Application Note

Time Domain Measurements

Using Vector Network Analyzers
MS4640A
VectorStar™ VNA

Introduction
Vector Network Analyzers (VNAs) are very powerful and flexible measuring instruments. Their basic capability is
to measure the S-parameters of an RF or microwave device and display the result in the frequency domain. This
provides valuable data for the design engineer to develop a design and for the production engineer to substantiate
the performance of the device or system. In addition to displaying performance in the frequency domain, Anritsu
VNAs offer a Time Domain option to enhance the analysis capability by presenting data in the time (or distance)
domain–valuable information for both the design and production engineer. Figure 1 provides the time and
frequency response of a microstrip circuit as measured by the MS4640A VNA.
Note that port 2 of the DUT is left open and consequently the frequency plot of the device provides little
information about the performance of the device. The benefit of the Time Domain response is in providing
information of the device performance at specific locations. As a result, the VNA provides the overall S-parameter
critical performance information for the device both as it appears when installed in a system and also at a specific
location within the device.
 Microstrip
Coax Coax

Figure 1. Time and Frequency Response of a Microstrip Circuit

Time Domain Fundamentals

The Fourier transform has been used in many technologies and in microwave measurements, provides a method
for transforming frequency domain data, which is the VNA’s basic capability, into the time domain. Microprocessors
are fundamental to modern VNAs by providing an efficient method of computing error correction terms. In addition,
microprocessing also permits convenient implementation of the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) for additional
advanced analysis.
Specifically, a variation of inverse FFT is used to transform from the frequency domain to the time domain. This
permits the user to “zoom in” on a specific time (distance) range of interest for the data display. This application
note addresses the properties of the transform process and shows how the various processing options are used to
obtain optimum results for a given application. It will not address the algorithmic details of the FFT.
A convenient starting point is to consider the transform of frequency domain data obtained from the measurement
of a short at the end of an airline as shown in Figures 2a and 2b. It is apparent that the time domain response is
informative; but it is far from the ideal time domain response that is superimposed. This figure illustrates two of the
fundamental properties (limitations) associated with the FFT: resolution and alias free range. Resolution is limited
by the bandwidth of the measurement while aliasing is determined by the frequency step size.

2
Figure 2a

Figure 2b

3
The principal property of interest in time domain processing for most microwave applications is resolution; or the
ability to resolve one location from another. In practice, the basic limitation is inversely related to data collection
bandwidth in the frequency domain. A rule of thumb defines resolution on the order of 150 mm divided by
Frequency Span (GHz) in air. For example, a 20 GHz frequency span will provide a resolution of about 8 mm
while a span of 70 GHz will provide a resolution of about 2 mm. So the broader the frequency span, the more
information presented during the time domain analysis. Figure 3 illustrates the importance of a wide frequency
sweep if the application calls for identifying closely spaced reflections. Note that even though the DUT may not
be required to perform up to 70 GHz, as long as the DUT doesn’t completely fall apart out of band, the design
engineer can still benefit from the 70 GHz span due to the increased resolution provided by the wide frequency
range. A limitation to the frequency span rule is when measuring devices with limited bandwidth. Ideally, the device
will pass the DC component, and as a result, the performance at higher frequencies will result in a gradual roll-off.
If the DUT does not pass the DC component such as band pass or high pass filter, then resolution will degrade.

TWO MISMATCHES SEPARATED

By 2 mm (AIR)
SPAN RESOLUTION
1) 40 GHz 3.75 mm
2) 50 GHz 3.0 mm
3) 60 GHz 2.5 mm

Figure 3. Wide bandwidth provides improved discontinuity resolution

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Resolution is also influenced by the processing method and window selection options that are described below.
Another important factor is the relative amplitude of the signals being processed. A large signal can swamp a
smaller signal–where the greater the time (distance) separation between the two discontinuities the better the
points of interest can be resolved.
Figure 4 represents a time domain plot of a device with two discontinuities separated by 4.8 mm. The
discontinuities are located at marker 3 and the display is taken from a VNA whose maximum bandwidth is 26.5
GHz. Low pass processing, the highest resolution mode possible, is used. Note that the 26.5 GHz frequency span
is unable to resolve the two discontinuities.
Figure 5 provides a low pass plot of the same device but with a VNA capable of covering a 65 GHz frequency
span. Markers 2 and 4 on the 65 GHz display are at the same location as in the 26.5 GHz plot. Note the
additional amount of information available from the wider bandwidth. Also note the difference in return loss value
when compared to a narrow band sweep. This points out that for maximum resolution and accuracy, the widest
frequency span available is best for optimum time domain analysis, especially when resolving two discontinuities
in close proximity.

Figure 4. Low pass time domain plot of two discontinuities 4.8mm apart located at marker 3.
VNA has an upper bandwidth limitation of 26.5 GHz

Figure 5. Same device measured with 65 GHz bandwidth. Second

discontinuity now visible at marker 6. Note difference in return loss
values.

5
Another property of the transform process is the Alias Free Range. The transform is a circular function and repeats
itself outside of its inherent range of 1 divided by the Step Size (1/2x Step Size). The more data points available,
the smaller the step size and the longer the time frame before the data starts to repeat. For example, with a
20 GHz frequency sweep and 401 data point collection, the Alias Free Range is:
1/2x 50 MHz = 10 nanoseconds
With the capability of providing 100,000 data points in a single channel sweep, the MS4640A can provide an
Alias Free Range of:
1/2x 200 kHz = 2.5 µsec
Long range capability is especially valuable when analyzing long transmission cables such as optical cables or
transmission lines with a high dielectric coefficient.

Processing Alternatives:
The Time Domain option offers a number of processing alternatives to the user. It is important that the user be
aware of the feature set available as selection can have a significant effect on the end result.
These tools include:
• Processing Method – Lowpass or Bandpass.
• Response – Step or Impulse for Lowpass mode and Impulse or Phasor Impulse for Bandpass mode
• Window Shape – Rectangular, Nominal, Low Sidelobe, Min Sidelobe
• Gating – Frequency with Time Gate

Lowpass
This is the most powerful processing technique. It does require a special frequency plan consisting of:
a harmonically–related set of frequencies that starts at the lowest frequency possible. Impulse or step response is
available when using the lowpass mode. The step response provides a Time Domain Reflectometry-like display
by integrating the impulse response. However, in order to provide a phase reference, a DC component must
be included. Since VNAs cannot get all the way to DC, some additional information is needed to perform this
integration. To see this, consider:

ImpulseResponse = ℑ−1 {X(DC)+X(sweepRange)}

≈ A⋅X(DC)+ ℑ−1{X(sweepRange)}
t

StepResponse = ∫ [A⋅X(DC)+ℑ−1{X(sweepRange)}]dt
0

A DC term is extrapolated thereby providing a reference so that the true nature of a discontinuity can be seen.
The lower the start frequency, the more accurate the DC extrapolation calculation. With a start frequency of
70 kHz, the MS4640A offers the lowest available DC extrapolation point thereby minimizing the DC error. If
additional information is available regarding the test environment, such as characterization of transmission cables,
the DC term can be entered manually.
As mentioned above, lowpass offers two presentations: Step or Impulse response. The Step response permits
the direct display of impedance versus time or distance similar to that obtained with a TDR. The Step response
display is the integral of the Impulse response. The user can also obtain insight into the nature of a discontinuity:
inductive, capacitive or resistive. Figure 6 shows ideal responses associated with various types of discontinuities.
The default display graph type is real and shows impedance information (A scale of 20 mU per division is
about 2 ohms per division). The user can choose Log Mag or a linear display format. Lowpass processing also
offers the highest resolution for a given bandwidth and provides twice the resolution of Bandpass mode. If the
instrumentation, transmission line, and DUT permit Lowpass processing, it should be used.

6
 Figure 6 Ideal responses associated with various types of discontinuities

Figure 7 shows a practical application of Lowpass Time Domain processing. An SMA line standard was
constructed using solid Teflon® and precision connector interfaces, the response clearly shows the quality of
the SMA “standard” that was used to evaluate SMA calibration performance. When considering time domain
display, the most common method of display is in linear mode. So the display of Figure 7 is in terms of Reflection
Coefficient, or Rho. One of the primary reasons for displaying the response in linear units is the ability to display
the reactance component and better resolution of highly reflective devices. The standard line has a reflection
coefficient of -2.679 mU or 51 dB (-20 log p) or an impedance of 49.73 ohms (R=Zo/VSWR).

Figure 7. Practical application of Lowpass Time Domain processing

Teflon is a registered trademark of the Dupont Company

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Bandpass
Many situations such as waveguide or band limited DUTs preclude using a broadband harmonically related
frequency plan. For these cases Bandpass processing should be used. In this situation, where there is a lack of a
DC component, there is no phase reference so vector information is lost. However, useful magnitude information
is still available and can be displayed in either log magnitude or linear form. Figure 8 shows the Bandpass
response of the SMA “standard” that was used in Figure 7. This type of processing is common in fault location that
can be used to test transmission lines. Figure 9 shows an example of this application: measuring a 2 m cable with
imperfections.

Figure 8. The Bandpass response of a SMA ‘Standard’

Figure 9. Measuring a 2m cable with imperfections

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Phasor Impulse
This technique, exclusive to Anritsu VNAs, enables the user to extract impedance information for a specific
discontinuity from a bandpass display. The discontinuity of interest is positioned in the center of the screen and
should fill about 50% of the time range being displayed. When the Phasor Impulse processing is applied, the
resulting display, usually Real, Imaginary, or Linear Polar, provides the desired impedance information.
Figure 10 shows the shunt capacitance associated with a waveguide iris.

Figure 10. Normal Bandpass display and the Phasor Impulse display of waveguide

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Figure 11 is a summary of the processing types. As noted, Lowpass processing should be used whenever
possible as it offers the highest performance and most versatile set of displays.

Figure 11. Summary of processing types

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Windows
Windows are used to “condition” data prior to transformation. They are used to get around the Fourier transforms
basic, but impractical, – to + form and they are used to mitigate edge effects associated with a finite data set. The
application of what is called a “window” function to the frequency domain data will accomplish this. The window
is a curve derived from a mathematical function (many are available–see reference 4) that tapers off from unity
gain at the center of the frequency domain data to a low value at the ends. Figures 12a and 12b show the effect
of applying the widely used two-term Hamming window to the data array obtained by measuring the short circuit
shown earlier. The resulting time domain displays are shown in 13a and 13b. This is not without a price, since the
window has the effect of widening the main lobe, thus decreasing the effective resolution. For this reason, it is
good to have a range of different window types available so that multiple views between resolution and sidelobe
effects, appropriate for the application, can be used. The Anritsu VNAs offer the window choices described in
Table 1. Figure 14 provides a display of window effects on main and side lobes. Resolution has been normalized
to the Default Nominal window that is adequate for most applications.

Figure 12a. Frequency domain data before application of Hamming Window

Figure 12b. Frequency domain data after application of Hamming Window

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 Figure 13a. Time domain data before application of Hamming Window

Figure 13b. Time domain data after application of Hamming Window

Window Type Main Lobe Width Lowpass Main Lobe Width Bandpass Sidelobe Level (dB)
Rectangular 0.5/BW 1/BW -13
Nominal 1/BW 2/BW -42
Low sidelobe 1.5/BW 3/BW -70
Min sidelobe 2/BW 4/BW -90

Table 1

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 Lowpass time domain window effects

-10

-20

-30 rectangular
nominal
dB

-40
low sidelobe
-50 min sidelobe

-60

-70

-80
50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150
Time (ps)
Figure 14. Window effects on main and side lobes.

In addition to the standard selection of window shapes, advance parameters unique to the MS4640A VNA are
now available. The advanced control is available using the new selections, Kaiser-Bessel and Dolph-Chebyshev.
Figure 15 provides an example of control possibilities using these choices. These two new window types allow for
a finer selection of the trade-off between side lobe level and resolution. For the Kaiser-Bessel window, a larger
Beta value leads to lower side lobes, and a wider main lobe width. For the Dolph-Chebysev window, the side
lobe level is parameterized explicitly (in absolute dB) and a larger value leads to lower side lobes. The window
for two parameter values for each of these windows is shown in Figure 15 along with the rectangular window for
comparison.

Lowpass time domain window effects

-10

-20

-30 rectangular
kaiser beta=6
dB

-40 kaiser beta=10

dolph SL=40
-50 dolph SL=80

-60

-70

-80
50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150
Time (ps)
Figure 15. Advanced Time Domain controls on main and side lobe display.

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The approximate relationship between these parameters and the main lobe width (null-to-null) is suggested in
Figure 16. Here, everything is scaled relative to a rectangular window (a nominal window is at 2, a low side-lobe
window is at 3, and a minimum side-lobe window is at 4 on this scale) and the y-axis is normalized relative to the
lobe width of a rectangular window.

Main lobe width vs. advanced window parameters

6 Kaiser-Bessel
Relative main lobe width
Dolph-Chebyshev
5

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Beta (unitless) or sidelobe level (dB)

Figure 16. Relative relationship of main lobe between

Kaiser-Bessel and Dolph-Chebyshev parameters.

Gating – Frequency Gated by Time

The Gate is essentially a filter in the time domain. It is set by the operator while observing the time domain
response to select a given discontinuity or in some cases to select those responses that can be attributed to
a given DUT, such as a cable that has principal reflections at both ends. It can also be used to Gate out a specific
discontinuity, such as a test fixture, thus observing the performance of a microwave circuit with an imperfection
removed. This permits observing the selected range without the influence of unwanted elements, such as
connectors or in the case of transmission measurements: multi-path signals. The Gating process also involves
selecting a gate shape. This is similar, but not identical to the Window function. In looking at previous time domain
displays, it is apparent that there are ripples associated with a specific reflection that extend over the time range.
All of which are necessary to obtain a good representation of that reflection in the frequency domain. The gating
process can eliminate some of this necessary data that can introduce errors or ripple in the frequency domain
response. As in Windowing, the solution is to provide a selection of Gate functions so the user can obtain the best
tradeoff of resolution versus ripple.
Figure 17 shows the application of a Gate and the Frequency Gated by Time display of the initial discontinuity
of the Beatty standard used in Figure 11 above. This figure also illustrates the processing sequence that can be
observed when a four trace display is available. Each trace is set to S11 and each is set up with a different pro-
cess, the final in the lower right showing the frequency gated by time response of an impedance step that is rea-
sonably flat with frequency as expected.

14
Figure 17. The application of a Gate and the Frequency Gated by Time display of the initial discontinuity of the Beatty Standard

Time Domain Applications

Time Domain is most useful when analyzing broadband low loss devices such as transmission lines, connectors,
test fixtures and similar components. Narrowband devices such as filters, isolators or matching networks are not
good candidates for Time Domain measurements.
A few “Helpful Hints”:
• A harmonic frequency set is most desirable as this permits low pass processing. In any application, use the
widest frequency range possible and start as low as possible for best DC extrapolation.
• W
 hen interpreting the return loss value of a Time Domain response, it must be noted that the response is the
average of the return loss over the entire frequency range.
• W
 hen using frequency gated by time, it is important to center the gate around the discontinuity, or circuit
being analyzed. In general, the gate should be as wide as possible, but not too close to the responses that
the user wants to eliminate.
• T
 he selection of Window and Gate shapes can have a significant effect on the result. A wide selection range
provides the opportunity to optimize results. In these cases, if correlation with other measurements becomes
an issue, it is important that the same Window and Gate shapes are used.

15
Utilizing Airlines
Time Domain work is greatly enhanced when the reflection to be studied is well separated from other reflections.
This is readily accomplished if a high quality transmission line can be included in the system to be measured.
In a coaxial system this would be an airline with connectors that interface to other components with minimum
reflections. This performance can be realized by airlines with a beaded interface at one end, and a floating center
interface at the other end. The bead insures an accurate pin depth at the precision interface, and also supports
the center conductor so the airline can be easily installed.
The following examples show a number of practical applications for Time Domain processing:

Designing a Test Fixture

In test fixture design, it is often desirable to have an input coaxial connector and a launch to the microstrip
medium being used for circuit design. This launch should be designed for minimum SWR so that it will be
transparent when the device design is being evaluated. This can be accomplished by starting with a short length
of microstrip line (several centimeters is a good choice) and connecting it to the initial launcher design, leaving the
other end open. Figure 18 shows a coaxial to Duroid microstrip design. The reflection from the launch is clearly
distinguished from the open end. The designer can make modifications to the launch design and easily see their
effect until a satisfactory launch interface is obtained

Figure 18. Coaxial to Duroid microstrip design

Measurement of VNA Directivity and Port Match

The accuracy of a VNA reflection measurement is primarily related to the effective directivity and port match after
calibration. These parameters are usually specified in data sheets, but are dependent upon calibration standards
and user technique. In some cases it would be important to know the value of these parameters. This information
can be readily obtained if an Assurance Airline is available. It is installed at the calibrated test port and terminated
with a short circuit. Figure 19 shows by diagram what is happening; the port match, directivity, and the short
reflection are clearly separated in time and can be distinguished and evaluated quantitatively. The results show the
result of an SOLT calibration using a broadband termination. Keep in mind the values displayed are a weighted
average across the frequency sweep range.

16
 Figure 19. Port match, directivity and short reflection clearly separated in time.

Rise Time Measurements using Time Domain Transmission

The advent of data transfer rates in the tens of GHz region has created the need to measure the rise time and
propagation delay of wide band devices such as coaxial cables, switches, and amplifiers used in optoelectronic
systems. The use of sampling oscilloscopes in conjunction with fast rise pulse generators is a common technique
for measuring rise time and delay. However, as VNA bandwidths have surpassed those of the scopes, the VNA
provides an alternative means of performing the rise time and propagation delay measurements of these high
speed devices.
These measurements require the use of Time Domain Transmission, that is an S21 Step response. The VNA
performs these measurements with rise times as fast as 9 picoseconds (110 GHz system). The processing
options; lowpass, bandpass, and the gating feature discussed earlier, apply to S21 Time Domain response as well.
In addition, the error correction techniques available on the VNA allow more accurate measurements of rise time,
which may be obscured by the adapters and cables which are usually uncorrected in the oscilloscope method.
The Rise Time measurement of a 40 Gb/s driver amplifier using the 110 GHz VNA is discussed in this section.
A measurement of the rise time of the VNA transmission response is required in order to make the amplifier
measurement. In this case, a 12-term calibration is performed and with the thruline in place, the S21 time step
response is measured as shown in Figure 20. The rise time, the time between the 10% and the 90% magnitude
points, is measured to be approximately 9 ps.

17
 Figure 20. Corrected Step response of the 110 GHz VNA

The 40 Gb/s driver amplifier is then measured (Figure 21). The S21 Time Domain response in this case is the
composite measurement of the VNA rise time and the Amplifier rise time. The 180° phase shift in the amplifier S21
response is displayed as an inverted step in Time Domain mode. The composite rise time measured is 12 ps.

Figure 21. Inverted rise time and propagation

display response of the amplifier.

Rise time of the amplifier can then be calculated by using the root sum squares theorem:
TR2 (DUT) = TR2 (total) - TR2 (input step)

Or, TR (amplifier) = √[(12)2 -(9)2]

= 8 ps
Similarly, the propagation delay through the amplifier can be measured from the 50% point of the step response.
Time Delay Td (amplifier) = 30 ps

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References
1. M. Hines and H. Stineheifer, “Time Domain Oscillograph Microwave Network Analysis Using Frequency
Domain Data”, IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques, V MTT-22, No. 3, Mar. 1974
2. L.R. Rabiner, “Chirp z-Transform Algorithm Program”, Programs for Digital Signal Processing, Ed. by the
Digital Sign Processing Committee, IEEE Acoustics, Search and Sign Processing Society, New York, IEEE
Press, 1979
3. L.R. Rabiner and B. Gold, “Theory and Application of Digital Signal Processing”, Prentice-Hall, Englewood
Cliffs, NJ, 1975
4. Fredric J. Harris, “On the Use of Windows for Harmonic Analysis with the Discrete Fourier Transform”, in
Proceedings of the IEEE Vol. 66, No. 1, pp 51-83, Jan. 1978
5. N. Marcuvitz, Waveguide Handbook, New York, McGraw-Hill, 1951
6. VectorStar MS4640A Microwave Vector Network Analyzer Measurement Guide

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