontentiometric variable resistance transduction elements

are invariably shaft coupled devices .the sensing element is basically a resistance
potentiometer with a movable wiper contact attached to an insulated plunger type shaft
,mechanically linking the point under measurement. The contact motion can be translation or
translation, rotation or a combination of the two thus allowing measurement of rotary or
translational displacements. They are relatively simple in construction, in the sense that a sliding
contact (wiper) is made to move linearly over a resistance element which may be in the form of
a wire or a conductive plastic film. The resistivity and temperature coefficient of the resistance
element should be of such a value that the device operates with appreciable constant sensitivity
over a wide temperature range. The constructional features are given in the figure No.3.The
three major elements critical in the potentiometer are winding wire, winding former and wiper as
shown in the figure.

The winding wire is a precision drawn resistance wire with a diameter of about 25 to 50 microns
and is wound over a cylindrical or flat mandrel of ceramic, glass anodized aluminum .The wire is
annealed in a reducing atmosphere to avoid any surface oxidation ,.Resistivity may vary
normally from 0.4 to 1.3 micro ohm -meter and temperature coefficient may vary from 0.0002
to 0.01 % per degree C. The wire should be strong ductile and protected from surface corrosion
by enameling or oxidation. The dimensional tolerance should be less than 1% and the
resistance stability with time should be of a very high order. The materials commonly employed
are the alloys of copper – nikel, nickel-chromium and silver palladium. The winding can be
linear toroidal or helical and should posses uniform spacing or constant tension. The outer
surface except for the liner track of the wiper is convered with a suitable insulating material to
protect against dust and abrasion.

The wipers are spring elements made form a tampered phosper –bronze, beryllium –copper or
other precious metal alloys and are suitably shaped to move over the resistance element with
minimum friction. The wiper contact force and contact resistance are important factors in the
over all accuracy of the device.
The main requirements for winding former s are good dimensional stability and surface
insulation. Some of the recommended materials are ceramic , steatite and molded epoxies.
Electrical noise is another factor normally exhibited by these devices and they are random in
nature. Further they depend on current and speed of motion of the wiper. Wire would devices
are relatively free from Johnson’s noise. But the contact noise caused by the variation in contact
resistance when wiper moves along potentiometer track is not neglible in many cases. The

noise level increases with wear and tear and also with contamination or oxidation of the track
and wiper surface. Sometimes thermoelectric effects due to dissimilar materials can also
generate a voltage acting as a noise source. The sensitivity of the device is given as volts per
full scale mechanical travel of the wiper. The input excitation voltage is limited by the dissipating
wattage which causes the temperature of the winding to rise. This voltage level depends upon
cooling conditions thermal characteristics and the transducer housing design.
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The major disadvantages of the potentiometer type displacement transducer are poor
resolution and presence of noise in signal.

PROCEDURE
Potentiometer P1 provided on the front panel is for minimum (zero adjustment).Normally it is not
required to be disturbed.
1. Keep SW1 in upward position Adjust P1 to get 0000 indication on the DPM. This is zero
adjustment of the unit.
2. Now connect the potentiometer to the input terminal.
3. With switch in lower position (Resistance mode), you can plot the characteristics of sensor for
displacement against resistance value. Move the sensor shaft gently. Do not rotate it.
4. Now with switch in upward position, you can plot the input displacement versus output
indicated displacement. The range is 0 to 5.0 cm (50 mm) Move the pot very carefully. Enter
the results in tabular form and check the linearity of the sensor and find out sensitivity.
5. Do not move the shaft rapidly.
6. Terminals marked as Linear potentiometer output can be connected to the data
acquisition system.

Sr no. Measured displacement on scale Indicated Indicated resistance

(mm) displacement on DPM (neglecting decimal
(cm) point in ohm)
1. 10 1.0
2. 15 1.5

PRECAUTIONS:
• Handle the potentiometer very carefully.
• Move it very gently.
• Range is limited to 5cms only. Do not try to pull or push beyond range.
• Do not rotate the shaft as linear motion is expected.

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 STRAIN GUAGE SENSOR, LINEAR POTENTIOMETER

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