PHYSICS

CHAPTER

1 REST AND MOTION

Scalar Quantities Velocity
• Physical quantities which have only magnitude • Velocity is the rate of change of the position of
it is called scalar quantities. Example: Mass, an object, displacement per unit time of its
Speed, work, volume, time, power, energy, etc. Velocity is a vector physical quantity; both
magnitude and direction are required to define it.
Vector Quantities
The scalar absolute value (magnitude) of
• Physical quantities which have magnitude and velocity is called “speed “it does not keep track
direction both and which obey the law of triangle of direction ; velocity is a vector quantity and is
are called vector quantities. Example: direction aware.
Displacement, velocity, acceleration, force,
momentum, torque, etc. Position Displacement
Angular Velocity = Time
=
Time
Distance
• Distance is lenght of actual path covered by a Angular Velocity
moving object in a given time interval. • The angle subtended by the line joining the
object from the origin of circle in unit time
Displacement
interval is called angular velocity.
• Shortest distance covered by a body in a definite
direction is called displacement. In general,
magnitude of displacement ≤ distance.
q
Distance Displacement
1. Distance is a scalar Displacement is a vector Acceleration
quantity quantities • It is defined as the rate of change of velocity of
2. Distance is always Displacement may be the object i.e.
positive. positive, negative, zero. • Acceleration = Change in velocity/Time It is a
vector quantity and its unit is meter/second2
Speed
(m/s2)
• Distance travelled by a moving object in unit • If velocity decreases with time, then acceleration
interval of time is called speed. It is a scalar becomes negative and is called retardation.
quantity and its SI unit is meter/second (m/s)i.e.
Circular Motion
• If an object describes a circular path (circle), than
Position Distance
Average Speed = = its motion is called circular motion, If object
Time Time moves with a uniform circular speed, then its
motion is called uniform circular motion.
337 PHYSICS
• Uniform Circular Motion is an accelerated Newton’s Third : Laws of Motion
motion because the direction of velocity changes
• To every action, there is an opposite and equal
cotinuously.
reaction . Examples of third law: Recoil of a gun,
Motion of a rocket, Swimming.
Tangential • Conservation of linear Momentum :
0
• It follows from Newton’s second and third
NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION laws that If no external force acts on a
system of bodies, the total liner momentum
• Newton, the Father of Physics has established of the system of bodies remains constant.
the laws of motion in his book “Principia” in
• As a consequence, the total momentum of
1667.
bodies after and before collision remains the
Newton’s First : Laws of Motion same. This is called the principle of
conservation of momentum.
• An object maintains its initial position of rest or
motion with uniform speed on a straight line un- Impulse
less an external force acts on it.
• When a large force acts on a body for a very
• First law also called the law of Galilieo or law of small time, then force is called impulsive force.
inertia. Impulse is defined as product of force and time.
• Inertia : Inertia is the property of body by virtue Impulse = force × time = change in momentum.
of which the body opposes change in initial state
• It is a vector quantity and its direction is direction
of rest or motion with uniform speed on a straight
of force. Its SI unit is Newton second (Ns).
line.
• Inertia is of two types namely (i) Inertia of rest FORCE
(ii) Inertia of motion. Centripetal Force
• Force : Force is that external cause which when
• When a body travels along a circular path (circle),
acts on a body changes or tries to chages the
its velocity changes continuously, naturally an
initial state of the body.
external force always acts on the body towards
• Momentum : Momentum is the property of a the centre of the path.
moving body and is defined as the product of
• The external force required to maintain the circu-
mass and velocity of the i.e.
lar motion of the body is called centripetal force.
• Momentum = mass × velocity
• If a body of mass is moving on a circular path of
• It is a vector quantity having SI unit kg/s. radius R with uniform speed. Then, the required
Newton’s Second : Laws of Motion mv 2
centripetal force, F =
• The rate of change in momentum of a body is R
directly proportional to applied force on the body
and it takes place in the direction of the force. Centrifugal Force
• If F = applied force, a = acceleration produced • In applying Newton’s laws of motion, we have to
and m= mass of the body consider some forces which cannot be assigned
• Then ,nF = ma Real Law. to any object in the surroundings.
• Newton’s second law gives the maginitude These forces are called pseudo force or inertial
of force. force.
• Newton’s first law and Newton III law is • Centrifugal force is such a pseudo force. It is
contained in the second law. equal and opposite to centripetal force.
PHYSICS 338
• Cream separator, centrifugal driver works on equilibrium is said to be unstable equilibrium.
the principle of centrifugal force. In this equilibrium, the centre of gravity of
• Centrifugal force should not be confused as the the body is at the highest position.
reaction to the centripetal force because forces • Neutral Equilibrium : If on Slight
of action and reaction act on different bodies. displacement from equilibrium position, a
body has no tendency to come back to the
Moment of Force
original position or to move in the direction
• The rotational effect of a force on a body about of displacement, it is said to be in neutral
an axis of rotation is described in terms of equilibrium, the centre of gravity always
moment of force. remains at the same height.
• Moment of force about an axis of rotation is
FRICTION
measured as the product of magnitude of force
and the perpendicular distance of direction of • Friction is a force that is created whenever two
force from the axis of rotation. i.e. Moment of surfaces move or try to move across each other.
force = Force* moment arm. • Friction always opposes the motion or attempted
• It is a vector quantity motion of one surface across another surface.
• Its unit is Newton metre (Nm). • Friction is dependent on the texture of both
CENTRE OF GRAVITY surface.
• Friction is also dependent on the amount of
• The centre of gravity of the body is that point
contact force pushing the two surface together
through which entire weight of body acts.
(normal force).
• The centre of gravity of a body does not change
with the change in the orientation of the body in Advantages of Friction
the space. • Due to friction we are able to walk on the surface
• The weight of a body acts through centre of of the Earth.
gravity in the downward direction. Hence a body • The brakes applied in automobiles work only fric-
can be brought to equilibrium by applying a force tion.
equal to its weight in the vertically upward • Nails, screws and wooden boards are held to-
direction through centre of gravity. gether due to force of friction.
EQUILIBRIUM • The fibres of thread are held together due to force
• It the resultant of all the forces acting on a body of friction.
is zero, then the body is said to be in equilibrium. Disadvantages of Friction
• If a body is in equilibrium, then it will be either in • In overcoming the friction, a lot of energy is
the state of rest or in uniform motion.If it is at wasted in the form of heat. Friction cause wear
rest,the equilibrium is called static otherwise and tear of the moving parts.
dynamic.
• Due to friction, speed of automobiles cannot be
• Static equilibrium is of following three type: increased beyond a certain limit.
• Stable Equilibrium : If on slight • Reducing Friction :Friction cannot be eliminated.
displacement from equilibrium position, a Otherwise, friction can be reduced by using
body regains its original position, it is said certian materials as follows :
to be in stable equilibrium.
• Rollers
• Unstable Equilibrium : If on slight
• Oil, wax, grease
displacement from equilibrium position,a body
moves in the direction of displacement and • Talcum powder
does not return to its original position, the • Air cushion
339 PHYSICS
 SIMPLE MACHINES INCLINED PLANE
Work is performed by applying a force over a
distance. These simple machines creat a greater O

output force than the input force; the ratio of these

forces is the mechanical advantage of the machine.
LEVER • An inclined plane is a plane surface set at an
angle to another surface. This results in doing
the same amount of work by applying the force
over a longer distance.
• The most basic inclined plane is a ramp; it
requires less force to move up a ramp to a higher
• A lever is a simple machine that consists of a elevation than to climb to that height vertically.
rigid object (often a bar of some kind) and a The wedge is often considered a specific type of
fulcrum (or pivot). inclined plane.
• Applying a force to one end of the rigid object WEDGE
causes it to pivot about the fulcrum, causing a
magnification of the force at another point along • A wedge is a double-inclined plane (both sides
the rigid object. are inclined) that moves to exert a force along the
lengths of the sides.
• There are three classes of levers, depending on
where the input force, output force and fulcrum • The force is perpendicular to the inclined
are in relation to each other. Baseball bats, surfaces, so it pushes two objects (or portions of
seesaws, wheelbarrows and crowbars are types a single object) apart. Axes, knives, and chisels
of levers. are all wedges.
• The common “door wedge” uses the force on
WHEEL&AXLE
the surfaces to provide friction, rather than
separate things, but it is still fundamentally a
wedge.
SCREW
• A screw is a shaft that has an inclined groove
along its surface. By rotating the screw
Pivot
(applying a torque), the force its applied
• A wheel is a circular device that is attached to a perpendicular to the groove, thus translating a
rigid bar in its centre. A force applied to the wheel rotational force into a linear one.
causes the axle to rotate, which can be used to
• It is frequently used to fasten objects together
magnify the force (by, for example, having a rope
(as the hardware screw & bolt does), although
wind around the axle).
Babylonians developed a “screw” that could
• Alternately, a force applied to provide rotation elevate water from a low-lying body to a higher
on the axle translates into rotation of the wheel. one (which later came to be known as
It can be viewed as a type of lever that rotates
Archimedes’ screw).
around a centre fulcrum. Ferris wheels, tires and
rolling pins are examples of wheels & axles.

PHYSICS 340
 PULLEY principle of applying force over a longer distance,
and also the tension in the rope or cable, to
reduce the magnitude of the necessary force.
* • Complex systems of pulleys can be used to greatly
reduce the force that must be applied initially to
• A pulley is a wheel with a groove along its edge,
move an object.
where a rope or cable can be placed. It uses the



341 PHYSICS
 CHAPTER

2 WORK, POWER & ENERGY

WORK • Law of Conservation of Energy
• It states that the total energy remains
• Work can be defined as transfer of energy. A
constant in any process i.e. it may neither be
force is said to do work when it acts on a body,
created nor destroyed.
and there is a displacement of the point of
application in the direction of the force. KE + PE + Other forms of energy constant
• There are three key ingredients of work - force, • If conservative forces are acting on a body then,
displacement and cause. In order for a force to KE + PE = constant i.e., the loss of PE is equal to
qualify as having done work on an object, there the gain in KE.
must be a displacement and the force must cause • Work-Energy Principle - The change in the
the displacement. kinetic energy of an object is equal to the net
• The tern work was introduced in 1826 by the work done on the object.
French mathematician Gaspard-Gustave MECHANICALENERGY
Coriolios.
• The energy acquired by the objects upon which
• The SI unit of work is the Newton metre or joule work is done is known as mechanical energy.
(J) which is defined as the work expended by a Mechanical energy is the energy that is
force of one Newton through a distance of one possessed by an object due to its motion or due
metre. to its position.
W=F×S • Because energy is the capacity to do work, we

] F = Force
S= Displacement ] measure energy and work in the same units
(N m or joules).
• There are two types of mechanical energy :
• 1 Joule = Newton × 1 metre
Kinetic Energy : (Energy of Motion)
• 1J=1N×m
• The work done by a constant force of magnitude F • An object that has motion whether it is vertical
or horizontal motion-has kinetic enegry.
F → object – S = object
• There are many forms of kinetic energy -
on a point that moves a displacement (not
viberational (the energy due to vibrational
distance) s in the direction of the force is the
motion), rotational (the energy due to rotational
product, motion), and translation (the energy due to
W = Fs. motion from one location to another.)
WORK AND ENERGY • Kinetic energy is a scalar quantity; it does not
have a direction.
• Work is closely related to energy. Energy can be
• The kinetic energy is dependent upon the square
defined as the capacity for doing work.
of the speed.
PHYSICS 342
• Uses : Lots of power generation comes from • Nuclear Potential Energy is the potential energy
converting kinetic energy into electricity that we of the particles inside an atomic nucleus. The
can use by using a turbine. Wind turbine use the nuclear particles are bound together by the strong
kinetic energy from moving air (wind) to turn the nuclear force. Weak nuclear forces provide the
blades. Hydroelectric dams use a similar potential energy for certain kinds of radio active
principle by using the kinetic energy of flowing decay, such as beta decay.
water to turn a turbine. The kinetic energy of the
Potential Energy Examples
mass flow of steam turns the turbine and we get
electricity. • When spring is compressed, work is done on the
Potential Energy : (Stored Energy) spring in compressing so PE increases.
• Work is done in stretching a spring, so PE
m increases.
Energy transformation or energy conversion
h • Thermoelectric (Heat → Electric energy)
• Geothermal power (Heat→Electric energy)
• Heat engines, such as the internal combustion
• An object can store energy as the result of its
engine used in cars, or the steam engine
position. The term potential energy was
(Heat → Mechanical energy)
introduced by the 19th century Scottish
• Ocean thermal power (Heat → Electric energy)
engineer and physicist William Rankine.
• Hydroelectric dams (Gravitational potential
m = mass
]
P.E = mgh g = gravity
h = height
] •
energy → Electric energy)
Electric generator (kinetic energy or
• Gravitational Potential Energy is the energy Mechanical work → Electric energy)
stored in an object as the result of its vertical • Fuel cells (Chemical energy → Electric energy)
position or height. More massive objects have • Battery (electricity) (Chemical energy →
greater gravitional potential energy. There is also Electric energy)
a direct relation between gravitational potential • Fire (Chemical energy → Heat and Light)
energy and the height of an object. Gravitational • Electric lamp (Electric energy → Heat and Light )
potential energy uses, notably the generation of
• Microphone (Sound → Electric energy)
pumped-storage hydro-electricity, to power
clocks in which falling weight operate the • Wave power (Mechanical energy → Electric
mechanism, for roller coasters and to energy)
counterweight the lifts and elevators. • Windmills (Wind energy → Electric energy or
• Elastic Potential Energy is the energy stored in Mechanical energy)
elastic materials as the results of their stretching • Piezoelectrics (Strain → Electric energy)
or compressing. An object possesses elastic • Acoustoelectrics (Sound → Electric energy)
potential energy if it is at a position on an elastic • Friction (Kinetic energy → Heat)
medium other then the equilibrium position. • Heater (Electric energy → Heat)
Elastic potential energy can be stored in rubber
• Light bulb (electricity → light)
bands, bungee chords, tampolines spring, an
• When two dissimilar charges are brought near
arrow drawn into a bow, etc.
each other, they attract each other; work is done
by the field so PE decreases.
343 PHYSICS
• Work is done by us in taking a body against KEPLER’S LAW OF PLANETARY MOTION
gravitational field, so PE decrease.
Kepler’s first law (law of orbit)
• Air bubble rise up in water because of up-thrust,
PE decrease. Each planet moves around the Sun in an elliptical
• When two protons are brought towards each orbit with the sun at one of its foci.
other they repel each other being similar charge,
Planet
work is done by us in bringing them close, so PE
increase.
Area Scrept
POWER
Sun
• Power is the work done in a unit of time. In other
words, power is a measure of how quickly work
can be done.
• Kepler’s second law (low of area): As the planet
• One common unit of energy is the kilowatt-hour moves in its orbit, the speed of the planet varies
(kWh). If we are using one kw of power, a kwh of in such a way that a line drawn from the Sun to
energy will last one hour. the planet sweeps out equal areas in equal
• The unit of power is the watt = 1 Joule/ second, intervals of time.
representing the generation or absorption of • Kepler’s third law (law of period): The squares/
energy at the rate of 1J/s. cubes of the periods of revolution of the planets
• Power’s unit of measurement in the English are proportional to the cubes of their mean
system is the horsepower, which is equivalent to distances from the sun.
735.7 Watts. T2 a.r3
1hp = 746 W
Newton’s Universal : Law of Gravitation
Calculating Work, Energy and Power
• In 1687, Isaac Newton published his Law of
Work = W=Fd
Gravitation in Philosophiae Naturalis Principia
Power (P) is the rate of energy
Mathematica.
generation (or absorption) over time:
• Everybody in the universe attracts every other
P = W/t body with a force which is directly proportional
Gravitation to the product of the masses of the two bodies
• Gravitation or gravity, is the natural phenomenon and inversely proportional to the square of the
by which physical bodies appear to attract each distance between them.
other with a force proportional to their masses • If m 1 and m2 are the masses of two bodies
• It is commonly experienced as the agent that gives separated by a distance r, the force of attraction
weight to objects with mass and causes them to F between them is given by:
fall to the ground when dropped. Gm1m2
F=
• Gravity is one of the four fundamental forces of r2
nature, along with electro-magnetism, and the • Where G is the universal constant of gravitation.
nuclear strong force and weak force. The value of G = 6.67 × 10-11 N m2/kg2. The force
• Kepler deduced three laws which accurately of gravition is directed along the line joining the
described the motions of planets about the sun. two bodies.
These laws formed the basis of the famous If m1 = m2 = 1 kg and r = 1 m them F = G.
Newton’s law of universal gravitation.
PHYSICS 344
 Important Points • Earth is surrounded by an atmosphere of gases
due to gravity.
1. When lift is accelerating upward, Apparent
weight > Actual weight. • Acceleration due to gravity (g) : It is defined as
the acceleration set up in a body while falling
2. When lift is accelerating downward, Apparent
freely under the effect of gravity alone. It is
weight< Actual weight
(a) vector quantity.
3. When lift is moving with constant velocity.
• The acceleration due to gravity (g) on the Moon
Apparent weight = Actual weight
is 1/6th that on the Earth.
4. When lift is falling freely, Apparent weight = 0
Gravity and Satellite Motion
5. When the lift is accelerated downward with
acceleration downward with accelertion equal to • A satellite is a body which is revolving
acceleration due to gravity (i.e. a = g) which is continously in an orbit around a comparatively
the same case as if the man will experience a much larger body.
state of weightlessness. • Every object in the Universe is being attracted
6. In the state of weightlessness, the reading of a towards every other object by the force of
spring balance will be zero (w = 0). gravity. Gravity supplies the necessary
• Apparent Weight in a Lift : In an elevator, your centripetal force to hold a satellite in orbit about
mass remains constant- it’s your apparent weight the Earth.
that changes. • Satellite Motion is essentially the same as
• Apparent Weight : It is a measure of the upwards planetary motion. However, a satellite can be in a
force transmitted through the ground (or the floor circular, elliptical, parabolic or hyperbolic orbit.
of the lift in this case) to counter the downward • Geostationary Satellite : A satellite which
gravitational force on the mass. revolves around the Earth with the same angular
Note : Thus the gravitational constant is equal to the speed in the same direction as is done by the
force of attraction between two bodies each of mass 1 Earth around its axis is called geostationary or
kg separated by a distance of 1 metre. geosynchronous satellite. The height of
geostationary satellite is = 36000 km and its
EARTH’S GRAVITY orbital velocity = 3.1 km s-1
• Every planetary body (including the Earth) is • Polar Satellite : It is the satellite which revolves
surrounded by its own gravitational field, which in polar orbit around Earth, i.e., polar satellite
exerts an attractive force on all objects. passes through geographical north and south
• The strength of the gravitational field is poles of Earth once per orbit, rather than in the
numerically equal to the acceleration of objects more usual east-west direction. The big advantage
under its influence and its value at the Earth’s of this is that in a single day they can observe
surface denoted by g. the entire Earth as it ratates underneath them. A
• The Earth’s standard acceleration due to gravity satellite in a polar orbit will pass over the equator
is: at a different longitude on each of its orbits.
g = 9.80665 m/s2 (32.1740 ft/s2) Escape Velocity
• At the equator, the force of gravity is the • The velocity of escape for a rocket is the
weakest due to the centrifugal force caused by minimum velocity that a rocket must have to leave
the Earth’s rotation. It is maximum at the poles. the surface of the Earth and not be pulled back
• The force of gravity varies with latitude and by the gravitational force of the Earth.
becomes stronger as you increase in latiude [Ve = 11.2 km/s] Escape Velocihy
towards the poles.
345 PHYSICS
• Orbital Speed is the speed needed to circle the • Moon has no atmosphere because the value of
planet at the same altitude without getting far- acceleration due to gravity ‘g’ on surface of Moon
ther or closer. is small. Therefore, the value of escape speed on
• From any circular orbit one needs to speed up by the surface of Moon is small. Moon’s Esacape
a factor of the square root of 2 to get to escape Velocity is 2.38 km/s (5324 MPH).
velocity.
[Vm = 2.3 km/s]



PHYSICS 346
 CHAPTER
GENERAL PROPERTIES
3 OF MATTER
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS • Magnitude of the stress = F/A
• S.I Unit of stress = N/m2 or Pascal (Pa)
Elasticity
• Dimensional formula = Ma Lb Tc
• Elasticity is the property of material of a body by
virtue of which the body acquires its original STRAIN
shape and size after the removal of deforming • The relative change in dimension or shape of a
force. body which is subjected to stress is called
• Elastic Limit : Elastic limit is the maximum value strain.
of deforming force up to which a material shows • It is measured by ratio of change in length to the
elastic property and above which the material original length (longitudinal strain), change in
loses its elastic property. volume to original volume (volume strain).
• Plasticity : The inability of a body to return to its • Hooke’s Law : Under elastic limit, stress is
original shape and size, when the deforming
proportional to strain.
forces are removed is called plasticity.
• i.e. stress α strain or stress/strain = E (constant)
• Hooke’s Law : When a wire is loaded within
elastic limit, the extension produced in wire is • E is called elastic constant or modulus of
directly proportional to the load applied. elasticity. Its value is different for different
material. Its SI unit is N/m2 also called Pascal.
OR
Thus,
Within elastic limit stress α strain
Stress strain
Stress = K Å∼ strain
Force
Where k is the proportionality constant and is
m
known as modulus of elasticity.
• Hooke’s law is valid only in the linear part of
Load
stress-strain curve.
Stress • The Young’s modulus and shear modulus are
= Constant
Strain relevant only for solids since only solids have
STRESS lengths and shapes.
• The restoring force per unit area set up inside the Where∆ L = displacement of the face on which
body subjected to deforming force is called stress. force is the face on which force is applied and L
is the height of the face
• Stress is a much more complex quantity than
presure because it varies both with direction and • Bulk modulus is relevant for solids, liquid and
with the surface it acts on. gases.

347 PHYSICS
• Elastic Constant is of three types: • If the force is due to the weight (W) of the object,
1. Young’s Modulus of Elasticity Y = Longitudinal the equation is then:
stress/Longitudinal strain. P = W/A
2. Bulk Modulus of Elasticity K = Volume stress/ • Hydrostatic Pressure equation is P = hdg
Volume strain.
3. Rigidity Modulus (η) Tangential (or shear) stress/ Where; P = pressure (N/m2 or Pa)
shear strain. h = height (m) d = density (kg/m3 )
• Proportionality Limit (P) : The stress at the limit g = acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2)
of proportionality point P is known as • The SI unit for pressure is the pascal, Pa, where 1
proportionality limit.
Pa =1 N/m2 (metre square).
• Elastic limit : The maximum stress which can be
• The standard atmospheric pressure is measured
applied to wire so that on unloading it return to
in various units:
its original length is called the elastic limit.
• Yield Point (Y) : The stress, beyond which the 1 atmosphere = 760 mm Hg = 29.92 in Hg
length of the wire increases virtually for no • The mercury barometer and other manometer
increase in the stress. devices are reliable pressure measurement
• plastic Region : The region of stress strain graph devices.
between the elastic limit and the breaking point A “rising” barometer indicates increasing air
is called the plastic region.
pressure i.e. clam weather,, a “falling” barometer
APPLICATIONS OF ELASTICITY indicates decreasing air pressure i.e. inclement
• Metallic part of machinery is never subjected to weather.
a stress beyond the elastic limit of material. • Factors Affecting the Magnitude of Pressure
• Metallic rope used in cranes to lift heavy weight • Magnitude of the force. The larger the force,
are decided on the elastic limit of material. higher the pressure.
• In designing beam to support load • Contact area. The larger the contact area,
(in construction of roofs and bridges). the lower the pressure.
• Preference of hollow shaft than solid shaft.
• The pressure at any level in the atmosphere may
• Calculating the maximum height of a mountain. be interpreted as the total weight of the air above
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS a unit area at any elevation.

Presure Pascal’s Principle

• Pressure is defined as the force acting normally • Pascal’s Principle is used to quantitatively relate
per unit area. the pressure at two points in an incompressible
• Pressure on an area, A is the normal force, which static fluid.
is being appiled perpendicularly to the area. • It states that pressure is transmitted,
• Perssure is a scalar quantity. undiminished, in a closed static fluid the total
• Pressure on an area, A is expressed as the normal pressure at any point within an incompressible,
force, F per unit area, A. static fluid is equal to the sum of the sum of the
P = (F/A) appiled pressure at any point in that fluid and the
hydrostatic pressure change due to a difference
] F = Force
A= Area ] in height within that fluid.

PHYSICS 348
 APPLICATIONS other water molecules. Under the surface of
water these attractions balance out, but on the
• The underlying princile of the hydraulic
surface they are unbalanced. This is beacuse the
pressure.
molecules on the surface have one surface
• Used for amplifying the force of the driver’s foot exposed to the air and no other water molecules
in the braking system of most cars and truks. to balance out the charges. So, the surface
• Used in artesian well, water towers and dams. molecules are pulled inward and surface tension
• Scuba divers must understand this principle. At is created.
a depth of 10 metres under water, pressure is Reason : Cohesive Force
twice the atmospheric pressure at sea level and • Breaking Up Surface Tension :
increases by about 105 kPa for each increase of
Surface tension can be broken by adding soap to
10 m depth.
water. Soap disrupts the surface tension causing
SURFACE TENSION (T) the thin film to split and fly apart.
• Surface Tension (T) : It is the property of a liquid Examples of Surface Tension
by virtue of which it behaves like an elastic
• This phenomenon can be observed in the nearly
stretched membrane with tendency to contract
shape of small drops of liquids and of soap
so as to occupy a minimum surface area.
bubbles. Because of this property, certain insects
• Mathematically T = F/l
can stand on the surface of water.
• S.I Unit is : Nm-1
• A razor blade also can be supported by the
Surface Energy surface tension of water. The razor blade is not
• The energy responsible for the phenomenon of floating: if pushed through the surface, it sinks
surface tension may be thought of as through the water.
approximately equivalent to the work or energy • Small drops of liquid tend to take on a spherical
required to remove the surface layer of molecules shape because the surface tension acts to make
in a unit area the potential energy per unit area of each drop as small as possible.
the surface film is called the surface energy. • Water has a higher surface tension than most
Surface energy liquids; it is possible to float a steel needle or
razor blade on water if the surface is not
Work done increasing the surface area (W) penetrated.
Increase in Area (A)
• Adhesive Forces : Forces of attraction between a
• Surface tension is numerally equal to surface liquid and solid surface are called adhesive forces.
energy. The difference in and adhesive force strength
Its unit is N/m or Joule / sq m between cohesive forces determines the
behaviour of a liquid in contact with a solid
• An increase in temperature lowers the net force
surface.
of attraction among molecules and hence
decreases surface tension. • Water does not wet waxed surfaces because
the cohesive forces within the drops are
• The Surface of water : Surface tension creates
stronger than the adhesive forces between
thin elastic film on the surface of water.
the drops and the wax.
• Surface Tension at the Molecular Level : A
• Water wets glass and spreads out on it
water molecule has one oxgen atom (O) and two
because the adhesive forces between the
hydrogen atoms (H). The negative end of the
liquid and the glass are stronger than the
water molecule is attracted to the positive end of
cohesive forces within the water.
349 PHYSICS
 CAPILLARYACTION Archimedes’ Law of Flotation
• Capillary Action is the rise of a liquid that wets a • When a body is immersed in a fluid then if:
tube up the inside a small diameter tube • The weight W of body is more than the
(i.e.,a capillary) immersed in the liquid. uptrust W’ (W* = W’) the body will sink.
• The liquid creeps up the inside of the tube • The weight W of the body is equal to up-
(as a result of adhesive forces between the thrust W (W’ > W) the body float with whole
liquid and the inner walls of the tube) until of its volume inside the liquid.
the adhesive and cohesive forces of the • The weight (W < W’) the body will float with
liquid are balanced by the weight of the some of its part outside the liquid.
liquid.
• The smaller the diameter of the tube, the
higher the liquid rises. Upthrust

Capillary Tube
• When a block of ice floats in a liquid of density
greater than that of water, the liquid level rises
when all ice melt into water.
• When an ice block floats in water the water level
Rise of Liquid in
Capillary Tube
will remain the same when all the ice melts into
water.
Examples of Capillary Action DENSITY
• Capillary Action is essential for the drainage of • Density is defined as the ratio of an object’s mass
constantly produced tear fluid from the eye. to its volume. Density is a physical property of
• Wicking is the absorption of a liquid by a matter that expresses a relationship of mass to
material in the manner of a candle wick. volume.
• Paper towels absorb liquid through capillary Density = Mass / Volume
action, allowing a fluid to be transferred from a • Because it is a ratio, the density of a material
surface to the towel. remains the same no matter how much of that
BUOYANCY material is present.
• The common units used to express density are
Archimedes’ Principle
grams per milliliters (g/ml) and (g/cm3).
It states that when a body is immersed completely • The average density of an object equals its total
or partly in a fluid, it loses in weight equal to the mass divided by its total volume.
weight of the fluid displaced by it.
• The density of a material is strongly connected
• Apparent weight of body. to other intensive properties, particularly
= Actual Weight of Body - Uptrust temperature.
= [mg -m / d x pg] = mg [1 - p / d] • An object made from a comparatively dense
• Where, d = density of body and p = density of material (such as iron) will have less volume than
fluid an object of equal mass made from some less
• Buoyant force depends on the density of the dense substance (such as water).
fluid and not on the density of body acting on • Perhaps the highest density known is reached in
centre of gravity of fluid. neutron star matter.
PHYSICS 350
• The density of water is approximately one gram • Coefficient of Viscosity : It is defined as the
per cubic centimetre. At approximately 4 ºC (39 ºF), tangential viscous force which maintains a unit
pure water reaches its maximum density. velocity gradient between two parallel layers each
• Ice floats on water because it is less dense, but ice of unit area.
of a special kind can be denser than normal water. • S.I. unit of coefficient of viscosity is poiseuille or
pascal-second.
• Relative density, or specific gravity is the ratio
of the density (mass of a unit volume) of a • Viscosity of liquid tends to decrease with a rise
substance to the density of a given reference in temperature.
material.Specific gravity usually means relative BERNOULLI’S THEOREM
density with respect to water.
• It states that for an incompressible non-viscous
• The relative density of a liquid can be measured liquid in steady flow, the total energy i.e.
using a hydrometer. Relative density of a pressure energy potential energy and kinetic
substance. energy, remains constant in its flow.
density of the substance Mathematically, it can be expressed as,
density of water at 4ºC
P1 + 1/2 pv12 + pgh1
VISCOSITY = P2 + 1/2 Pv22 + pgh2
• It is the property of liquid (or gasas) due to which • Application of Bernouli’s Theorem
a backward dragging force acts tangentially
• Working of Bunsen burner
between two layers of liquid when there is
relative motion between them. • Lift of an air foil
• Spinning of ball (Magnus effect)
• Newton’s Formula for Viscous Force : The
viscous force between two liquid layers each of • Sprayer
area A and having a velocity gradient dv/dx is • Ping pong ball in air jet
• F = η A (dv/ dx) where η is coefficient of viscosity. • Venturimeter is a device used to measure the
rate of flow of liquid.



351 PHYSICS
 CHAPTER

4 WAVE MOTION
MOTION • In simple harmonic motion, Acceleration α
displacement Or, acceleration = –k x displacement
Periodic Motion where k is a constant and the negetive sign shows
• In Physics, a motion that is regular and that acceleration is directed in opposite direction
repeating is referred to as a periodic motion. to the motion of the object.
Most object that vibrate do so in a regular and • Examples of simple harmonic motion of simple
repeated fashion; their vibrations are periodic pendulum : Motion of helical spring etc.
Oscillatory Motion • An object is undergoing simple harmonic motion
(SHM) if;
• Oscaillatory motion is motion that is repetitive
• The acceleration of the object is directly
and that which cycles about a mean position. We
proportional to its displacement from its
can also call this periodic motion. equilibrium position.
• Oscillatory motion or periodic motion is seen in • The acceleration is always directed towards
pendulums, vibrating strings and elastic the equilibrium position.
materials such as a spring. Physical phenomena
• Certain definitions pertain to SHM:
such as light, sound, ocean waves and molecular
• A complete vibration its one down and up
vibrations also exhibit oscillatory motion.
motion.
• Free oscillations occur while the pendulum is
• The time for one complete vibration is the
set to its displacement and is moving in its to and
period measured in seconds.
fro motion.
• The frequency is the number of complete
• Damped oscillations occur while the pendulum
vibrations per second and is defined as the
is set to its displacement and is moving in its to reciprocal of the period. Its units are cycles
and fro motion experience a force or a medium second or hertz (Hz).
that affects its motion. For example air resitance,
• The amplitude is the absolute value of the
water etc.
distance from the maximum vertical
• A forced oscillation occurs while an object is used displacement to the central point of the
to force one or more pendulums into motion. motion, that is the greatest distance up or down
Simple Harmonic Motion the mass moves from its initial position.
• The equation relating to period tha mass and
• The simplest type of harmonic motion i.e. of
the spring constant is T = 2 π √m/k.This
constant amplitude and single frequency whose
relationship gives the period in seconds.
acceleration is always directed towards the mean
position and is directly proportional to the Pendulum motion
displacement from the mean position is called • A pendulum is defined as a mass or bob
simple harmonic motion (SHM)

PHYSICS 352
 connected to a rod or rope that experiences simple
L
harmonic motion.as it swings back and forth T = 2p g
without friction. The equilibrium position of the
pendulum is the position when the mass is where l is the length of string of simple pendulum
hanging directly downward. WAVES

• A wave is a disturbance from an equilibrium

PENDULUM MOTION condition that propagates or travels with finite
velocity from one region of space to another
region of space.
• It is due to the repeated or periodic harmonic
l
motion of particles of the medium about their
equilibrium position which is called mean
position e.g. The periodic distrubance that
travels through the surface of water is water
BoB
wave.
• According to the ways of energy transferring
Time Period of Second’s Penduium waves are divided into two kinds.
T = 2 Second Mechanical Wave
• If a pendulum is suspended from the ceiling of a • The waves which need material medium for
lift moving upward with acceleration “a” time their propagation are mechanical waves. For
period will decrease because the tension in the example the sound waves are mechanical waves
string of the pendulum is more than normal. and hence need a material medium for
• If a pendulum is suspended from the ceiling of a propagation.
lift and lift moves upward with uniform veolcity
its time period in unaffected because the tension Electromagnetic Wave
in the string of pendulum remains unchanged. • The waves which do not need material medium
• If a lift is falling freely under granity, then the for their propagation are called electromagnetic
time period of a infinite because under free fall, g waves. For example Light waves are
is zero and dividing anything with zero gives us electromagnetic waves and hence do not need
infinity, pendulum needs to feel gravity to material medium for propagation or propagates
operate. even in vacuum. The electromagnetic waves are
• When the pendulum is taken to the Moon, the caused to propagate by two electromagnetic
value of ‘g’ will decrease and hence time period forces.
will increase. As the pendulum takes more time to • According to the modes of vibration of the
complete one vibration it will lose time. particles in the medium there are two types of
• When the pendulum is taken to the top of waves.
mountain, the value of ‘g’ will decrease and hence
Transverse Wave
time period will increase.
• The period of oscillation of the pendulum, T is • The wave in which medium particle vibrater
defined in terms of the acceleration due to perpendicularly to the direction of the
gravity, g and the length of the pendulum, L: propagation of wave, is called transverse wave.

353 PHYSICS
 In the transverse wave the medium particle or allowing sound waves to travel more quickly
disturbance travels in the form of crest and through it.
trough. Water waves, light waves are examples • When sound travels from one medium to
of transverse waves. another, both its velocity and wavelength
CREST undergo changes. The frequency of sound
depends upon the source of sound, not the medium
O of propagation. Hence, it does not change.
TRANSUERSE WAVE Factors Affecting Velocity of Sound
TROUGH
• The speed of sound is independent of pressure
Longitudinal wave i.e. speed remains unchanged by the increase or
• The wave in which medium particles vibrate decrease of pressure.
along the direction of propagation of wave is • The speed of sound increases with the increase
called longitudinal wave. The compressional of temperature of the medium.
wave in the spring, sound waves etc. are the
• The speed of sound is more in humid air than in
example of longitudinal wave. The longitudinal
dry air because the density of humid air is less
wave travels in the form of compression and
than the density of dry air.
rarefaction.
• Earthquakes have both longitudinal and
transverse components, and these travels at
different speeds. The bulk modulus of granite is
greater than its shear modulus. For that reason,
C R C R the speed of longitudinal or pressure waves
(P-waves) in earthquaks in granite is significantly
O higher than the speed of transverse or shear
waves (S - waves).
LONGITUDINAL WAVE • The longitudinal mechanical waves are divided
into 3 types.
Sound Wave
(1) Audible Wave : Range of frequency from
• Sound wave is longitudinal mechanical wave
(20 Hz - 20 kHz) which can produce sensation
producing sensation of hearing on the ear on the
of hearing in our ears is called audible wave, which
basis of what range of frequency of longitudinal
is infact a sound wave. The sound wave can be
mechanical wave can be detected our ear.
produced by vibration of tuning forks, air
SPEED OF SOUND column human vocal cord etc.
• Sound travels fastest through solids. This is
because molecules in a solid medium are much
closer together than those in a liquid or gas,

AUDIBLE SOUND
(20Hz To 20,000 Hz)
INFRASONIC SOUND ULTRASONIC SOUND
(Less than 20Hz (Grater than 20,000Hz

PHYSICS 354
 (2) Infrasonic Wave : Cover sound beneath 20Hz . DOPPLER EFFECT
ultra-sonic wave. Ex.-Bats can detect and
• If there is a relative motion between source of
produce.
sound and observer, the apparent frequency of
(3) Ultrasonic Wave : Cover sound above
sound heard by the observer is different from the
20,000Hz. Eg: Dogs, Ultrasonic Machine
actual frequency of sound emitted by the source.
Echo This phenomenon is called Doppler Effect.
• The sound waves received after being reflected • When the frequency between the source and
from a high tower or mountains is called echo. observer decreases the apparent frequency
• To hear echo, the minimum distance between the increases and vice-versa.
observer and reflector should be 17m (16.6m). • When a vehicle with a siren passes you, a
• Persistence of ear (effect of sound on ear) is noticeable drop in the pitch of the sound of the
1/10. siren will be observed as the vehicle passes. This
• Due to refraction sound is heard at longer is an example of the Doppler Effect.
distance at nights than in day. • The Doppler Effect can be observed for any type
• When a gun is fired at a visible distance, the of wave - water wave, sound wave, light wave
sound is heard a little after the smoke is seen etc.
because the velocity of light is much higher than
that of sound.


355 PHYSICS
 CHAPTER

5 HEAT & TEMPERATURE

HEAT • Temperature is a measure of hotness or coldness
expressed in terms of any of several arbitrary
• Heat (symbol : Q) is energy : It is the total amount
scales like Celsius and Fahrenheit.
of energy (both kinetic and potential) possessed
• The normal body temperature of human being is
by the molecules in a piece of matter.
stated to be at 98.4 degree Fahrenheit or 37.0
• Heat is energy that is transferred from one body
degree Celsius.
to another as the results of a difference in tem-
• The SI unit of temperature is kelvin (k) and c is
perature.
a commonly used unit of temperature.
• Heat is a measure of how many atoms there are in
• The ice and steam point have values 32ºF and
a substance multiplied by how much energy each
212ºF respectively, on the Fahrenheit scale and
atom possesses.
0ºC and 100ºC on the Celsius scale. On the
• Heat always slow from body at high temperature Fahrenheit scale there are 180 equal intervals
to low temperature. between two reference points and on the Celsius
• Heat is transferred through radiation, scale, there are 100.
conduction and convection. • Alcohol has a very low freezing point of
• Unit of Heat about -112º C and a low boiling point of about
• C.G.S. Unit of heat is Calorie. 78ºC and hence is suitable in thermometers to
• The M.K.S. or S.I. unit of heat is Joule record very low temperatures.
• 1 calorie equals 4.18 or 4.2 joules • Mercury’s freezing point is -39º Celsius.
approximately. • Pyrometer is a type of thermometer used to
• A kilocalorie, which is the Calorie reported measure high temperatures e.g. the temperature
on food labels, is defined as the amount of of Sun. It is a non-contacting device that
heat needed to raise the tamperature of one intercepts and measure thermal radiaton, a
kilogram of water by one Celsius degree. process known as pyrometry. We can measure
the temperature in between (60º -2800º c).
TEMPERATURE
• A bolometer is a device for measuring the power
• Temperature (symbol : T) is a measure of the of incident electromagnetic radiation via the
ability of a substance or more generally of any heating of a material with a temperature-
physical system to transfer heat energy to dependent electrical resistance. The temperature
another physical system. change can be measured directly with a
• Temperature is not energy. It relates to the thermopile or via an attached thermometer.
average (kinetic) energy of microscopic motion • The thermocouple is a thermometer used
of a single particle in the system per degree of extensively in scientific labortories to measure
freedom. temperatures between-(270º C and 2300º C).
PHYSICS 356
• Electrical resistance thermometers are often made • Changes in volume compared to original
from platinum wire, because platinum has volume (∆V/V0) called volumetric expansion
excellent mechanical and electrical properties from or cubical expansion.
-(270º C to 700º C).
Coefficient of Superficial
• A device in which heat measurment can be made Expansion
is called a calorimeter.
In the absolute temperature scale the zero of the
a : b : g = 1 : 2 : 3
scale is the absolute zero of temperature - the
temperature where every substance in nature has
the least possible molecular activity. The Kelvin Coefficient of Linear Coefficient of Cubical
absolute temperature scale (T) has the same unit Expansion Expansion
size as the Celsius scale (T), but differs in the origin.
SOLID
SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY
• tend to retain their shape when not constrained
• The specific heat capacity of a substance is the and so are best described by a linear coefficient
amount of energy needed to change the of thermal expansion,, α (alpha).
temperature of 1 kg of the substance by 1ºC.
• have an areal expansion that is very nearly twice
• When a substance is heated it absorbs heat
α (since two perpendicular
their linear expansion, 2α
energy and its temperature rises. The amount of
linear measurements describe an area).
heat energy absorbed by the substance (Q) is
directly proportional to mass of the substance • have a volumetric expansion that is very nearly
(m) and the change in temperature (∆t). α (since three
three times their linear expansion, 3α
perpendicular linear measurements describe a
Q = ms ∆ t
volume).
• Here s is a constant called specific heat capacity
depends on the nature of the substance.In the LIQUIDS
above equation, If m = 1 kg and ∆t = 1 K then Q = s. • Tend to take on the shape of their container and
• The specific heat of water is 4.18J/gº C which is so are best described by a volumetric coefficient
the maximum. of thermal expansion β (beta).
• Radon, with a specific heat capacity of 0.094j/
GASES
(gK) has the lowest specific heat capacity.
• have a thermal expansion.
THERMALEXPANSION
Applications
• Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter to
• Telephone wires
change in volume in response to a change in
temperature through heat transfer. • expansion gap/joint
• The degree of expansion divided by the change • anti-scalding valve
in temperature is called the material’s cofficient • bimetallic strip, thermostat
of thermal expansion and generally varies with • expansion of holes (mounting train tyres).
temperature.
LATENT HEAT
• Three types of thermal expansion of solids are:
• Changes in length compared to original • Heat absorbed or released as a result of a phase
length (∆l/lo) called linear expansion. change is called latent heat. There is no
• Changes in area compared to original area temperature change during a phase change, thus
(∆ A/A0) called areal expansion or superficial there is no change in the kinetic energy of the
expansion. particles in the material.

357 PHYSICS
• The energy released comes from the potential RELATIVEHUMIDITY
energy stored in the bonds between the particles.
• The amount of water vapour in the air at any
• It is the quantity of heat required to change unit given time is called humidity.
mass of liquid substance from liquid to vapour
• The relative humidity, is the percent of
state while temperature remainning constant.
saturation humidity generally calculated in
• The latent heat of vaporisation of water is 536 relation to saturated vapour density.
cals calories.
Relative Humidity
• Latent heat of vaporisation is maximum at 0ºC
sin i
sin r = a constant = m
and decreases on increasing temperature.
• Latent heat of vaporisation of water decreases • There are three main measurements of humidity:
on increasing pressure or we may say that the absolute, relative and specific.
latent heat of vaporisation decreases with
• Absolute humidity is the water content of
increase in boiling point.
air.
• Latent heat of fusion of ice is heat energy
• Relative humidity expressed as a per cent,
required in calories by one gram of ice to
measure the current absolute humidity
completely convert itself into water without
relative to the maximum for that temperature.
increase in tamperature. The latent heat of fusion
• Specific humidity is a ratio of the water
of ice is 80 calories.
vapour contact of the mixture to the total air
• The energy required in calories to completely
content on a mass basis.
convert one gram of water to steam without
• A device used to measure humidity is called a
increasing the temperature is called the latent heat
psychrometer or hygrometer.
of vaporisation.
• A burn at 100 degree celsius steam is more TRANSMISSION OF HEAT
severe than a burn from water at 100 degree • Heat is transferred or propagated by three
celsius because particles in steam at 100 celsius distinct processes, conduction, convection and
have more energy than water at the same radiation.
temperature (latent heat). When water at 100
Conduction Heat Transfer
degree celsius is converted into steam 100
degree celsius, an additional heat energy of 540 • In this process heat is transferred without bodily
Calories per gram of water is utilised Hence, the movement of the particles of medium.
energy possessed by steam is much higher than • All metals are good conductors of heat. In
that of boiling water at 100 degree celsius. metals, thermal conduction is due to vibration of
• The latent heat absorbed by ice is greater than the atoms and free eletrons.
the heat absorbed by water at the same • Almost all gases and liquid (except mercury) are
temperature. Thus ice appears cold to mouth than poor conductors of heat.
water. • Silver is the best conductor of heat.
• Dry ice is colder than regular ice because
Convention Heat Transfer
regular ice is made from freezing water. Water
freezes at zero degrees Celsius, or + 32 degrees • In this process, heat is transferred by the bodily
Fahrenheit, “ Dry ice” is made from frozen movement of particles of the medium due to
carbon dioxide gas by sublimation. Carbon difference in densities of different parts of the
dioxide freezes at a lower temperature: 79 degrees medium.
Celsius or -109 degrees Fahrenheit.
PHYSICS 358
• Convection takes place in liquid and gases but • Out of a rough black surface and polished black
not in solids. surface the rough black surface emits more
• Mercury though a liquid, is heated by radiant energy then the polished black surface.
conduction and not by convection. • Cloudy day is cooler than clear day and cloudy
• Free or natural convection takes place in the still night is warmer than clear night because moist
fluid . Forced convection takes place when steady air is “athermanous”
stream of air is sent past the hot air. • Green houses are built with glass doors and roofs
• In a room ventilators are provided at ceilling, to because glass is “athermanous”
escape the hot air by convection. • Cooking vessels are coated black outside because
• Principle of chimney used in the kitchen or a black surface is a good absorber and good emitter.
factory is based on the convection. NEWTON’S LAW OF COOLING
• Land and sea breezes are due to the convection. • Newton’s Law of Cooling states that the rate of
Radiation Heat Transfer change of the temperature of an object is
proportional to the difference between its own
• Quickest way transmission of heat is known as
temperature and the ambient temperature (i.e. the
radiation.
temperature of its surrounding).
• In this mode of heat trasmission heat is
• It means that if a hot object it subjected to a very
transferred from one place to another without
cold object it will transfer its heat more faster
effecting the intervening medium. than the hot object that is subjected to a mildly
• Thermal Radiation : The heat enery transferred Cool object.
between the objects without the help of any
Rate of coolinp : α (T1 – T0)
medium is known as thermal radiation or radiant
energy. (or) Heat energy transferred by means of APPLICATION
electromagnetic waves is thermal radiation. • To predict how long it takes for a hot object to
• Diathermanous Substance : The substance cool down at a certain temperature.
which allow the heat radiation to pass through • To find the temperature of a soda placed in a
them without getting themselves heated are called refrigerator by a certain amount of time.
“diathermanous” substance. Ex: air, rock salt,
• It helps to indicate the time of death given the
flourspar.
probable body temperature at the time of death
• Athermanous Substances : The substances and current body temperature.
which do not allow the heat radiations to pass
through them, but absorb heat and get themselves KIRCHHOFF’S LAW
heated are called “athermanous” substances. • Good absorbers of radiation are also good
Ex: glass, moist air, water, wood. radiators, this statement is quantitatively
explained by Kirchhoff’s law.


359 PHYSICS
 CHAPTER
LIGHT AND OPTICAL
6 PHENOMENON
• Visible light (commonly referred to simply as light) Laws of Reflection of light
is electromagnetic radiation that is visible to the
• The angle of incidence and angle of reflection is
human eye, and is responsible for the sense of sight.
equal.
• Light travels through a vacuum at 3 × 108 m/s
• The incident ray, reflected ray and normal to the
• It takes light 1.28 seconds to span the distance point of reflection lie in the same place.
from the Earth to the Moon.
Reflection of Light in a Plane Mirror
• It slow down as it encounters a denser medium. The
frequency remains constant (not 100% true under • The image formed by a plane mirror is always
general relativity) and the wavelength is reduced. virtual, upright, and of the same shape and size
as the object it is reflecting.
REFLECTION OF LIGHT
• When on object is placed in front of a
• Bouncing bach of light after striking hard plane-mirror, an image is formed behind the mirror
surface. at a distance equal to the distance of the object
from the mirror.
Difference Between Concave and Convex Mirror
Feature Concave Convex
Lens Curvature • A cocave mirror has a lens that bends • A convex mirror holds a lens that bends
inward. This inward bend directs outward. The outward bend bends directs
images away form the reflecting light, images towards light, causing the image
causing the image to appear magnified. to appear distorted in shape or smaller
than it really is.
Other Name • Converging Mirror • Diverging Mirror
Image Formation • Concave mirrors magnify close-up • Convex mirrors allow far-away images
images. Images formed in concave to be seen.
mirrors are real, because they do not • Images formed is vitual, reject and
alter the original image except in diminished.
making it larger. • Images formed in convex mirrors are said
• image formed is virtual, reject to be virtual and approximate, because
and enlarged. they can only estimate the object’s
appearance because it is far away.
Focal Length • The focal length of a concave mirror is • The focal length of a convex mirror is a
a positive value. negative value.
Examples • Automobile headlights. Otheruses • An automobile’s side or rearview mirrors.
include cosmetic mirrors, and mirrors They allow the driver to see things around
on the base of a compound microscope. a corner or behind them.

PHYSICS 360
• The focal length of plane mirror is infinity REFLECTION OF SPHERICAL SURFACE
because there is no divergence or convergence.
and run parallel forever. The focal length does • The geometric centre of a spherical mirror is called
not exist. its pole.
• It is reversed left <--> right. • The centre of the hollow sphere for which the
mirror is a part is called the centre of curvature.
• Emergency vehicles are usually reverse-lettered
so the lettering appears normal in the rear view • The line joining the centre of curvature and the
mirror of a car. pole is the principal axis.
• The minimum mirror height necessary to see one’s • A light ray incident on a spherical mirror, after
full images is a half-length mirror. reflection appears to pass through the
• The point on the mirror surface where the principal focus in the case of a convex mirror
incident ray strikes is called point of incidence. and passes through the focus in the case of
concave mirror.
• The ray which is directed towards the reflecting
surface is called the incident ray. • The diameter of the spherical mirror gives the
measure of its aperture (MN).
• The ray which is sent back into the medium is
called the reflected ray. • Rays that lie close to the principal axis are called
• The perpendicular drawn (blue ray) at the point of paraxial rays.
incidence to the surface of mirror is called normal. • Rays that are far from the principal axis do not
• Angle between the incident ray and normal is converge to a single point. The fact that a
called angle of incidence. spherical mirror does not bring all parallel rays
to a single point is known as spherical
• Angle between the reflected ray and normal is
called angle of reflection. abberation.
• Spherical abberation can be minimised by using
a mirror whose height is small compared with the
radius of curvature.
Re
ay
tR

fle

Li • When paraxial light rays that are parallel to the

en

cte

Lr
cid

principal axis strike a convex mirror the rays

dR
In

ay

appear to originate from a focal point behind the

Normal mirror.
SPHERICAL MIRROR • Virtual image formed by plane mirror is
laterally inverted means left and right side is
• A spherical mirror is actually a mirror whose reversed and same as the object size and in front
surface forms a part of a hollow sphere. The of the mirror as it is kept from the mirror, it is
sphere can be made from any type of polished directly proportional.
metal surface like glass.
• Whereas image formed by convex mirror is
• Convex Mirror : A mirror with a spherical surface
virtual, diminished and cover larger area and used
and reflecting from the exterior the curvature is
as rear view mirror.
called a convex mirror. A convex mirror is also
known as Diverging Mirror as it diverges the Axis
Principle
incident rays after reflection.
• Concave Mirror : A mirror with a spherical
F C P (Pole)
surface and reflecting from the interior of the
curvature is called a concave mirror. A concave Principle
Focus Center of
mirror is also known as Coverging Mirror as it Curvature
converges the incident rays after reflection.
361 PHYSICS
 LAWS OF REFRACTION • Prisms refract light and can break white light into
its constituent colours a rainbow. Water vapour
• When a ray of light travelling through a
does the same forming the large ranibows you
transparent medium encounters a boundary
can often see in damp weather.
leading into another transparent medium, part of
• Sea water waves follow the shape of the beach
the ray is reflected and part of the ray enters the
because water waves are refracted and take the
second medium.
shape of the beach.
• The ray that enters the second medium is bent at
• If a person looks at a straight object such as a
the boundary.
pencil or straw which is placed at a slant partially
• This bending of the ray, is called refraction. in the a water the object appears to bend at the
• The incident ray the refracted ray and the water’s surface. This is due to the bending of
normal to the surface at the point of light rays as they move from the water to the air.
incidence all lie in one plane. • The rivers appear shallower than they really are
• For any two given pair of media, the ratio of due to refraction.
the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine
TOTALINTERNALREFLECTION
of the angle or refraction is a constant.
• The above law is called Snell’s law after the • When light travels fron one medium to another it
scientist Willebrod Snellius who first changes speed and is refracted.
formulated it. • If the light rays are travelling from a less dense
Rarer (Air) material to a dense medium they are refracted
towards the normal and if they are travelling from
a dense to less dense medium they are refracted
away from the normal.
• For total internal reflection to occur the light
must travel from a dense medium to a less dense
Denser (Water) medium (e.g. glass to air or water to air).
• As the angle of incidence increase so does the
• Then sin i = a constant = m Refractive Index angle of refraction.
sin r
• where µ is the refractive index of the second • The critical angle is the angle of incidence above
medium with respect to the first medium. which total internal reflection occurs. When the
• The angle of refraction depends upon the angle of incidence reaches a value known as the
critical angle, the refracted rays travel along the
meterial and the angle of incidence
surface of the medium or in other words are
• The path of the light through the refracting refracted to an angle of 90º. The critical angle for
surface is reversible. the angle of incidence in glass is 42º.
• Angle of incidence is the angle between an • Total internal reflection also explains why
incident ray and the normal. diamonds are so sparkly. Diamond has a very
• Angle of refraction is the angle between a large index of refraction (around 2.4) so light
refracted ray and the normal. entering the diamond has a hard time getting out.
• Atmospheric refraction causes astronomical Diamonds are cut in such a way that most of the
objects to appear higher in the sky than they are light entering the bottom and the sides goes out
through the top.
in reality. This is the cause of twinkling of the
stars and various deformations of the shape of • The formation of a rainbow involves a series of
the sun at sunset and sunrise. physical phenomena, reflection, refraction,
dispersion and total internal reflection.

PHYSICS 362
For total internal reflection to take place two • If the lens is placed in a medium having
conditions are refractive index equal to that of glass, the rays
• The rays of ligh must travel from a dense will pass through the lens straight without any
medium to a less dense medium. change in their path. This is expected if the
• The angle of incidence must be greater than refractive index remains the same.
the critical angle (∠i > ∠ic).

OPTICAL FIBRE
• Total internal reflection is a powerful tool since
it can be used to confine light.
• One of the most common applications of total
internal reflection is in fibre optics. An optical Concave Lens Convex Lens
fibre is a thin transparent fibre, usually made up (Diverging Lens) (Converging Lens)
of glass or plastic for transmitting light.
• A diverging lens is a lens that diverges rays of Fig. Types of Lens
light that are travelling parallel to its principal
axis. POWERS OF LENS
• An optical fibers are commonly used in • Power of a lens is defined as the reciprocal of its
telecommunications because information can be focal length in metres.
transported over long distances, with minimal loss
1
of data.Another common use can be found in Powers of lens=
Focal length in meters
medicine in endoscopes.
LENS The unit of power is dioptre
• A lens is merely a carefully ground or molded
1
piece of transparent material that refracts light 1 dipotre = meters
rays in such as way as to form an images.
• Lenses can be thought of as a series of tiny 1D = 1 m-1
refracting prims, each of which refracts light to • If there is convex lens of power ID then its focal
produce their own image. When these prisms act length is equal 1 metre.
together they produce a bright image focused at • The power of a convex lens is positive and
a point. concave lens is negetive.
• A converging lens is a lens that converges rays HUMAN EYE
of light that are travelling parallel to its principal
axis. • Our eye is the most important natural optical
instrument. The eye is nearly spherical in shape
• A diverging lens is a lens that diverges rays of
with a slight bulge in the front part.
light that are travelling parallel to its principal
• A normal eye can see all object over a wide range
axis.
of distance i.e., from (25 cm to infinity).
• If you immerse the convex lens in a liquid whose
• Microscopes use convex lenses because they
refractive index is greater than refractive index of
need to focus the light into the eye.
material of lens then it will change its nature and
become concave lens, and thus it will starts • A simple optical telescope will have two
diverging the rays rather than focusing them on converging lenses [converging lens: A lens that
a single point. It’s true the other way round also causes parallel rays of light to came into focus.]
that is concave also becomes convex. of different powers.

363 PHYSICS
• In a reflecting telescope instead of a convex • Red light is refracted the least violet light is
objective lens a concave mirror is used to collect refracted the most. This effect is called
parallel rays from the object and form an images dispersion. However, this difference is corrected
at the focal point. when the light leaves the block so the effect is
DEFECTS OF VISION not noticeable.
• Refraction of white light through a glass prism
• Hypermetropia or farsightedness : is the
which has sides that are not parallel causes this
inability of the eye to focus on nearby object. This
defects can be removed by using a convex lens. difference in refraction of different colours of light
to be exaggerated so we see a spectrum of light
• Myopia or shortsightedness : is the inability of
emerging from the prism.
the eye to focus on distant object. This defect
can be removed by using a concave lens of • The speed is related to the wavelength .
suitable focal length.
l wave length
• Astigmatism : It is the defect of the eye when
the light rays coming inside the eye are not able
(V = l ×v) ] v frequency ]
to focus on a single point.This defect can be This indicates that the colour with the highest
corrected by using eyeglasses with cylindrical speed (red) has the longest wavelength, while
lenses. the colour with the slowest speed (violet) has the
• Presbyopia : is the loss of the ability to focus on shortest wavelength.
the near area where material is held for reading. • Because frequency is inversely proportional to
Simple reading eyeglasses with convex lenses wavelength we can also determine the relative
correct most cases of presbyopia. frequencies. Red would have the lowest while
DISPERSION OF LIGHT violet has the highest.
• If white light is passed the prism splits up the • The primary colours are red blue and green.
light into a series of colours. This shows that • Additive Colours mixing involves multiple
white light is actually made up of many other sources of light with different colours in each
colours- a fact first shown by Newton in 1666. source. Three additive primary colours are red,
This distribution of colours produced when white green and blue (RGB).
light is dispersed by a prism is spectrum. • Subtractive Colour mixing involves a single
• White light is dispersed because different colours source of light with different colours absorbing
are affected differently by the passage into glass. various wavelengths of the colour spectrum. The
Specifically the different colours travel at subtractive primaries are cyan blue, magenta red
different speeds through the glass (Because of and yellow (CMYK).
this, each colour has its own index of refraction).


PHYSICS 364
 CHAPTER

7 CURRENT ELECTRICITY
CHARGE ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
• Charge is the fundamental quantity of eletricity. • Conductors : Charge moves easily in
• The classical study of electricity is generally • metals as may have presence of free
divided into many areas: electrons.
• Electrostatics : The study of the forces • electrolytes (ionized liquids)
acting between charges • plasmas (ionized gases)
• Electric Current : The study of the forms • Insulators : Charge does not move easily in
of energy associated with the flow of charge. • Non-metals (pure water, organics, gases,....)
• Electromagnetism : The study of the forces • Semiconductors : Sometimes a conductor,
acting between charges in motion. sometimes an insulator
• Electric Charge : (Often just called charge) • Metalloids (silicon, germanium, doped
comes in two and only two types. positive materials,....)
(+) and negative (-).
• Superconductors : The perfect conductor ;
• The term neutral does not refer to a third type of offers no resistances below critical temperature.
charge but to the presence in a region of positive
• Many substances are superconductors below
and negative charges in equal amount.
some critical temperature.
METHODS OF CHARGING • The SI unit of charges is the coulomb [C].
• Friction: when an object or body comes in Coulomb’s Law
contact and electrially charged; one becomes
positive the other negative. • The force between two point charges is :
• Conduction : Transfer by contact with an already • directly proportional to the magnitude of
charged object. each charge (q1,q2)
• Induction : Separation of charge when near an • inversely proportional to square of the
already charged object. separation between their centres (r),
• directed along the line connecting their
– – + + centres (r).
–
++ – – +++ + • This relationship is known as Coulomb’s Law.
++ –– +
+ ++ +++ Q1 Q 2
+ F µ=
r2
ELECTRICAL CURRENT

Induction Conduction • Electric current is the rate at which charge flows

through a surface.

365 PHYSICS
• As a scalar quantity it has magnitude only. RESISTANCE
• The symbol for current is I (italic).
• Resistance is the property of a conductor to
• The SI unit of current is the ampere [A] which is resist the flow of charges through it. Its SI unit
named after the French scientist Andre-Marie is ohm (ΩΩ).
Ampere.
Resistivity is a characteristic property of the
• Since charge in measured in coulombs and time
material. It is a measure of material’s ability to
is measured in second an ampere is the same as a
oppose electric current.Its SI unit is Ω -m
coulomb per second
(ohm-metre).
] A= CS ] A= Ampere, I = Qt ] Qt ==Time
Charge
]
C = Coulomb, S = Second

DIFFERENCE BETWEENAMMETER &VOLTMETER

AMMETER VOLTMETER
Connection It is to be connected in series mode. It is to be connected in parallel mode.
Resistance It has comparatively low resistance. It has high resistance.
Uses It is used to find the amount of It is used to find the potential difference
current flowing in the circuit. in the circuit.
Circuit Circuit must be disconnected Circuit does not need to be disconnected.
in order to attach the ammeter.
Accuracy Considered as less accurate. Considered as more accurate compared to
ammeter.
Resistivity depends on the nature of the material not on its dimensions as resistance.

Resistance (R) = r length (I)

area (A)
Where ρ = resistivity

OHM’S LAW • The resistance of a given conductor depends on

• The resistor’s current I in amps (A) is equal to the material it is made of and on its dimensions.
the resistor’s voltage V in volts (V) . For a given material the resistance is inversely
proportional to the cross-sectional area; for
examples a thick copper wire has lower resistance
than an otherwise-identical thin copper wire. Also
I

for a given material the resistance is proportional

Vα

V to the length; for example a long copper wire has

higher resistances than an otherwise-identical
short copper wire.
I • Conductors have positive temperature coefficient
of resistance, that is their resitances increase with
divided by the resistance R in ohms (Ω) temperature.
• While for insulator and semiconductor, the
1 = V/R resistance decreases with increase in temperature,
i.e. negative temperature coefficient of resistance.
PHYSICS 366
• Superconductors are conductors that can be ELECTRIC POWER
made to conduct electricity without any
• Power is the rate at which work is done. It is the
resistance at all, so they do not lose energy or
work/time ratio. Mathematically it is computed
generate heat.
using the following equation.
• A semiconductor is neither a good conductor
• Power = Work / time
nor a good insulator but somewhere in between.
The conductive capability of a semiconductor • Like current, power is a rate quantity. Its
can be permanently changed by introducing mathematical formula is expressed on a per time
impurities through a process known as ‘doping’ basis.
or it can be temporarily modified by the Work done or Charge
application of an electric field. Power =
Time
R∝l Energy Consumed by Load
Time
Rµ I
A ] I = length
A= Area of cross section ] • Mchanical Power is commonly measured in
“horsepower.” One horsepower is equivalent to
approximately 750 watt.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RESISTANCE
• Electrical Power is almost always measured in
AND RESISTIVITY
Work
• Resistance and resistivity are properties of "watts and power" = “
Time
conductors where resistance is an extrinsic • The standard unit of voltage is therefore the joule
property whereas resistivity is an intrinsic per coulomb a unit that has its own name the volt
property. (V):
• This means that resistivity of a conductor is always • 1 volt = 1 Joule coulomb
same and is independent upon its length or size. • Watts = Joules / second
• Resistance and resistivity of a material are • 1 KWH = 3.6 mega joules
related to each other through an equation which • Volt is the unit of measurement for potential
is as follows:- difference while Watt is a unit of measurement
Resistivity = resistance X area of cross section/length for power.
SI unit of Resistance : Ohm (Ω) • An ampere or amp (A or I , for current), is the
SI unit of Resistance : Ohm metr (Ω m) amount of in a circuit while voltage (V) is the
strength of the current as it flows through the
• A lightning conductor is installed on a building
circuit and watts (W) are the total electrical power
to divert lighting away from the structure by
released by circuit per second. One watt is equal
providing a direct path to the ground.
to one volt multiplied by one amp which can also
• Filaments in light bulbs are made of tungsten
be expressed as
because the matal has high melting point which
• 1 W = 1 V × 1 A, P = V × I
makes it to remain solid at high temperature. The
metal glows brightly when electricity is passed • Power is the rate at which energy is added to or
through it and it is also capable of passing removed from a circuit by a battery or a load.
electric current continuously for a long time. Current is the rate at which charge moves past a
point on a circuit. And the electric potential
• There are two different ways in order to measure
difference across the two ends of a circuit is the
electricity; currents and voltages.
potential energy difference per charge between
• Devices such as ammeters and voltmeters which those two points. In equation form these
are based on the galvanometer, a device used to definitions can be stated as:
detect small currents, are used to measure
electricity.
367 PHYSICS
 Where • Magnets have two poles called the north (N) and
I = electric current south (S) poles. Two magnets will be attracted
Q = electric charge by their opposite poles and each will repel the
T = Time like pole of the other magnet.
I = Q/t • Repulsion : When two magnetic objects have
like poles facing each other, the magnetic force
pushes them apart.
TRANSFORMER
• A magnetic field consists of imaginary lines of
• A transformer is a device that changes flux coming from moving or spinning electrically
(transforms) an alternating potential difference charged particles.
(voltage) from one value to another value be it • Examples include the spin of a proton and the
smaller or greater using the principle of motion of electrons through a wire in an electric
electromagnetic induction. circuit.
• Michael Faraday built the first transformer • Magnets also strongly attract ferromagnetic
although he used it only to demonstrate the materials such as iron, nickel and cobalt.
principle: first that abn electric current can
Similarity between Electric Charges and Magnetism
produce a magnetic field (electro-magnetism) and
second that a changing magnetic field within a • Just as the positive (+) and negative (-) electrical
coil of wire induces a voltage across the ends of charges attract each other, the N and S poles of a
the coil (electromagnetic induction). magnet attract each other.
• Changing the current in the primary coil changes • In electricity like charges like charges repel and
the magnetic flux that is developed. so do in magnetism.

• The changing magnetic flux induces a voltage in Difference between Electric Charges and
the secondary coil. Magnetism
• Transformers require a varying flux to work. They • The magnetic field is a dipole field. That means
are therefore perfect for AC power but do not every magnet must have two poles.
work at all For DC power which would keep the • On the other hand a positive (+) or negative
flux constant. (-) electrical charges can stand alone. Electrical
charges are called monopoles since they can
MAGNET
exist without the opposite charge.
• A magnet is an object or a device that gives off
ATOMS AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS
extranal magnetic field.
• Basically it applies a force over a distance on Cathode Rays
other magnets, electrical currents, beams of • A cathode ray is a beam of electrons that travel
charge, circuits or magnetic materials. from the negatively charged to positively charged
• The magnetic field of an object can creat a end of a vacuum tube across a voltage difference
magnetic force on other objects with magnetic between the electrodes placed at each end.
fields. That force is what we cell magnetism. • The electrode at the negative end is called a
• When a magnetic field is applied to a moving cathode; the electrode at the positive end is called
eletric charge such as a moving proton or the an anode. Since electrons are repelled by the
electrical current in a wire the force on the charge negative charge the cathode is seen as the
is called a Lorentz force. “source” of the cathode ray in the vacuum
N S chamber.

PHYSICS 368
 Cathode Ray’s Properties PHOTOELECTRIC CELLS
• Cathode rays travel in straight lines. That is why • It is an electrical device that converts the
cathode rays cast shadow of any solid object energy of light directly into electricity by the
placed in their path. photovoltaic effect.
• Cathode rays possess energy by virtue of its • Photoeletric cells exits in three basic kinds
mass and velocity and can do work. corresponding to the three different forms of the
photoeletric effect that they employ: the
• Cathode rays consists of negatively charged
photoconductive cell, the photoemissive cell and
particles. When cathode rays are subjected to an
the photovoltaic cell.
electrical field these get deflected towards the
• According to Lenz’s law the induced emf
positively charged plate (Anode).
opposes the change that produces it.
• Cathode rays heat the object only which they
• It is this opposition against which we perform
fall.
mechanical work in causing the change in
• Cathode rays cause green fluorescence on glass magnetic flux.
surface, surface only which the cathode rays
• Therefore, mechanical energy is converted into
strike show a coloured shine. electrical energy.
• Cathode rays are affected by electric and • Thus Lenz’s law is in accordance with the law of
magnetic field. conservation of energy.
X-rays FLUORESCENCEAND PHOSPHORESCENCE
• X-rays are electromagnetic radiation of exactly
Fluorescence
the same nature as light but of very much shorter
wavelength. • Fluorescence is the emission of light by a
substance that has absorbed light or other
• X-rays were discovered in 1895 by German
electromagnetic radiation of a different
physicist Wilhelm Konrad Rontgen.
wavelength. In most cases, emitted light has a
• X-rays are commonly produced by accelerating longer wavelength, and therefore lower energy
(or decelerating) charged particles. than the absorbed radiation. However when the
Properties of X- rays absorbed eletromagnetic radiation is intense, it
is possible for one electron to absorb two
• They pass through many materials more or less photons;this two-photon absorption can lead to
unchanged. emission of radiation having a shorter wavelength
• They cause flourescence in materials such as than the absorbed radiation.
rock salt.
Phosphorescence
• They affect photographic plates causing fogging.
• Phosphorescence is a specific type of
• They cannot be refracted.
photoluminescence related to fluorescence.
• They are unaffected by electric and magnetic Unlike fluorescence a phophorescent material
fields. does not immediately re-emit the radiation it
• They discharge electrified bodies by ionising the absorbs. The slower time scales of the remission
surrounding air. are associated with “forbidden” energy state
• They can cause photoelectric emission. transitions in quantum mechanics. As these
transitions occur less often in certain materials
• They are produced when a beam of high-energy
absorbed radiation may be re-emitted at a lower
electrons strike a metal target.
intensity for up to several hours.
369 PHYSICS
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PHOSPHORESCENCEAND FLOURESCENCE
1. Phosphorescence has much longer decay period Fluroescence has smaller decay period
(10-4 to 100 s). (10-6 to 10-9 s).
2. Phosphorescence spectrum is not the mirror Fluorescence spectrum is the mirror image
image of the absorption spectrum. of the absorption spectrum.
3. Phosphorescence is the radiation emitted in a Fluorescence is the radiation emitted in a
trasition between states of different multiplicity. transition between states of same multiplicity.
4. Phosphoresence is not observed in solutions at Fluorescence can be observed in solutions at
room temperature. room temperature.
5. Phosphorescence is rarely observed in gases. Fluorescence is exhibited by some elements in
the vapour state, e.g., sodium, iodine and
mercury vapours.



PHYSICS 370
 CHAPTER
UNITS OF PHYSICAL
8 QUANTITIES
SI and Non- SI Units
Quantity SI Units Other Units
1. Distance metre Centimetre, nanometre, mile, inche, feet, fathom, Angstrom, micron,
kilometre, yard, light-year, femtometre, mil, astronmical unit.
2. mass Kilogram gram, centigram, kilogram, milligram, microgram, atomic, mass
unit,carat, ounce, slug, ton, metric ton.
3. time second hour, day, minute, centurie, decade, miuennia, nanosecond,
millisecond, millennium ,century.
4. temperature kelvin degree centigrade, degree Celsius, degree Fahrenheit, degree
Rankine.
5. volume cubic metre millilitre, cubic centimetre, litre, bushel, gallon, cup, pint, quart, peck,
tablespoon, teaspoon, cubic yard, barrel, board foot.
6. density kilogram per gram per millilitre, gram per cubic centimeter gram per litre pound per
cubic meter cubic foot, ounce per gallon.
7. pressure newton per pascal, kilopascal, bar, millibar, dyne/cm2, bayre, torr, milimetre Hg,
square metre centimetre H2o atmosphere (atm), pound per squre inch (PSI).
8. energy joule joule, kilojoule, erg, dyne, Calorie kilocalorie, kilowatthour, British
thermal unit, therm, electron volt.

PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND THEIR UNITS

S.No. Qantities Symbol SI measurement units Symbol Unit Dimensions
1. distance d metre m m
2. mass m kilogram kg kg
3. time t second s s
4. eletric charge* Q coulomb C C
5. tempeature T Kelvin K K
6. amount of substance n mole mol mol
7. Iuminous intensity I candela cd cd
8. acceleration a metre per second square m/s2 m/s2
9. area A square metre m2 m2
10. capacitance C farad F c2.s2/ kg.m2
11. concentration [C] molar M mol/m3

371 PHYSICS
 12. density D kilogram per cubic metre kg/m3 kg/m3
13. electric current I ampere A C/s
14. electric field in tensity E newton per coulomb N/C kg. m/ C.s2
15. electric resistance R ohm W kg.m/C2.s
16. emf x volt V kg.m2/C.s2
17. energy E joule j kg.m2/s2
18. force F newton N kg.m/s2
19. Frequency f hertz Hz s -1
20. heat Q joule J kg.m2/S2
21. illumination E lux(lumen per square metre) Ix cd/m2
22. inductance L henry H kg.m2/C2
23. magnetic flux f weber Wb kg.m2/C.s
24. potential difference V volt V kg.m2/C.s2
25. power P watt W kg.m2/s3
26. pressure p pascal (newton per square metre) Pa kg/m.s2
27. velocity v metre per second m/s m/s
28. Volume V cubic metre m3 m3
29. Work W joule J kg.m2/s2

* The official SI quantity is electrical current, and the base unit is the ampere. Electrical current is the amount
of electrical charge (measured in colombs) per unit of time.



PHYSICS 372