Geo-informatics and Digital Surveying Dr. Santhosh L G, Dept. of Civil Engg.

MSRIT

UNIT-1

Geo-informatics: Definition, concepts and applications. Surveying: Definition, Necessity,

uses, Primary divisions and three classifications of surveying. Methods of linear
measurements. Leveling survey: Introduction, Terminology, Objectives, Dumpy level and
Levelling staff, Classifications of levelling survey, Profile survey and cross- sections and its
uses, Numerical problems on calculation of reduced levels using plane of collimation method.
Theodolite survey: Introduction, Terminology, computation of heights and reduced levels
using single & double plane method. Contours: Introduction, terminologies, Characteristics
of contours, and uses.

Geo-informatics:

Geoinformatics can be defined as the science and technology that deals with the earth’s
information, its acquisition, creation, storage, processing, presentation and dissemination of
information.

Geoinformatics is the science and the technology which develops and uses information
science infrastructure to address the problems of Earth sciences such as geography, geodesy,
cartography, photogrammetry, GPS, GIS, and related branches of science and engineering.

Applications of Geo-informatics:

There are wide applications of Geoinformatics in the engineering and non-engineering

domains. Some of the applications are listed below.

Surveying:

According to American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE, 1985), engineering surveying is

defined as those activities involved in the planning and execution of surveys for the location,
design, construction, operation, and maintenance of civil and other engineered projects.

Engineering survey comprises of …..

1. Gather data by photogrammetric or field surveying methods.

2. Calculations to reduce remote sensing & field data to useful quantities.
Geo-informatics and Digital Surveying Dr. Santhosh L G, Dept. of Civil Engg. MSRIT

3. Plot maps, profiles, C/S, or other scaled representation of terrain and of soil, geologic, and
hydrologic conditions.
4. Plan and execute surveys for proper position & align engineered works.
5. Gather data necessary to maintain quality control for positioning & alignment.
6. Obtain measurements required for calculation of material and other quantities
7. Obtain information on the as-built position and alignment of finished constructed works.
8. Gather field data for EIA of proposed projects
9. Gather data on the environmental changes brought about by engineering projects.

“Surveying is the art and science of determining the relative positions of various points or
stations on, above or below the surface of the earth by means of direct and/or indirect
methods to prepare maps and/or plans to any suitable scale for various engineering projects”

Necessity and Uses of Surveying:

The surveying may be used for following purposes:

1. To prepare a topographical map which shows hills, valleys, rivers, forests, villages,
towns etc.
2. To prepare a cadastral map which shows the boundaries of fields, plots, houses and
other properties.
3. To prepare an engineering map which shows the position of engineering works such
as buildings, roads, railways, dams, canals.
4. To prepare a contour map to know the topography of the area to find out the best
possible site for roads, railways, bridges, reservoirs, canals, etc.
5. Surveying is also used to prepare military map, geological map, archaeological map
etc.
6. For setting out work and transferring details from the map to the ground.

Primary divisions of Surveying:

We know that the shape of the earth is spheroidal. Thus the surface is obviously curved.
Surveying is primarily divided into two types considering the curvature of the earth’s surface.

1. Plane Surveying
2. Geodetic Surveying

1. Plain Surveying
The plain surveying is that type of surveying in which earth surface is considered as a
plane and the curvature of the earth is ignored. In such surveying a line joining any two
stations is considered to be straight. The triangle formed by any three points is considered
as a plane triangle, and the angles of the triangle are considered as plain angles.
Surveying is carried out for a small area of less than 250 km2 . It is carried out by local or
state agencies like R & B department, Irrigation department, Railway department.
Geo-informatics and Digital Surveying Dr. Santhosh L G, Dept. of Civil Engg. MSRIT

2. Geodetic Surveying
The geodetic Surveying is that type of surveying in which the curvature of the earth is taken
into account. It is generally extended over larger areas. The line joining any two stations is
considered as curved line. The triangle formed by any three points is considered to be
spherical and the angles of the triangle are considered to be spherical angles. Geodetic
surveying is conducted by the survey of India Department and is carried out for a larger area
exceeding 250 km2.

No. Plain Surveying Geodetic Surveying

1 The earth surface is considered as The earth surface is considered as Curved
plain Surface. Surface.
2. The Curvature of the earth is The curvature of earth is taken into account.
ignored
3 Line joining any two stations is The line joining any two stations is
considered to be straight considered as spherical.
4. The triangle formed by any three The Triangle formed by any three points is
points is considered as plain considered as spherical.
5. The angles of triangle are The angles of the triangle are considered as
considered as plain angles. spherical angles.
6. Carried out for a small area < 250 Carried out for a small area > 250 km2
km2

Classifications of Surveying:

Survey can be classified into various categories.

1. Classification based on the instruments used in surveying

Chain Survey: This is the simplest type of surveying in which only linear measurements are
made with a chain or a tape. Angular measurements are not taken.

Compass Survey: In Compass Survey, the angles are measured with the help of a magnetic
compass.
Geo-informatics and Digital Surveying Dr. Santhosh L G, Dept. of Civil Engg. MSRIT

Chain and compass survey: In this survey linear measurements are made with a chain or a
tape and angular measurements with a compass.

Plane Table Surveying: It is a graphical method of surveying in which field works and
plotting both are done simultaneously.
Geo-informatics and Digital Surveying Dr. Santhosh L G, Dept. of Civil Engg. MSRIT

Theodolite Survey: In theodolite survey the horizontal angles are measured with the
theodolite more precisely than compass and the linear measurements are made with a chain or
tape.

Tachometry Survey: A special type of theodolite known as tachometer is used to determine

horizontal and vertical distances indirectly.

Leveling Survey: This type of survey is used to determine the vertical distances (elevations)
and relative heights of points with the help of an instrument known as level.

Photogrammetric Survey: Photogrammetry is the science of taking measurements with the

help of photographs taken by aerial camera from the air craft.

Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM) Survey: In this type of survey all measurements
(length, angles, co-ordinates) are made with the help of EDM instrument ( i.e.. Total Station).

2. Classification based on the methods used in surveying

Triangulation: Triangulation is basic method of surveying, when the area to be surveyed is

large, triangulation is adopted. The entire area is divided into network of triangles.
Geo-informatics and Digital Surveying Dr. Santhosh L G, Dept. of Civil Engg. MSRIT

Traversing: A Traversing is circuit of survey lines. It may be open or closed. When the
linear measurements are done with a chain and a tape and the directions or horizontal angles
are measured with a compass or a theodolite respectively the survey is called traversing.

Open Traversing Closed Traversing

3. Classification based on the Purpose or objective of surveying

Control surveying: Establishes the horizontal and vertical positions of control points

Topographic survey: Prepares a map or plan of a region, including natural and man-made
features and elevation

Engineering survey: Collects data for the planning, design, and execution of engineering
projects, such as roads, railways, dams, reservoirs, and water supply

Military survey: Determines points of strategic importance to safeguard our nation

Mine survey: Explores the mineral wealth of an area

Geological survey: Determines the various layers of strata in the earth's crust

Archaeological survey: Finds out the location, distribution, and organization of past human
cultures and civilizations

Construction survey: The final survey, where the points and lines are established on the
ground, and the layout plan of the structure is marked on the ground

4. Classification based on the nature of field of surveying

Land surveying: Determines the boundaries and areas of land parcels. Also known as a
property survey, boundary survey, or cadastral survey
Geo-informatics and Digital Surveying Dr. Santhosh L G, Dept. of Civil Engg. MSRIT

Hydrographic survey: Conducted on or near bodies of water, such as lakes, rivers, bays, and
harbors. This Survey consists of locating shore lines of water bodies.

Astronomic survey: Determines latitudes, longitudes, azimuths, local time, and more for
various places on earth by observing heavenly bodies

Aerial survey: Conducted from an aircraft, using aerial cameras to take photographs of the
earth's surface in overlapping strips of land

Methods of linear measurements:

Methods of making linear measurements areas follows

a. Direct methods
b. Optical methods
c. E.D.M methods
d. Approximate methods

a. Direct methods: In the direct method, the distance is actually measured during field
work using a chain or a tape. This is the most commonly used method for linear
measurements.
b. Optical methods: In the optical methods, principles of optics are used. The distance
is not actually measured in field but it is computed indirectly. Ex: Tacheometer,
theodolite.
c. Electronic Distance Measuring (E.D.M) Methods: EDM instruments have been
developed quite recently. These are practically replacing the measurement of
distances using chains or tapes. There is a large variety of such instruments and
depending upon the precision required the instruments should be used. Ex.: Total
station, Handheld distance meter etc
d. Approximate methods: The methods given below may be used in reconnaissance or
for detecting major mistakes in linear measurements obtained with a chain or a tape.
These methods are: pacing, speedometer, pedometer, odometer, passometer, distance
measuring wheel.

Leveling survey

Introduction:

Levelling survey is defined as a branch of surveying which deals with the measurement of
relative heights of different points on, above or below the surface of the earth in the vertical
plane.

Terminology in leveling survey

Geo-informatics and Digital Surveying Dr. Santhosh L G, Dept. of Civil Engg. MSRIT

Level surface:- It is the surface parallel to the mean spheroidal surface of the earth.
Level line:- Line lying on level surface.
Horizontal plane:- Horizontal plane through a point is a plane tangential to level surface.
Horizontal line:- It is a straight line tangential to level line.
Datum:- “It is an arbitrary level surface from which elevation of points may be referred”. In
India mean sea level is considered as datum of zero elevation it is situated at Karachi.
Mean sea level:- is the average height of sea for all stages of tides it is derived by averaging
the hourly tide height over a period of 19 years.
Elevation or Reduced level:- It is height or depth of any point above or below any datum. It
is denoted as R.L.
Bench Mark (B.M.):- It is a fixed reference point of known elevation with respect to
datum.
Line of collimation:- It is a line joining the intersection of cross hairs of diaphragm to the
optical centre of object glass and its continuation. It is also known as line of sight.
Height of instrument:- It is the elevation of line of collimation with respect to datum
Back sight:- It is a staff reading taken at a known elevation. It is the first staff reading taken
after setup of instrument.
Fore sight( F.S.):-It is the last staff reading taken denoting the shifting of the instrument.
Intermediate sight.(I.S.):-It is staff reading taken on a point whose elevation is to be
determined. All staff reading between B.S. and F.S. are Intermediate sight.
Change Point:- It is a point on which both fore and back sight are taken.

Objectives of Levelling survey:

Geo-informatics and Digital Surveying Dr. Santhosh L G, Dept. of Civil Engg. MSRIT

1. Find the elevation of given point with respect to some assumed reference line called
datum.

2. To establish point at required elevation with respect to datum.

Dumpy level and Levelling staff,

Dumpy level is commonly used leveling instrument to locate the points in same horizontal
plane. It is also called as automatic level. Elevations of different points and distance between
the points of same elevation can be determined by dumpy level.

A leveling staff, also known as a leveling rod, is a tool used to measure the height difference
between points or the height of points above a vertical datum.

Temporary Adjustments of a level

These adjustments are performed at every setup of instrument

a) Setting up of level
b) Levelling of telescope
c) Focusing of the eye peace
d) Focusing of object glass

a) Setting up of level:- This includes

• Fixing the instrument on tripod
• Leveling the instrument approximately by Tripod
b) Leveling of telescope:- Leveling Leveling is done with the help of foot screws. The
purpose of leveling is to make vertical axis truly vertical. It is done with the help of
foot screws
• Place the telescope parallel to a pair of foot screw then hold the foot screws
between thumb and first finger and turn them either inward or outward until the
longitudinal bubble comes in the centre.
• Turn the telescope through 900 so that it lies parallel to third foot screw, turn the
screw until the bubble comes in the centre.
c) Focusing of the eye piece:- To focus the eye piece, hold a white paper in front of
object glass, and move the eye piece in or out till the cross hair are distinctly seen.
Geo-informatics and Digital Surveying Dr. Santhosh L G, Dept. of Civil Engg. MSRIT

d) Focusing of the object glass:- Direct the telescope to the levelling staff and on
looking through the telescope, turn the focusing screw till the image appears clear
and sharp.

Classifications of levelling survey:

a) Simple levelling: It is the simplest method used, when it is required to find the
difference in elevation between 2 points.

b) Differential levelling: This method is used to find the difference in the elevation
between points if they are too far apart or the difference in elevation between them is too
much.

c) Fly levelling: Fly levelling is just like differential levelling carried out to check the
accuracy of levelling work. In fly levelling only B.S.and F.S.are taken.
d) Check levelling: This kind of levelling is carried out to check the accuracy of work. It is
done at the end of the day’s work in the form of fly levelling to connect the finishing
point and starting point.
e) Reciprocal levelling: This method is adopted to accurately determine the difference of
level between two points which are far apart. It is also used when it is not possible to set
up level in mid-way between two points or when the points are separated by obstacles
like rivers, ponds, or lakes.
f) Precise levelling: It is used for establishing bench marks for future public use. It is
carried out with high degree of accuracy using advanced instruments
g) Trignometric levelling: In this method vertical distances between points are computed
by observing horizontal distances and vertical angle between points.
h) Barometric levelling: In this method vertical distances between points are computed by
observing horizontal distances and vertical angle between points.
i) Hypersometric levelling: The working of Hyposometry for determining the elevation
depends upon the fact that the temperature at which water boils varies with the
atmospheric pressure. The boiling point of water reduces at higher altitude thus knowing
the boiling point of water, the atmospheric pressure can be calculated and knowing the
atmospheric pressure altitude or elevation can be determined
Geo-informatics and Digital Surveying Dr. Santhosh L G, Dept. of Civil Engg. MSRIT

Profile survey (Longitudinal sectioning) and cross- sections:

The profile survey is used for taking levels along the centre line of any alignment like road,
railway canal etc. The objective is to determine the undulations of the ground surface along
the alignment.

Cross- sectioning is carried out perpendicular to alignment at an interval of 10, 20 ,30, 40

m.The objective is to make an estimate of earthwork across the alignment.

Applications and Uses of Profile survey (Longitudinal sectioning) and cross- sections:

Road construction: Longitudinal sections show the direction of travel and elevation, and can
be used to determine the slope of the road. Cross-sections are used to obtain the lateral
outline of the ground surface.

Drainage systems: Longitudinal and cross-sectional profiles help identify natural flow
patterns and locate points for channeling water.

Utility infrastructure: Longitudinal and cross-sectional surveys can help plan the alignment
of utilities like pipelines and electrical cables.

Land development: Longitudinal and cross-sectional surveys can help with site grading,
building placement, and determining drainage patterns.
Geo-informatics and Digital Surveying Dr. Santhosh L G, Dept. of Civil Engg. MSRIT

Conflict identification: Longitudinal and cross-sectional surveys can help identify potential
conflicts like steep slopes or underground utilities.