Computer Architecture Unit 1

191ITC403T - COMPUTER
ARCHITECTURE
Semester : IV Academic Year: 20-21(EVEN)
Faculty In-charge: Mrs.Chandra, AP/IT
COURSE OBJECTIVES:
⚫ To make students understand the basic
structure and operation of digital
computer
⚫ To familiarize with implementation of
fixed point and floating-point arithmetic
operations
⚫ To study the design of data path unit and
control unit for processor
⚫ To understand the concept of various
memories and interfacing
⚫ To introduce the parallel processing
technique
COMPUTER
ORGANIZATION AND
ARCHITECTURE
⚫ Computer Organization and Architecture
is the study of internal working,
structuring and implementation of a
computer system.
COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE
⚫ A set of rules and methods that describe
the functionality, organization and
implementation of computer systems.
⚫ Capabilities and Programming model of a
computer.
UNIT I
BASIC STRUCTURE OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM
⚫ Basics of a computer system
⚫ Evolution Ideas
⚫ Functional Units, Basic Operational Concepts
⚫ Technology, Performance
⚫ Power wall
⚫ Uniprocessors to Multiprocessors
⚫ Instructions: Operations and Operands,
Representing instructions
⚫ Logical operations & control operations
⚫ Addressing and addressing modes
•Inputtin
g Data
•Processi Basic Functions
ng Data of a computer :
•Outputt
ing Data
•Storing
Basics of a computer system
Data
5 Key components of
Computer
INPUT
OUTPUT
MEMORY
DATAPATH
PROCESS
CONTROL
OR
showing the five classic
components.
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Hardware Vs Software
Components
Applicati
on
Software
System
Softwar
e
Hardware
Hardware Component
INPUT UNIT : Devices to
provide information to the
computer. Captures
information and translates it
into a form that can be
processed
OUTPUT by CPU.
UNIT: Take
Machine coded output results
from the CPU and convert
them into a form that is
readable
CPU: Brain of the computer
system that converts
data(input) into meaningful
information(Output)
•CPU
•ALU
CPU •MEMORY UNIT
•CONTROL UNIT
•ALU
•Executes all arithmetic and logical operations
•MEMORY
•Internal Memory(Primary)- (RAM,ROM)
•External Memory(Secondary)- (Pen drive, CD,
Ex.Hd)
•Cache Memory – Faster Memory b/w RAM and
CPU
•CONTROL UNIT
•Supervises & control the path of information that runs over the
processor- (Organize activities)
EIGHT GREAT IDEAS IN CA
Great ideas that computer

architects have invented in
the last 60 years of computer
design
1. Design for Moore's Law
⚫ Rapid change in technological growth
⚫ Integrated circuit resources double every
year.
⚫ As computer designs can take years, the
resources available per chip can easily
double or quadruple between the start and
finish of the project
⚫ Computer architects must anticipate where
the technology will be when the design
finishes rather than design for where it
starts
2. Use Abstraction to Simplify
Design
⚫ Abstraction uses multiple levels with each
level hiding the details of levels below it.
⚫ A major productivity technique for
hardware and software is to use
abstractions to represent the design at
different levels of representation;
lower-level details are hidden to offer a
simpler model at higher levels.
3. Make the common case fast
⚫ Making the common case fast will tend to
enhance performance better than
optimizing the rare case.
⚫ The most significant improvements in
computer performance come from
improvements to the common case — areas
where the current design is spending the
most time.
4. Performance via parallelism
⚫ Computer architects have offered designs
that get more performance by performing
operations in parallel.
⚫ Doing different parts of a task in parallel
accomplishes the task in less time than
doing them sequentially. A processor
engages in several activities in the
execution of an instruction. It runs faster if
it can do these activities in parallel.
5. Performance via pipelining
⚫ Extension of the idea of parallelism.
⚫ As soon as the first activity of an
instruction is done you move it to the
second activity and start the first activity of
a new instruction. This results in executing
more instructions per unit time compared
to waiting for all activities of the first
instruction to complete before starting the
second instruction.
6. Performance via prediction
⚫ To guess and start working rather than
wait until you know for sure.
⚫ Make an informed guess about the
outcome of the condition test and start
executing the indicated instruction
7. Hierarchy of memories
⚫ Programmers want memory to be fast,
large, and cheap.
⚫ Architects have found that they can address
these conflicting demands with a hierarchy
of memories, with the fastest, smallest,
and most expensive memory per bit at the
top of the hierarchy and the slowest,
largest, and cheapest per bit at the bottom.
8. Dependability via
redundancy
⚫ Computers not only need to be fast; they
need to be dependable. Since any physical
device can fail, we make systems
dependable by including redundant
components that can take over when a
failure occurs and to help detect failures.
Technologies for Building
Processors
and Memory
•Design must be planned based on the
future technological changes
•Mustbe aware of rapid changes in

implementation of technology
IC Technology
⚫ Relative performance per unit cost of
various technologies used in computers over
time.
⚫ Transistor density increases 35% per year.

DRAM Dynamic RAM
Other Technologies influencing
the design
⚫ Magnetic Disc Technology
⚫ Network Technology
⚫ LAN (Ethernet)
⚫ WAN (Internet)
⚫ MAN (Internet)
⚫ Wireless N/W (WiFi, Bluetooth)
All these technologies improves

continuously and influence the
architectural design
PERFORMANCE
Performance
⚫ The prime factors of the success of a
computer are the SPEED AND COST.
⚫ How fast machine instructions can be
brought into the processor for execution
and how fast they can be executed.
⚫ Performance is dependent on
⚫ How fast work done (Design of the
compiler)
⚫ How much work done (ISA and Hardware)
TERMINOLOGIES
To maximize performance, we need to
minimize response time or execution
time
⚫ Thus for a Computer x,
⚫ Performance = 1 / Execution time
x X
⚫ Relative Performance: Relating the

performance of two different computers
quantitatively. X is n times faster than Y
⚫ PerformanceX / PerformanceY= n
⚫ If X is n times as fast as Y then the
execution time on Y is n times as long as it
is on X:
Performance A/ Performance B
= Execution Time B
/ Execution Time A
Performance Ratio is 25/20 = 1.25
So A is 1.25 times as fast as B

Measuring Performance
⚫ CPU execution time : Also called CPU
time -- The actual time the CPU spends
computing for a specific task.
⚫ User CPU time :The CPU time spent in a

program itself.
⚫ System CPU time: The CPU time spent in
the operating system performing tasks on
behalf of the program.
⚫ CLOCK : computers are constructed using
a clock that determines when events take
place in the hardware.
⚫ These discrete time intervals are called
Terminologies
⚫ Clock Cycle :The time for one clock period
⚫ Clock Period : The length of each clock
cycle.
⚫ Simply : The time between two clock
ticks.
⚫ Clock Rate : Inverse of Clock Period
(1/Clock Cycle)
⚫ CPU Performance and Its Factors
⚫ Performance can be improved by reducing

Instruction Performance
⚫ The execution time must depend on the
number of instructions in a program.
⚫ Number of clock cycles required for a
program can be written as
CP
⚫ CPI – CLOCK CYCLES PER INSTRUCTION I
⚫ The average number of clock cycles each
instructions takes to execute.
Basic Performance Equation
Using the Performance Equation
–EXAMPLE 1
⚫ Computer A has a clock cycle time of 250
ps and a CPI of 2.0 for some program, and
computer B has a clock cycle time of 500
ps and a CPI of 1.2 for the same program.
Which computer is faster for this
program and by how much?
⚫ SOLUTION
⚫ Let the no.of instructions for the program
be I
•CPU TIME OF EACH COMPUTER
Example 2
⚫ A Program runs in 10 seconds on
computer A, which has a 2 GHz clock. We
are trying to help a computer designer
build a computer, B, which will run this
program in 6 seconds. The designer has
determined that a substantial increase in
the clock rate is possible, but this increase
will affect the rest of the CPU design,
causing computer B to require 1.2 times as
many clock cycles as computer A for this
program. What clock rate should we tell
the designer to target?
First find the number of clock
cycles required for the program on
A:
CPU TIME A =
10Secs
Clok Rate A = 2
GHzc
CPU time for B can be found using
this equation:
CPU TIME B = 6
Secs
To run the program in 6 seconds, B

must have twice the clock rate of A.
Example 2
⚫ A Compiler designer is trying to decide
between two code sequences for a particular
computer. The hardware designer have
supplied the following facts.
⚫ For a particular high level language statement,

the compiler writer is considering two code
sequences that require the following
instruction counts:
Questions:
1. Which code sequence execute faster?
2. Which executes most instructions?
3. What is the CPI for each sequence?
Solution (for Q2)
Sequence 1 executes 2 + 1 + 2 = 5
Instructions
Sequence 2 executes 4 + 1 + 1 = 6
Instructions
Refer
So sequence 1 executes fewer instructions.
Instructio
n Count
Table
Solution (for Q1)
⚫ We can use the following equation for
CPU clock cycle
⚫ So Code sequence 2 is faster even it

executes 1 extra instruction
Solution (for Q3)
⚫ Since Code sequence 2 takes fewer clock
cycles but has more instructions , it must
have lower CPI. The values can be
computed by
Performance of a Program
The Power Wall
The Power Wall
⚫ Processors running at a high clock speed
generates more heat and consumes high
power
⚫ If clock rate increases -🡪 Power
consumption increases.
⚫ The dominant technology for integrated
circuits is called CMOS (complementary
metal oxide semiconductor). For CMOS,
the primary source of energy consumption
is so-called dynamic energy—that is,
energy that is consumed when transistors
switch states from 0 to 1 and vice versa.
⚫ The dynamic energy depends on the
Energy & Power
⚫ Energy is proportional to load and voltage
⚫ This equation is the energy of a pulse

during the logic transition of 0 → 1 → 0 or 1
→ 0 → 1. The energy of a single transition is
then
⚫ The power required per transistor is just

the product of energy of a transition and
the frequency of transitions:
UNIPROCESSORS TO
MULTIPROCESSORS
Multi Core
Architecture
UNIPROCESSORS TO
MULTIPROCESSORS
⚫ Rather than continuing to decrease the
response time of a single program on a
single processor, Companies manufactured
microprocessors with multiple processors
per chip, where the benefit is often more
on throughput than on response time.
⚫ Multi core processors(Dual core, Quad
core)
Multi Processor
Multi Processor
Multi Processor
⚫ Computers that contain several processing
units.
⚫ Execute a no,of different application tasks
in parallel.
⚫ All processors have access to all memory
locations.
⚫ If fault occurs in one processor, the other
processor take the responsibility of

performing the task of failure processor.

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191ITC403T - COMPUTER

CPU •MEMORY UNIT

Great ideas that computer

•Mustbe aware of rapid changes in

⚫ Transistor density increases 35% per year.

All these technologies improves

⚫ Relative Performance: Relating the

Performance Ratio is 25/20 = 1.25

So A is 1.25 times as fast as B

⚫ User CPU time :The CPU time spent in a

⚫ Performance can be improved by reducing

To run the program in 6 seconds, B

⚫ For a particular high level language statement,

⚫ So Code sequence 2 is faster even it

⚫ This equation is the energy of a pulse

⚫ The power required per transistor is just

⚫ Execute a no,of diﬀerent application tasks

⚫ All processors have access to all memory

⚫ If fault occurs in one processor, the other

processor take the responsibility of

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