11/30/24, 9:42 PM Equation - Wikipedia

Equation
In mathematics, an equation is a mathematical
formula that expresses the equality of two expressions,
by connecting them with the equals sign = .[2][3] The The first use of an equals sign, equivalent to 14x
word equation and its cognates in other languages may + 15 = 71 in modern notation. From The
have subtly different meanings; for example, in French Whetstone of Witte by Robert Recorde of Wales
an équation is defined as containing one or more (1557).[1]
variables, while in English, any well-formed formula
consisting of two expressions related with an equals
sign is an equation.[4]

Solving an equation containing variables consists of determining which values of the variables make
the equality true. The variables for which the equation has to be solved are also called unknowns,
and the values of the unknowns that satisfy the equality are called solutions of the equation. There are
two kinds of equations: identities and conditional equations. An identity is true for all values of the
variables. A conditional equation is only true for particular values of the variables.[5][6]

The "=" symbol, which appears in every equation, was invented in 1557 by Robert Recorde, who
considered that nothing could be more equal than parallel straight lines with the same length.[1]

Description
An equation is written as two expressions, connected by an equals sign ("=").[2] The expressions on
the two sides of the equals sign are called the "left-hand side" and "right-hand side" of the equation.
Very often the right-hand side of an equation is assumed to be zero. This does not reduce the
generality, as this can be realized by subtracting the right-hand side from both sides.

The most common type of equation is a polynomial equation (commonly called also an algebraic
equation) in which the two sides are polynomials. The sides of a polynomial equation contain one or
more terms. For example, the equation

has left-hand side , which has four terms, and right-hand side , consisting of just
one term. The names of the variables suggest that x and y are unknowns, and that A, B, and C are
parameters, but this is normally fixed by the context (in some contexts, y may be a parameter, or A, B,
and C may be ordinary variables).

Cite

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equation 1/12
11/30/24, 9:42 PM Equation - Wikipedia

An equation is analogous to a scale into which weights are placed. When equal weights of something
(e.g., grain) are placed into the two pans, the two weights cause the scale to be in balance and are said
to be equal. If a quantity of grain is removed from one pan of the balance, an equal amount of grain
must be removed from the other pan to keep the scale in balance. More generally, an equation
remains in balance if the same operation is performed on each side.

Properties
Two equations or two systems of equations are equivalent, if they have the same set of solutions. The
following operations transform an equation or a system of equations into an equivalent one –
provided that the operations are meaningful for the expressions they are applied to:

Adding or subtracting the same quantity to both sides of an equation. This shows that every
equation is equivalent to an equation in which the right-hand side is zero.
Multiplying or dividing both sides of an equation by a non-zero quantity.
Applying an identity to transform one side of the equation. For example, expanding a product or
factoring a sum.
For a system: adding to both sides of an equation the corresponding side of another equation,
multiplied by the same quantity.
If some function is applied to both sides of an equation, the resulting equation has the solutions of the
initial equation among its solutions, but may have further solutions called extraneous solutions. For
example, the equation has the solution Raising both sides to the exponent of 2 (which
means applying the function to both sides of the equation) changes the equation to ,
which not only has the previous solution but also introduces the extraneous solution,
Moreover, if the function is not defined at some values (such as 1/x, which is not defined for x = 0),
solutions existing at those values may be lost. Thus, caution must be exercised when applying such a
transformation to an equation.

The above transformations are the basis of most elementary methods for equation solving, as well as
some less elementary ones, like Gaussian elimination.

Examples

Analogous illustration
An equation is analogous to a weighing scale, balance, or seesaw.

Each side of the equation corresponds to one side of the balance. Different quantities can be placed on
each side: if the weights on the two sides are equal, the scale balances, and in analogy, the equality
that represents the balance is also balanced (if not, then the lack of balance corresponds to an
inequality represented by an inequation).

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equation 2/12
11/30/24, 9:42 PM Equation - Wikipedia

In the illustration, x, y and z are all different quantities (in this

case real numbers) represented as circular weights, and each of x,
y, and z has a different weight. Addition corresponds to adding
weight, while subtraction corresponds to removing weight from
what is already there. When equality holds, the total weight on
each side is the same.

Parameters and unknowns

Equations often contain terms other than the unknowns. These
other terms, which are assumed to be known, are usually called
constants, coefficients or parameters.
Illustration of a simple equation; x, y,
z are real numbers, analogous to
An example of an equation involving x and y as unknowns and the
weights.
parameter R is

When R is chosen to have the value of 2 (R = 2), this equation would be recognized in Cartesian
coordinates as the equation for the circle of radius of 2 around the origin. Hence, the equation with R
unspecified is the general equation for the circle.

Usually, the unknowns are denoted by letters at the end of the alphabet, x, y, z, w, ..., while
coefficients (parameters) are denoted by letters at the beginning, a, b, c, d, ... . For example, the
general quadratic equation is usually written ax2 + bx + c = 0.

The process of finding the solutions, or, in case of parameters, expressing the unknowns in terms of
the parameters, is called solving the equation. Such expressions of the solutions in terms of the
parameters are also called solutions.

A system of equations is a set of simultaneous equations, usually in several unknowns for which the
common solutions are sought. Thus, a solution to the system is a set of values for each of the
unknowns, which together form a solution to each equation in the system. For example, the system

has the unique solution x = −1, y = 1.

Identities
An identity is an equation that is true for all possible values of the variable(s) it contains. Many
identities are known in algebra and calculus. In the process of solving an equation, an identity is often
used to simplify an equation, making it more easily solvable.

In algebra, an example of an identity is the difference of two squares:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equation 3/12
11/30/24, 9:42 PM Equation - Wikipedia

which is true for all x and y.

Trigonometry is an area where many identities exist; these are useful in manipulating or solving
trigonometric equations. Two of many that involve the sine and cosine functions are:

and

which are both true for all values of θ.

For example, to solve for the value of θ that satisfies the equation:

where θ is limited to between 0 and 45 degrees, one may use the above identity for the product to
give:

yielding the following solution for θ:

Since the sine function is a periodic function, there are infinitely many solutions if there are no
restrictions on θ. In this example, restricting θ to be between 0 and 45 degrees would restrict the
solution to only one number.

Algebra
Algebra studies two main families of equations: polynomial equations and, among them, the special
case of linear equations. When there is only one variable, polynomial equations have the form
P(x) = 0, where P is a polynomial, and linear equations have the form ax + b = 0, where a and b are
parameters. To solve equations from either family, one uses algorithmic or geometric techniques that
originate from linear algebra or mathematical analysis. Algebra also studies Diophantine equations
where the coefficients and solutions are integers. The techniques used are different and come from
number theory. These equations are difficult in general; one often searches just to find the existence
or absence of a solution, and, if they exist, to count the number of solutions.

Polynomial equations
In general, an algebraic equation or polynomial equation is an equation of the form

, or
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equation 4/12
11/30/24, 9:42 PM Equation - Wikipedia
[a]

where P and Q are polynomials with coefficients in some field

(e.g., rational numbers, real numbers, complex numbers). An
algebraic equation is univariate if it involves only one variable. On
the other hand, a polynomial equation may involve several
variables, in which case it is called multivariate (multiple
variables, x, y, z, etc.).

For example,

The solutions –1 and 2 of the

is a univariate algebraic (polynomial) equation with integer polynomial equation x2 – x + 2 = 0
coefficients and are the points where the graph of
the quadratic function y = x2 – x + 2
cuts the x-axis.

is a multivariate polynomial equation over the rational numbers.

Some polynomial equations with rational coefficients have a solution that is an algebraic expression,
with a finite number of operations involving just those coefficients (i.e., can be solved algebraically).
This can be done for all such equations of degree one, two, three, or four; but equations of degree five
or more cannot always be solved in this way, as the Abel–Ruffini theorem demonstrates.

A large amount of research has been devoted to compute efficiently accurate approximations of the
real or complex solutions of a univariate algebraic equation (see Root finding of polynomials) and of
the common solutions of several multivariate polynomial equations (see System of polynomial
equations).

Systems of linear equations

A system of linear equations (or linear system) is a collection of linear equations involving one or
more variables.[b] For example,

is a system of three equations in the three variables x, y, z. A solution to a linear system is an

assignment of numbers to the variables such that all the equations are simultaneously satisfied. A
solution to the system above is given by

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equation 5/12
11/30/24, 9:42 PM Equation - Wikipedia

since it makes all three equations valid. The word "system"

indicates that the equations are to be considered collectively,
rather than individually.

In mathematics, the theory of linear systems is a fundamental part

of linear algebra, a subject which is used in many parts of modern
mathematics. Computational algorithms for finding the solutions
are an important part of numerical linear algebra, and play a
prominent role in physics, engineering, chemistry, computer
science, and economics. A system of non-linear equations can
often be approximated by a linear system (see linearization), a
helpful technique when making a mathematical model or
computer simulation of a relatively complex system.

The Nine Chapters on the

Geometry Mathematical Art is an anonymous
2nd-century Chinese book
proposing a method of resolution for
linear equations.
Analytic geometry
In Euclidean geometry, it is possible to associate a set of
coordinates to each point in space, for example by an orthogonal
grid. This method allows one to characterize geometric figures by
equations. A plane in three-dimensional space can be expressed as
the solution set of an equation of the form ,
where and are real numbers and are the unknowns
that correspond to the coordinates of a point in the system given
by the orthogonal grid. The values are the coordinates of a
vector perpendicular to the plane defined by the equation. A line is
expressed as the intersection of two planes, that is as the solution The blue and red line is the set of all
points (x,y) such that x+y=5 and -
set of a single linear equation with values in or as the solution
x+2y=4, respectively. Their
set of two linear equations with values in intersection point, (2,3), satisfies
both equations.
A conic section is the intersection of a cone with equation
and a plane. In other words, in space, all conics are
defined as the solution set of an equation of a plane and of the equation of a cone just given. This
formalism allows one to determine the positions and the properties of the focuses of a conic.

The use of equations allows one to call on a large area of mathematics to solve geometric questions.
The Cartesian coordinate system transforms a geometric problem into an analysis problem, once the
figures are transformed into equations; thus the name analytic geometry. This point of view, outlined
by Descartes, enriches and modifies the type of geometry conceived of by the ancient Greek
mathematicians.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equation 6/12
11/30/24, 9:42 PM Equation - Wikipedia

Currently, analytic geometry designates an active branch of mathematics. Although it still uses
equations to characterize figures, it also uses other sophisticated techniques such as functional
analysis and linear algebra.

Cartesian equations
In Cartesian geometry, equations are used to describe geometric
figures. As the equations that are considered, such as implicit
equations or parametric equations, have infinitely many solutions,
the objective is now different: instead of giving the solutions
explicitly or counting them, which is impossible, one uses
equations for studying properties of figures. This is the starting
idea of algebraic geometry, an important area of mathematics.

One can use the same principle to specify the position of any point
in three-dimensional space by the use of three Cartesian
coordinates, which are the signed distances to three mutually
perpendicular planes (or, equivalently, by its perpendicular Cartesian coordinate system with a
projection onto three mutually perpendicular lines). circle of radius 2 centered at the
origin marked in red. The equation
The invention of Cartesian coordinates in the 17th century by René of a circle is (x − a)2 + (y − b)2 = r2
Descartes revolutionized mathematics by providing the first where a and b are the coordinates
systematic link between Euclidean geometry and algebra. Using of the center (a, b) and r is the
the Cartesian coordinate system, geometric shapes (such as radius.
curves) can be described by Cartesian equations: algebraic
equations involving the coordinates of the points lying on the
shape. For example, a circle of radius 2 in a plane, centered on a particular point called the origin,
may be described as the set of all points whose coordinates x and y satisfy the equation x2 + y2 = 4.

Parametric equations
A parametric equation for a curve expresses the coordinates of the points of the curve as functions of a
variable, called a parameter.[7][8] For example,

are parametric equations for the unit circle, where t is the parameter. Together, these equations are
called a parametric representation of the curve.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equation 7/12
11/30/24, 9:42 PM Equation - Wikipedia

The notion of parametric equation has been generalized to surfaces, manifolds and algebraic varieties
of higher dimension, with the number of parameters being equal to the dimension of the manifold or
variety, and the number of equations being equal to the dimension of the space in which the manifold
or variety is considered (for curves the dimension is one and one parameter is used, for surfaces
dimension two and two parameters, etc.).

Number theory

Diophantine equations
A Diophantine equation is a polynomial equation in two or more unknowns for which only the integer
solutions are sought (an integer solution is a solution such that all the unknowns take integer values).
A linear Diophantine equation is an equation between two sums of monomials of degree zero or one.
An example of linear Diophantine equation is ax + by = c where a, b, and c are constants. An
exponential Diophantine equation is one for which exponents of the terms of the equation can be
unknowns.

Diophantine problems have fewer equations than unknown variables and involve finding integers that
work correctly for all equations. In more technical language, they define an algebraic curve, algebraic
surface, or more general object, and ask about the lattice points on it.

The word Diophantine refers to the Hellenistic mathematician of the 3rd century, Diophantus of
Alexandria, who made a study of such equations and was one of the first mathematicians to introduce
symbolism into algebra. The mathematical study of Diophantine problems that Diophantus initiated
is now called Diophantine analysis.

Algebraic and transcendental numbers

An algebraic number is a number that is a solution of a non-zero polynomial equation in one variable
with rational coefficients (or equivalently — by clearing denominators — with integer coefficients).
Numbers such as π that are not algebraic are said to be transcendental. Almost all real and complex
numbers are transcendental.

Algebraic geometry
Algebraic geometry is a branch of mathematics, classically studying solutions of polynomial
equations. Modern algebraic geometry is based on more abstract techniques of abstract algebra,
especially commutative algebra, with the language and the problems of geometry.

The fundamental objects of study in algebraic geometry are algebraic varieties, which are geometric
manifestations of solutions of systems of polynomial equations. Examples of the most studied classes
of algebraic varieties are: plane algebraic curves, which include lines, circles, parabolas, ellipses,
hyperbolas, cubic curves like elliptic curves and quartic curves like lemniscates, and Cassini ovals. A
point of the plane belongs to an algebraic curve if its coordinates satisfy a given polynomial equation.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equation 8/12
11/30/24, 9:42 PM Equation - Wikipedia

Basic questions involve the study of the points of special interest like the singular points, the inflection
points and the points at infinity. More advanced questions involve the topology of the curve and
relations between the curves given by different equations.

Differential equations
A differential equation is a mathematical equation that relates
some function with its derivatives. In applications, the functions
usually represent physical quantities, the derivatives represent
their rates of change, and the equation defines a relationship
between the two. They are solved by finding an expression for the
function that does not involve derivatives. Differential equations
are used to model processes that involve the rates of change of the
variable, and are used in areas such as physics, chemistry, biology,
and economics.
A strange attractor, which arises
In pure mathematics, differential equations are studied from when solving a certain differential
several different perspectives, mostly concerned with their equation
solutions — the set of functions that satisfy the equation. Only the
simplest differential equations are solvable by explicit formulas;
however, some properties of solutions of a given differential equation may be determined without
finding their exact form.

If a self-contained formula for the solution is not available, the solution may be numerically
approximated using computers. The theory of dynamical systems puts emphasis on qualitative
analysis of systems described by differential equations, while many numerical methods have been
developed to determine solutions with a given degree of accuracy.

Ordinary differential equations

An ordinary differential equation or ODE is an equation containing a function of one independent
variable and its derivatives. The term "ordinary" is used in contrast with the term partial differential
equation, which may be with respect to more than one independent variable.

Linear differential equations, which have solutions that can be added and multiplied by coefficients,
are well-defined and understood, and exact closed-form solutions are obtained. By contrast, ODEs
that lack additive solutions are nonlinear, and solving them is far more intricate, as one can rarely
represent them by elementary functions in closed form: Instead, exact and analytic solutions of ODEs
are in series or integral form. Graphical and numerical methods, applied by hand or by computer, may
approximate solutions of ODEs and perhaps yield useful information, often sufficing in the absence of
exact, analytic solutions.

Partial differential equations

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equation 9/12
11/30/24, 9:42 PM Equation - Wikipedia

A partial differential equation (PDE) is a differential equation that contains unknown multivariable
functions and their partial derivatives. (This is in contrast to ordinary differential equations, which
deal with functions of a single variable and their derivatives.) PDEs are used to formulate problems
involving functions of several variables, and are either solved by hand, or used to create a relevant
computer model.

PDEs can be used to describe a wide variety of phenomena such as sound, heat, electrostatics,
electrodynamics, fluid flow, elasticity, or quantum mechanics. These seemingly distinct physical
phenomena can be formalised similarly in terms of PDEs. Just as ordinary differential equations often
model one-dimensional dynamical systems, partial differential equations often model
multidimensional systems. PDEs find their generalisation in stochastic partial differential equations.

Types of equations
Equations can be classified according to the types of operations and quantities involved. Important
types include:

An algebraic equation or polynomial equation is an equation in which both sides are polynomials
(see also system of polynomial equations). These are further classified by degree:
linear equation for degree one
quadratic equation for degree two
cubic equation for degree three
quartic equation for degree four
quintic equation for degree five
sextic equation for degree six
septic equation for degree seven
octic equation for degree eight
A Diophantine equation is an equation where the unknowns are required to be integers
A transcendental equation is an equation involving a transcendental function of its unknowns
A parametric equation is an equation in which the solutions for the variables are expressed as
functions of some other variables, called parameters appearing in the equations
A functional equation is an equation in which the unknowns are functions rather than simple
quantities
Equations involving derivatives, integrals and finite differences:
A differential equation is a functional equation involving derivatives of the unknown functions,
where the function and its derivatives are evaluated at the same point, such as .
Differential equations are subdivided into ordinary differential equations for functions of a
single variable and partial differential equations for functions of multiple variables
An integral equation is a functional equation involving the antiderivatives of the unknown
functions. For functions of one variable, such an equation differs from a differential equation
primarily through a change of variable substituting the function by its derivative, however this is
not the case when the integral is taken over an open surface
An integro-differential equation is a functional equation involving both the derivatives and the
antiderivatives of the unknown functions. For functions of one variable, such an equation
differs from integral and differential equations through a similar change of variable.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equation 10/12
11/30/24, 9:42 PM Equation - Wikipedia

A functional differential equation of delay differential equation is a function equation involving

derivatives of the unknown functions, evaluated at multiple points, such as
A difference equation is an equation where the unknown is a function f that occurs in the
equation through f(x), f(x−1), ..., f(x−k), for some whole integer k called the order of the
equation. If x is restricted to be an integer, a difference equation is the same as a recurrence
relation
A stochastic differential equation is a differential equation in which one or more of the terms is
a stochastic process

See also
Formula
History of algebra
Indeterminate equation
List of equations
List of scientific equations named after people
Term (logic)
Theory of equations
Cancelling out

Notes
a. As such an equation can be rewritten P – Q = 0, many authors do not consider this case
explicitly.
b. The subject of this article is basic in mathematics, and is treated in a lot of textbooks. Among
them, Lay 2005, Meyer 2001, and Strang 2005 contain the material of this article.

References
1. Recorde, Robert, The Whetstone of Witte ... (London, England: Jhon Kyngstone, 1557), the third
page of the chapter "The rule of equation, commonly called Algebers Rule." (https://archive.org/str
eam/TheWhetstoneOfWitte#page/n237/mode/2up)
2. "Equation - Math Open Reference" (https://www.mathopenref.com/equation.html).
www.mathopenref.com. Retrieved 2020-09-01.
3. "Equations and Formulas" (https://www.mathsisfun.com/algebra/equation-formula.html).
www.mathsisfun.com. Retrieved 2020-09-01.
4. Marcus, Solomon; Watt, Stephen M. "What is an Equation?" (https://www.academia.edu/328767
4). Retrieved 2019-02-27.
5. Lachaud, Gilles. "Équation, mathématique" (http://www.universalis.fr/encyclopedie/NT01240/EQU
ATION_mathematique.htm). Encyclopædia Universalis (in French).
6. "A statement of equality between two expressions. Equations are of two types, identities and
conditional equations (or usually simply "equations")". « Equation », in Mathematics Dictionary,
Glenn James et Robert C. James (éd.), Van Nostrand, 1968, 3 ed. 1st ed. 1948, p. 131.
7. Thomas, George B., and Finney, Ross L., Calculus and Analytic Geometry, Addison Wesley
Publishing Co., fifth edition, 1979, p. 91.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equation 11/12
11/30/24, 9:42 PM Equation - Wikipedia

8. Weisstein, Eric W. "Parametric Equations." From MathWorld--A Wolfram Web Resource.

http://mathworld.wolfram.com/ParametricEquations.html

External links
Winplot (https://web.archive.org/web/20090816161008/http://math.exeter.edu/rparris/winplot.html):
General Purpose plotter that can draw and animate 2D and 3D mathematical equations.
Equation plotter (http://www.cs.cornell.edu/w8/~andru/relplot): A web page for producing and
downloading pdf or postscript plots of the solution sets to equations and inequations in two
variables (x and y).

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Equation&oldid=1256367404"

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equation 12/12