Support and Movement

Tuesday, November 19, 2024 10:36 PM

Support and Movement

• Adaptation in Animals: Animals have physical adaptations to thrive in different habitats. These adaptations enable them to secure food, shelter, and
protection.
• Difference Between Movement and Locomotion:
o Movement: Involves changing the position of body parts.
o Locomotion: Refers to the movement of the entire body, often for activities like food search and avoiding threats.
16.1 Human Skeleton
• Definition: The human skeleton serves as a framework for the body, termed as an endoskeleton. It is composed of bones and cartilage.
• Functions:
o Protects internal organs.
o Facilitates movement through coordination with muscles.
o Supports body shape and mineral storage.
• Osteology: The study of bones.

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• Human Bones Count: Approximately 300 at birth, later fusing to form 206 bones in adulthood.
16.1.1 Structure of Bone
• Composition: Bones are composed of living cells, collagen fibers, and mineralized components (10-20% water content).
• Bone Regions:
o Epiphysis: Terminal ends, consisting of spongy bone and marrow.
o Diaphysis: Shaft of the bone.
o Metaphysis: The region connecting diaphysis and epiphysis.
• Bone Formation Processes: Includes calcification or ossification.
• Bone Types:
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o Compact Bone: Dense and strong.
o Spongy Bone (Cancellous): Contains spaces, lighter, and aids in blood cell production.

 Cortical (Compact) Bone:

• Forms the outer layer of the diaphysis and makes up about 80% of the skeletal structure.
• Composed of dense and strong matrix, which is organized into cylindrical structures called osteons (Haversian systems). These osteons contain a central
canal (Haversian canal) that houses blood vessels and nerves, ensuring nourishment and communication.
 Spongy (Cancellous) Bone:
• Found in the epiphyses and some areas within flat bones.
• Contains trabeculae, a network-like structure that supports and houses red bone marrow, important for the production of blood cells.
➢ Medullary Cavity:
• Located in the diaphysis and contains yellow bone marrow that stores fat.
➢ Periosteum:
• The outer layer of the bone, a fibrous membrane covering that plays a role in nourishment, growth, and repair.
• Rich with blood vessels, nerves, and bone-forming cells (osteoprogenitor cells), supporting bone health and attachment for tendons and ligaments.
 Endosteum:
• A thin membrane lining the inner surface of the bone, including the medullary cavity.
• Contains bone-forming cells and plays a role in bone growth and repair.
 Osteogenic Layer:
• The inner layer of the periosteum and endosteum is highly cellular, containing osteoblasts and osteoclasts.
• Osteoblasts are responsible for bone formation, while osteoclasts break down bone tissue during bone remodeling.
Bone Cells
• Osteoblasts:
Responsible for forming new bone by secreting matrix materials and minerals.

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 o Responsible for forming new bone by secreting matrix materials and minerals.
o Once surrounded by the matrix, they become osteocytes.
• Osteocytes:
o Mature bone cells located in lacunae (small spaces within the bone matrix).
o Maintain and monitor the bone tissue.
• Osteoclasts:
o Large cells responsible for breaking down bone tissue, enabling bone remodeling and mineral release.
16.1.2 Structure of Cartilage
• Definition:
o Cartilage is a flexible connective tissue surrounded by the perichondrium (a layer providing nourishment and structural support).
• Function:
o Provides cushioning at joints, reduces friction, and offers protection from compressive forces.
• Types of Cartilage:
o Hyaline Cartilage: Found in joints, the rib cage, nose, and respiratory structures. It reduces friction and absorbs shock.
o Fibrocartilage: The toughest type, found in intervertebral discs and menisci. It offers strong support and the ability to withstand pressure.
o Elastic Cartilage: The most flexible type, found in structures such as the ear and epiglottis, offering elasticity and shape maintenance.

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Comparison of Bone and Cartilage
Bone
• Strength: Hard and strong, providing structural support.
• Formation: Developed by osteocytes (bone cells).
• Calcification: Undergoes calcification, meaning minerals such as calcium are deposited to harden the bone tissue.
• Covering: Covered by a protective layer called the periosteum.
• Function: Provides protection to internal organs and supports body movements through muscular attachment.
• Water Content: Contains 10-20% water.
• Blood Cells: Bone marrow is involved in the production of blood cells.
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Cartilage
• Strength: Soft and flexible, providing support and cushioning at joints.
• Formation: Formed by chondrocytes (cartilage cells).
• Calcification: Not calcified, making it more flexible compared to bones.
• Covering: Covered by a protective layer called the perichondrium.
• Function: Protects joints and reduces friction during movement.
• Water Content: Contains approximately 80% water, contributing to its cushioning properties.
• Blood Cells: Does not form blood cells.
16.1.3 Division of the Human Skeleton
The human skeleton is divided into two major parts:
1. Axial Skeleton
2. Appendicular Skeleton
Axial Skeleton
• Description: Forms the central axis of the body and includes:
o Skull: Composed of cranial bones that protect the brain and facial bones that form the structure of the face.
▪ Cranial Bones: Include the frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital, ethmoid, and sphenoid bones.
▪ Facial Bones: Protect soft tissues of the face, facilitate breathing, eating, and contribute to facial expressions.
o Vertebral Column (Spine): Protects the spinal cord and supports the head and torso. It consists of:
▪ Cervical Vertebrae (7): Located in the neck.
▪ Thoracic Vertebrae (12): Form the upper back and attach to ribs.
▪ Lumbar Vertebrae (5): Lower back region.
▪ Sacrum (5 fused bones) and Coccyx (4 fused bones): Form the base of the spine.
o Rib Cage (Thoracic Cage): Composed of ribs and the sternum, it protects the heart and lungs and plays a role in respiration.
▪ True Ribs (1-7): Directly connected to the sternum.

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 ▪ True Ribs (1-7): Directly connected to the sternum.
▪ False Ribs (8-10): Connected to the sternum via cartilage.
▪ Floating Ribs (11-12): Not attached to the sternum.

Appendicular Skeleton
• Description: Includes the bones of the limbs and girdles (pectoral and pelvic girdles) that attach the limbs to the axial skeleton. Its primary function is
facilitating movement and supporting the body's interaction with the environment.
• Components:
o Pectoral Girdle: Consists of the clavicle and scapula, attaching the upper limbs to the body.
o Upper Limbs: Includes bones of the arms, wrists, and hands (e.g., humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals, phalanges).
o Pelvic Girdle: Composed of the hip bones (ilium, ischium, and pubis), providing support and attachment for the lower limbs.
o Lower Limbs: Includes bones of the legs, ankles, and feet (e.g., femur, tibia, fibula, tarsals, metatarsals, phalanges).
Auditory Ossicles and Hyoid Bone
• Auditory Ossicles:
o These are the smallest bones in the human body and are responsible for transmitting sound vibrations from the external environment to the inner ear.
o Consists of three paired bones: malleus (hammer), incus (anvil), and stapes (stirrup).
o They play a critical role in hearing by amplifying sound vibrations as they pass through the ear.

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• Hyoid Bone:
o A U-shaped bone located in the neck that does not directly articulate with any other bone in the skeleton.
o It provides support and attachment for muscles associated with the tongue and plays a role in swallowing and speech.
Vertebral Column (Spinal Column)
• Function:
o The vertebral column serves as a central support structure of the body, protects the spinal cord, and is a key structure in providing flexibility and
movement.
o It also plays a significant role in producing blood cells.
• Structure:
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o Composed of 33 vertebrae divided into regions:
▪ Cervical Vertebrae (7): Located in the neck region, these vertebrae provide support and mobility to the head.
▪ Thoracic Vertebrae (12): Each vertebra connects to a rib, forming part of the rib cage.
▪ Lumbar Vertebrae (5): Found in the lower back, these are the largest vertebrae and bear much of the body's weight.
▪ Sacrum (5 fused vertebrae): Forms the back of the pelvis and is fused together.
▪ Coccyx (4 fused vertebrae): Commonly referred to as the tailbone.
• Rib Cage (Thoracic Cage):
o The vertebral column works in conjunction with the rib cage to protect vital organs such as the heart and lungs.
Rib Cage (Thoracic Cage)
• Description:
o The rib cage is composed of 12 pairs of flat, curved ribs that support the thorax and provide protection to the heart, lungs, and other vital organs.
o True Ribs (1-7): These ribs attach directly to the sternum via costal cartilage.
o False Ribs (8-10): These ribs are connected to the sternum indirectly through the cartilage of the seventh rib.
o Floating Ribs (11-12): These ribs do not attach to the sternum at all, providing flexibility and some movement.
Appendicular Skeleton
• Composed of the limbs and girdles, facilitating movement and connecting the limbs to the axial skeleton.
Pectoral Girdle and Forelimbs
• Pectoral Girdle:
o Provides attachment for the upper limbs and comprises two clavicles (collarbones) and two scapulae (shoulder blades).
• Forelimb Bones:
o Includes the humerus (upper arm bone), radius and ulna (forearm bones), and bones of the wrist and hand (carpals, metacarpals, and phalanges).
o Total number of bones: 64 bones in the pectoral girdle and forelimbs.
Pelvic Girdle and Hindlimbs

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• Pelvic Girdle:
o Composed of the hip bones (ilium, ischium, and pubis) fused together to form the innominate bone.
o Provides attachment for the lower limbs and supports body weight.
o The coxal bones (hip bones) form a basin-like structure that supports and protects internal organs, particularly in the reproductive and urinary systems.
o The pubic symphysis is a joint connecting the two halves of the pelvic bone at the anterior side.
• Hindlimb Bones:
o Consist of the femur (thigh bone), tibia and fibula (lower leg bones), and bones of the ankle and foot (tarsals, metatarsals, and phalanges).
o Total number of bones: 62 bones in the pelvic girdle and hindlimbs.
16.1.4 Types of Joints
• Definition: A joint is a functional connection between two or more bones, facilitating movement and providing stability.
• Total Number: There are approximately 360 joints in the human body.
• Classification: Joints are classified based on the type of tissue connecting the bones and the range of movement allowed.
o Major Types:
▪ Fibrous Joints:
▪ Held together by dense connective tissue with a minimal range of movement.
▪ Examples include sutures in the skull and the connection of teeth to jawbones.

Cartilaginous Joints

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• Definition: These joints connect bones using cartilage, either hyaline cartilage or fibrocartilage.
• Characteristics:
o Allow limited movement compared to synovial joints.
o Examples include the intervertebral discs in the spine and the pubic symphysis connecting the two halves of the pelvic girdle.
Synovial Joints
• Description: Most joints in the skeletal system are synovial due to their ability to allow a wide range of movements.
• Structure:
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o Joint Capsule: Encloses the joint and contains a synovial membrane that secretes synovial fluid. This fluid lubricates the joint and reduces friction.
o Synovial Cavity: The space within the joint filled with synovial fluid, allowing smooth movement.
o Articular Cartilage: Covers the ends of the bones within the joint, providing cushioning and reducing friction during movement.
• Types of Synovial Joints:
o Hinge Joint: Allows movement in one plane, such as bending and straightening (e.g., elbow and knee).
o Pivot Joint: Allows rotational movement around a single axis (e.g., neck joint between the atlas and axis vertebrae).
o Ball-and-Socket Joint: Permits movement in multiple directions, including rotation (e.g., shoulder and hip joints).
• Condyloid Joint:
o A modified ball-and-socket joint allowing movement but not as freely as a true ball-and-socket joint.
o Permits movement in two planes (e.g., wrist joint).
• Gliding Joint:
o Also called a plane joint, it allows limited movement as bones slide past one another.
o Examples include joints between the carpals of the wrist and the tarsals of the feet.
• Other Types of Synovial Joints:
o Hinge Joint: Moves in one plane, like a door hinge (e.g., elbow and knee).
o Pivot Joint: Allows rotational movement (e.g., neck).
o Ball-and-Socket Joint: Allows for multi-directional movement and rotation (e.g., shoulder and hip).
o Saddle Joint: Allows angular movements, providing a greater range than a hinge or pivot joint (e.g., thumb joint).
o Ellipsoidal Joint: Permits angular movement along two axes (e.g., wrist joint).
16.2 Disorders of the Skeleton
• Common Disorders:
o Disc-Slip: Occurs when an intervertebral disc is displaced, causing pain and nerve irritation.
Spondylosis: Degenerative changes in the spine, often leading to pain and stiffness.

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 o Spondylosis: Degenerative changes in the spine, often leading to pain and stiffness.
o Sciatica: Pain radiating along the sciatic nerve, typically caused by compression or irritation of spinal nerves.
o Arthritis: Inflammation of the joints, leading to pain, swelling, and reduced mobility.
16.2.1 Common Disorders of the Skeleton
Spondylosis
• Definition: Refers to degenerative changes in the vertebrae, often associated with aging or wear and tear.
• Effects:
o Leads to narrowing of the space between vertebrae, causing nerve compression.
o Commonly affects the neck (cervical spine), lower back (lumbar spine), and middle back (thoracic spine).
• Symptoms:
o Pain, numbness, stiffness, and in severe cases, nerve compression causing more pronounced symptoms.
Sciatica
• Definition: Occurs when the sciatic nerve is compressed or irritated, often resulting from a herniated disc, bone spur, or narrowing of the spine (spinal
stenosis).
• Symptoms:
o Pain radiates from the lower back down the leg along the path of the sciatic nerve.
o May also involve numbness, tingling, or muscle weakness in the affected leg.

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Disc Slip (Herniated or Slipped Disc)
• Description:
o The vertebrae are cushioned by cartilaginous discs that act as shock absorbers and protect the vertebrae during movement.
o When a disc's outer layer ruptures, it can press on nearby nerves, causing pain, numbness, and restricted movement.
• Symptoms:
o Pain in the back and legs, numbness, tingling, or weakness in the affected limb.
Arthritis
• Definition: Involves inflammation of the joints, leading to pain, swelling, and reduced mobility.
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• Types:
o Osteoarthritis (OA): Degenerative joint disease resulting from cartilage wear and tear. Common in weight-bearing joints like knees and hips.
o Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA): An autoimmune disorder causing inflammation of the synovial membrane, leading to joint deformity over time.
o Ankylosing Spondylitis: Affects the spine, causing fusion of the vertebrae and reducing mobility.
• Symptoms:
o Pain, stiffness, swelling, and decreased range of motion.
16.3.1 Muscles and Types
• Smooth Muscles:
o Description: Non-striated muscles found in internal organs (e.g., bladder, blood vessels).
o Function: Involuntary movement, controlled by the autonomic nervous system.
• Cardiac Muscles:
o Description: Found exclusively in the heart, striated in appearance, but involuntary in control.
o Structure: Cells are interconnected by intercalated discs, forming a syncytium for coordinated contractions.
• Skeletal Muscles:
o Description: Attached to the bones, responsible for voluntary movements.
o Structure: Striated, cylindrical cells that work in bundles.
16.3.2 Comparison of Muscle Types
• Smooth Muscles:
o Non-striated, involuntary control, found in organs.
• Cardiac Muscles:
o Striated, involuntary, found in the heart.
• Skeletal Muscles:
o Striated, voluntary, attached to bones.
Muscle Structure

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 Muscle Structure
• Muscle Fibers:
o Composed of bundles surrounded by the perimysium (a protective sheath).
o Fibers contract to produce movement.
Structure of Skeletal Muscle
• Layers of Muscle Tissue:
o Endomysium: A thin layer of connective tissue that surrounds individual muscle fibers.
o Perimysium: Encases bundles of muscle fibers (fascicles).
o Epimysium: Encloses the entire muscle, providing protection and structure.
• Muscle Fibers:
o Composed of myofibrils that contain sarcomeres, the basic units of muscle contraction.
o Each muscle fiber is a long, cylindrical cell with multiple nuclei.
o Sarcomere: Contains actin and myosin filaments, which slide past each other to produce muscle contraction.
The Neuromuscular Junction (NMJ)
• Definition: The synapse or junction between a nerve cell (motor neuron) and a muscle fiber.
• Function:

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o Transmits nerve signals to muscle fibers, initiating contraction.
o Neurotransmitters (e.g., acetylcholine) released from the nerve terminal bind to receptors on the muscle membrane, triggering a muscle response.
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Sarcolemma and Muscle Activation
• Sarcolemma:
o The membrane surrounding a muscle fiber that is highly folded at the motor end plate, allowing effective communication with motor neurons.
o Function: Allows calcium ions to enter the muscle fiber during nerve stimulation, triggering contraction.
• T-tubules (Transverse Tubules):
o Extensions of the sarcolemma that run perpendicular to the muscle fibers, facilitating the spread of electrical signals deep into the muscle fiber.
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Sarcoplasmic Reticulum (SR)
• Description:
o Specialized endoplasmic reticulum of muscle cells that stores and releases calcium ions needed for muscle contraction.
o The SR wraps around myofibrils and works closely with T-tubules to regulate calcium flow during muscle activation.
Muscle Contraction Components
• Myofibrils:
o Long, cylindrical organelles within muscle fibers that contain repeating units called sarcomeres.
• Sarcomeres:
o The structural and functional unit of muscle fibers, containing thick (myosin) and thin (actin) filaments.
o A-band: Contains overlapping thick and thin filaments.
o I-band: Contains only thin filaments.
o Z-line: Marks the boundary between sarcomeres.
Myofibril Structure and Filaments
• Filaments:
o Actin (Thin Filament):
▪ Composed of globular actin molecules forming a helical structure.
▪ Associated with regulatory proteins tropomyosin and troponin, which control the interaction between actin and myosin during muscle contraction.
o Myosin (Thick Filament):
▪ Composed of myosin molecules with a head and tail region.
▪ The myosin heads bind to actin filaments, forming cross-bridges during muscle contraction.
Sarcomere Organization
• Sarcomere:
o The repeating structural unit within a myofibril, responsible for muscle contraction.

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 o Z-line (or Z-disc): The boundary of each sarcomere, anchoring the thin filaments.
o A-band (Anisotropic Band): Contains the entire length of the thick filaments and overlapping regions of thin filaments, appearing darker.
o I-band (Isotropic Band): Contains only thin filaments and appears lighter.
o H-zone: The region in the center of the A-band where only thick filaments are present; it becomes smaller during contraction.
o M-line: The central part of the H-zone, holding thick filaments together.
Actin-Myosin Interaction
• Contraction Mechanism:
o The sliding filament theory describes how actin and myosin filaments slide past each other to shorten the sarcomere, leading to muscle contraction.
o ATP Binding: Myosin heads bind ATP, which is hydrolyzed to provide energy for cross-bridge cycling.
o Calcium Regulation: Released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum, calcium ions bind to troponin, causing a conformational change that allows myosin to
interact with actin.
16.3.4 The Sliding Filament Model of Muscle Contraction
• Theory Overview:
o Proposed by Hugh Huxley and Jean Hanson in 1954, it describes the mechanism by which muscle fibers contract.
o During contraction:
▪ The sarcomere shortens as the actin (thin) filaments slide past the myosin (thick) filaments.
▪ The Z-lines move closer together, reducing the length of the sarcomere.

Cross-Bridge Cycling

1. Calcium Release:

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▪ The A-band remains constant in length, but the I-band and H-zone decrease as actin and myosin filaments overlap.

• Steps of Cross-Bridge Formation and Movement:

▪ Nerve impulses stimulate the release of calcium ions from the sarcoplasmic reticulum, binding to troponin on the actin filament.
▪ This shifts the tropomyosin, exposing binding sites on actin for myosin attachment.
2. Cross-Bridge Formation:
▪ Myosin heads bind to the exposed sites on actin, forming cross-bridges.
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3. Power Stroke:
▪ Energy released from ATP hydrolysis allows myosin heads to pull the actin filaments toward the center of the sarcomere.
▪ This shortens the muscle fiber and produces contraction.
4. Detachment:
▪ A new ATP molecule binds to the myosin head, causing it to detach from actin.
5. Reactivation:
▪ ATP is hydrolyzed, re-cocking the myosin head for another cycle of cross-bridge formation.
Cross-Bridge Cycle of Skeletal Muscle
• Power Stroke:
o After the myosin head attaches to the actin filament, it undergoes a power stroke by pulling the actin filament toward the M-line.
o During this process, ADP and phosphate are released from the myosin head.
o ATP Binding:
▪ A new ATP molecule binds to the myosin head, causing it to detach from actin.
▪ The ATP is hydrolyzed, re-energizing the myosin head and preparing it for another cycle of binding and pulling.
• Cycle Continuation:
o The cross-bridge cycle will continue as long as calcium ions and ATP are present, allowing repetitive binding, pulling, and release of the myosin head.
Muscle Relaxation
• Nerve Impulse Cessation:
o When nerve signals cease, acetylcholine is rapidly degraded in the synapse by the enzyme acetylcholinesterase.
o Calcium Ions are pumped back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum, leading to the detachment of myosin heads from actin.
o Tropomyosin re-covers the binding sites on actin, preventing further cross-bridge formation.
Acetylcholine and Muscle Contraction Control
• Role of Acetylcholine:
This neurotransmitter is released at the neuromuscular junction to initiate muscle contraction.

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 o This neurotransmitter is released at the neuromuscular junction to initiate muscle contraction.
o Acetylcholinesterase enzyme quickly degrades acetylcholine in the synapse to prevent continuous stimulation of muscle fibers.
• Muscle Relaxation:
o Calcium ions are actively pumped back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum to reduce calcium concentration in the cytosol, leading to muscle fiber
relaxation.
16.3.5 The Action of Antagonistic Muscles in the Movement of Joints
• Definition:
o Antagonistic Muscles work in pairs to produce movement. When one muscle contracts (the agonist), the other relaxes (the antagonist).
• Example:
o The biceps and triceps of the upper arm are antagonistic pairs:
▪ Biceps contract to flex the arm, while the triceps relax.
▪ To extend the arm, the triceps contract, and the biceps relax.
• Hamstring Muscles:
o Located at the back of the thigh, responsible for bending the knee and extending the hip.
o Hamstring Strain: Overstretching or overexertion of these muscles can lead to strain, with varying severity.
The Quadriceps Muscle Group
• Description:

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o The quadriceps consist of four muscles located in the anterior (front) part of the thigh.
o These muscles include the rectus femoris, vastus lateralis, vastus medialis, and vastus intermedius.
o Function:
▪ Responsible for extending the knee and playing a key role in movements like kicking, running, jumping, and walking.
16.3.6 Muscle Fatigue
• Definition:
o Occurs when a muscle cannot sustain prolonged activity due to reduced ability to contract.
• Causes:
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o Lack of ATP: Prolonged exercise leads to depletion of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), necessary for muscle contraction.
o Lactic Acid Accumulation: When oxygen supply is insufficient, anaerobic respiration occurs, producing lactic acid and reducing muscle performance.
• Effects:
o Muscle fatigue can cause muscles to become weak, less responsive, or completely stop contracting temporarily.
• Recovery:
o Rest and oxygen intake help remove lactic acid and replenish ATP stores, allowing muscles to return to normal function.
Cramps
• Description:
o A cramp is an involuntary, sudden contraction of a muscle, often causing pain.
o Causes:
▪ Overuse or strain: Excessive exertion without adequate rest.
▪ Dehydration: Loss of electrolytes and fluids through sweating can lead to cramping.
▪ Reduced Blood Supply: Poor circulation may contribute to muscle cramps.
• Treatment:
o Stretching and massaging the muscle, applying warmth, or using cold packs for relief.
16.3.7 Difference Between Tetany and Tetanus
Tetany
• Definition:
o A medical condition characterized by involuntary muscle contractions.
• Causes:
o Disorders that increase the action potential frequency of muscle cells or nerves, resulting in hyperexcitability.
o Often caused by electrolyte imbalances such as low calcium (hypocalcemia), magnesium, or potassium levels.
o Can be due to conditions such as vitamin D deficiency, resulting in poor calcium absorption.
• Symptoms:

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• Symptoms:
o Muscle spasms, cramps, or twitching.
o In severe cases, it can lead to respiratory distress.
• Toxins:
o No toxins are involved.
Tetanus
• Definition:
o An infectious disease affecting the central nervous system.
• Cause:
o Caused by the bacterium Clostridium tetani, which releases a potent neurotoxin.
• Symptoms:
o Continuous muscle spasms (rigidity).
o The neurotoxin affects the nerves controlling muscle contractions.
• Transmission:
o Often occurs due to wounds contaminated with soil or feces containing the bacteria.
• Treatment:

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o Involves the administration of tetanus immunoglobulin and antibiotics.
o Can be prevented through vaccination.
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