G 11. 13 Notes Excretion

H. R.
Malsbury
Excretion
• Excretion is the process by which the body removes metabolic waste
products and toxic materials.
• Metabolic processes consist of anabolic processes and catabolic
processes.
• Anabolic processes are ‘building-up’ processes where larger
molecules are synthesised from smaller molecules. Examples:
(a) Synthesis of proteins from amino acids
(b) Synthesis of glycogen from glucose
(c) Photosynthesis with oxygen as waste material
• Catabolic processes are ‘breaking-down’ processes where larger

molecules are broken down to form smaller molecules. Examples
include:
(a) Cellular respiration with carbon dioxide and water as by-products
(b) Deamination of amino acids in the liver with urea as a by-product
(c) Breakdown of haemoglobin in the liver with bile pigments as by-
products
• Waste products have to be removed because they can be harmful if

they accumulate in the body.
• The waste products of metabolism are excreted by the following
organs:
H. R. Malsbury
H. R. Malsbury
Overview of the human urinary system

The human urinary system consists of :
• The kidneys, which are two bean-shaped organs located in the
abdominal cavity.
• The ureters, which are narrow tubes that emerge from a depression
in the concave surface of the kidney called a hilum. The ureters
connect to the urinary bladder.
• The urinary bladder is an elastic and muscular organ that collects and
stores urine excreted by the kidneys.
• The sphincter muscle at the base of the bladder controls the flow of
urine into the urethra. It is controlled by nervous impulses from the
brain.
• The urethra is a duct that connects the urinary bladder to the outside
of the body. Urine passes through this tube to the outside.
H. R. Malsbury
H. R. Malsbury
Structure of a kidney
1. The kidney is made up of two distinct regions:

• an outer cortex
• and the inner medulla.
2. The cortex is covered by a protective fibrous capsule called the
renal capsule.
3. The medulla consists of 8 to 18 conical pyramids.
4. Across the cortex and medulla are numerous excretory tubules
called nephrons, as well as collecting ducts and their associated
blood vessels.
5. Nephrons are the urine-producing units of the kidney.
6. The tips of the pyramids empty urine into an area called the renal
pelvis. The renal pelvis functions as a funnel collecting urine from
all the pyramids to deliver to the ureter.
7. Blood enters each kidney from the renal artery and leaves via the
renal vein, both connected to the kidney at the hilum.
H. R. Malsbury
H. R. Malsbury
Structure of a nephron
1. Components of the nephron are:

a) Glomerulus:
- A ball of capillaries that obtains its blood supply from an
afferent arteriole which branches off the renal artery.
- It drains into an efferent arteriole.
- The high pressure of the blood in the glomerulus forces water,
urea, salts and small solutes through the partially permeable
endothelium into the lumen of the Bowman’s capsule in a
process known as ultrafiltration.
b) Bowman’s capsule:
- The start of the tubular component of a nephron.
- It surrounds the glomerulus in a cup-like structure.
- Together, the Bowman’s capsule and the glomerulus make up a
renal corpuscle (Malpighian corpuscle).
c) Proximal convoluted tubule:
- A convoluted tubule leading from the Bowman’s capsule which
straightens up as it passes into the medulla, leading into the
loop of Henlé.
H. R. Malsbury
H. R. Malsbury
d) Loop of Henlé – Consists of a descending limb, a hairpin turn and an

ascending limb. It re-enters the cortex.
e) Distal convoluted tubule – Convoluted portion of nephron leading
from the loop of Henlé, connecting it to the collecting duct.
2. The collecting duct is a tubule into which distal convoluted tubules from
several nephrons empty their filtrate. It extends deep into the medulla,
opening up into the renal pelvis. It is not considered part of the
nephron.
Urine formation
1. Excess mineral salts, nitrogenous wastes and excess water are
excreted through the kidneys through ultrafiltration and selective
reabsorption of useful materials.
2. Ultrafiltration occurs in the glomerulus.
• Blood enters the glomerulus through an afferent arteriole from
the renal artery.
• Blood pressure forces water, urea, salts and other small solutes
(e.g. glucose, amino acids and vitamins) into the lumen of the
Bowman’s capsule.
• Blood cells and large molecules remain in the capillaries.
3. The high blood pressure (high hydrostatic pressure) driving the
ultrafiltration in the glomerulus is due to the afferent arteriole
having a larger diameter than the efferent arteriole.
4. The endothelium of the glomerular capillaries and the basement
membrane of the Bowman’s capsule that wraps around the
capillaries are partially permeable membranes, thus only small
soluble substances are able to pass through.
5. The glomerular filtrate passes from the lumen of the Bowman’s
capsule into the proximal convoluted tubule.
6. Within this tubule, most of the mineral salts and all of the glucose
and amino acids are absorbed through active transport or diffusion.
Water is reabsorbed by osmosis.
7. Reabsorption of water continues in the loop of Henlé.
8. Water and salts are reabsorbed in the distal convoluted tubule.
H. R. Malsbury
H. R. Malsbury
9. Water is reabsorbed from the collecting duct.

10. Excess salts, nitrogenous waste products, excess water and
processed drugs and poisons from the liver enter the renal pelvis as
urine.
The liver and its role in producing proteins and deamination of amino
acids.
• As well as being an excretory organ, the liver plays a very important
role in assimilating amino acids.
• Assimilation means the absorption of substances, which are then
built into other compounds in the organism (assimilation: processing
of nutrients inside cells either for use or storage).
• Hepatic portal vein transports blood rich in products of digestion
from the ileum to the liver.
• The liver allows some of the amino acids to carry on, in the blood, to
other parts of body.
• The liver uses some of the amino acids from blood plasma to build
them up into proteins.
• Proteins are long chains of amino acids, joined together by peptide
bonds. These include plasma proteins such as fibrinogen which have
a role in blood clotting.
• It would be wasteful to excrete the excess amino acids just as they
are. They contain energy which, if it is not needed straight away,
might be needed later.
• So enzymes in the liver split up each amino acid molecule. The part
containing energy is kept, turned into carbohydrate and stored. The
rest, which is the part that contains nitrogen, is turned into urea. This
process is called deamination.
• The urea dissolves in blood plasma, and is taken to the kidneys to be
excreted.
H. R. Malsbury
H. R. Malsbury
The need for excretion

• Some of the compounds made in reactions in the body are
potentially toxic (poisonous) if their concentrations build up.
• Carbon dioxide dissolves in fluids such as tissue fluid and blood
plasma to form carbonic acid. This increase in acidity can affect the
actions of enzymes and can be fatal.
• Ammonia is made in the liver when excess amino acids are broken
down. However, ammonia is very alkaline and toxic. It is converted
to urea which is much less poisonous, making it a safe way of
excreting excess nitrogen.
H. R. Malsbury

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H. R.

• Catabolic processes are ‘breaking-down’ processes where larger

• Waste products have to be removed because they can be harmful if

Overview of the human urinary system

1. The kidney is made up of two distinct regions:

1. Components of the nephron are:

d) Loop of Henlé – Consists of a descending limb, a hairpin turn and an

9. Water is reabsorbed from the collecting duct.

The need for excretion

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