337

Paper No. 725

POLLUTION OF WATER BODIES: CHALLENGES

AND STRATEGIES

AFAF AYESHA
338 Afaf Ayesha
Centenary Celebration (1912 – 2012) 339

POLLUTION OF WATER BODIES:

CHALLENGES AND STRATEGIES
By:
Afaf Ayesha 1

ABSTRACT
Water covers 70% of the earth’s surface and only 2.5% is fresh water. Availability of clean and
fresh water is essential for life. The water is used for drinking, irrigation and industrial purposes.
Globally, the discharge of effluents in water bodies and improper water management practices
contribute significantly in the water pollution problems. Human activities, especially unplanned
urbanization and industrial development degrade the water quality in both industrialized and
developing countries. The polluted water affects the human health, biodiversity and agricultural
production. More than half of the world's major rivers are contaminated which are polluting the
surrounding ecosystems, deteriorating the groundwater quality and risk for human health. About
2 million tonnes of domestic, agricultural and industrial effluents dispose off in water bodies
daily. About 20% of the world population lack access to safe drinking water and it causes about
250 million cases of waterborne diseases annually, with death of 5 to 10 million people.
In Pakistan, water pollution is a major issue and water quality is not assessed regularly. The
untreated effluents are indiscriminately discharged into the water bodies from industrial,
municipal and agricultural sectors. The drinking water supply systems and sewer discharge
systems are inefficient in most of the cities. The untreated effluents are directly discharged in
the drains, from where they reach to rivers, canals or the sea and deteriorate water quality.
About 20-40% patients suffer from water-borne diseases, that cause one third of all deaths.
The water quality problems can be solved by adopting pollution prevention strategies. There is a
need to monitor and evaluate the water quality, strict enforcement of rules and regulations, use
of effective technologies, installation of wastewater treatment plants, strengthening and capacity
building of institutions and better water management practices. The linkage between research
and development activities needs to be strengthened for pollution control of water bodies.

Key words: Water quality, industrial development, urbanization, water pollution, water borne
diseases, effective technologies

1. INTRODUCTION
Water is an essential requirement for life which covers 70% of the earth’s surface. About 97.5%
water is seawater and only 2.5% is fresh water (Figure 1). Most of the fresh water is
inaccessible in the polar icecaps, glaciers, atmosphere or soil while accessible fresh water in
lakes, streams, rivers and groundwater accounts a small portion. It is an important resource for
human consumption; ecological systems; agricultural and industrial purposes; and economic
development [1].

1
Environmentalist at PIAIP-NESPAK, Lahore - Pakistan.
340 Afaf Ayesha

Figure 1: Global distribution of water

The water resources are unevenly distributed throughout the world and the water consumption
practice varies among different countries (Figure 2). Those countries which face water shortage
problem, the per capita water availability is limited as compared to those countries which
possess abundant water resources.

Figure 2: Average water consumption rates

Centenary Celebration (1912 – 2012) 341

Globally the largest water use sector is agriculture, where water is used for irrigation purpose.
The total water consumption in different sectors is shown in the table 1 [2 &3].
Table 1: Sectoral Distribution of Water

Water Use (%)

Sector Developed Developing
World
Countries Countries
Agriculture 67-70 39 52
Industry 22-23 46 38
Human Consumption 8-10 15 10

The availability of clean and freshwater is a basic necessity of life but human beings have long
been dumping their wastes into the water bodies as the water is an excellent solvent and the
waste material can be diluted and dispersed quickly. This self purification process was effective
as long as human population density was less as compared to the available amount of water.
The overexploitation and inadequate water management of water resources lead to the
depletion of available water and deterioration of its quality [4].
2. WATER QUALITY
Water quality is the usefulness of water for required purposes and is affected by change in
physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of water. The water quality standards vary with
the required uses of water. The water quality is linked with its quantity and it can be assessed
on the basis of different quality parameters. [5].
The water quality is affected due to rapid population growths, unplanned urbanization and
industrialization which have raised the problem of water scarcity and water pollution [6]. Water
pollution is one of the most serious environmental problems and it occurs when the water is
contaminated from human and animal wastes, industrial effluents, toxic chemicals, heavy
metals, metal scraps, oils etc. [7]. These pollutants enter into water bodies from natural and
anthropogenic sources. The anthropogenic sources play a significant role in the deterioration of
surface as well as groundwater resources. The water pollutants have no boundaries as their
production at one location may affect water quality at other location located downstream [8]. The
poor water quality affects the human health, environment and agricultural production [9].
2.1 Water Quality Situation in the World
The water uses and status of economic development in the country affects the water quality.
Globally, the discharge of effluents in water bodies and improper water management practices
contribute significantly in the water pollution problems. The water quality is deteriorated in both
industrialized as well as developing countries. More than half of the world's major rivers are
contaminated which are polluting the surrounding ecosystems, deteriorating the groundwater
quality and a risk for human health [10]. About 2 million tons of domestic, agricultural, and
industrial effluents discharge in the water bodies daily. About 1500 km3 wastewater is produced
annually, which is six times more water than the water available in world’s rivers. In the water
bodies of US, about 1.2 trillion gallons of untreated sewage, stormwater and industrial effluents
are discharged annually. About 40% of America's rivers are not fit for fishing, swimming, or
aquatic life. The discharge of sewage and fertilizers has polluted about 30 % of Ireland's rivers
[11 & 12].
342 Afaf Ayesha

The share of developing countries in water pollution is huge as they discharge about 70 % of
the untreated industrial effluents in the water bodies [13]. The condition of Asian rivers is worse.
They are the most polluted rivers in the world and contain three times as many bacteria from
human waste as the global average and 20 times more lead than rivers in industrialized
countries [11]. The water is severely polluted in South Asia particularly India and Southeast
Asia. The world's most polluted rivers include: Yellow River in China, Ganges in India, and Amu
and Syr Darya in Central Asia [10]. The situation of water pollution is worst in China as one third
of the untreated industrial effluents and more than 90 % of untreated domestic sewage is
discharged into water bodies [14]. About 70 % of the untreated effluent is disposed off in water
bodies of India [15].
2.2 Water Quality Situation in Pakistan
Pakistan is blessed with adequate surface and groundwater resources. The water use in
different sectors of Pakistan is shown in table 2 [16]:
Table 2: Water Use (%) in Different Sectors in Pakistan

Sector Water Use (%)

Agriculture (Irrigation) 93
Industry 3
Domestic and Municipal 4

The water pollution levels have increased in Pakistan due to the discharge of untreated
municipal and industrial effluents. Rapid urbanization and industrialization have resulted in
increased pollution loads in the rivers and streams. The industrial units are established in and
around the big cities which generate heavy pollution loads [17]. Consequently, the quality of
both surface and groundwater is degrading. Groundwater is the main source of drinking water in
Pakistan for more than 60% of the population. Due to over-abstraction of groundwater and high
level of pollution, the quantity and quality of groundwater is degraded and the accessibility
towards good quality groundwater for drinking purpose has become a serious problem, which
results in:
• serious health hazards, as it causes water-related diseases;
• aquatic life at risk, due to the discharge of fresh water scarcity and discharging of toxic
effluents; and
• decrease in agricultural yield due to water logging, salinity and chemical pollution [18
&19].
3. WATER QUALITY CHALLENGES
The unprecedented population growth, urbanization and industrialization, together with changes
in production and consumption patterns, have placed stress on water resources. The world
population is expanding by 80 million people annually, increasing the demand for freshwater by
about 64 billion m3 annually. According to United Nations, the world population will exceed 9
billion people by 2050, which is an increase by nearly half of the 2000 population. The growth
rate is highest in developing countries that already suffer from water stress. Growing
populations, especially when concentrated in urban areas create more municipal and domestic
effluent that reach to water bodies and cause water pollution. It is estimated that 42% of water
used for domestic and municipal purposes is returned to the water cycle, which accounts for
Centenary Celebration (1912 – 2012) 343

11% of total wastewater. The relationship between population dynamics and water resources
are shown in figure 3 [20 &21].

Population Dynamics
Growth – Migration – Density,
Distribution – Urbanization –
Morbidity – Mortality

Water Use Human Outcomes

Agriculture production – Industry – Food shortage – Water borne illness –
Household use – Sanitation & waste Social & political instability – Conflicts
disposal – Hydroelectricity – over water – Economic growth or decline
Fish farming – Population displacement

Environmental Outcomes
Depletion of surface & groundwater – Water
pollution – Lard degradation – Ecosystem
degradation – Declining fisheries – Disruptions
to the hydrological cycle

Figure 3: Water and population dynamics

The developed countries which have comparatively less population, mostly suffer from pollution
problem because of their high economic levels, industrialization and mechanical lifestyle that
consume more resources and energy. On the other side, the developing countries are
overpopulated and municipal waste and sewage generation is high. Though these countries do
not consume much resources and energy, but short finances and poor governance issue make
a constraint on wastewater treatment, which is often, disposed off untreated and cause severe
water pollution problem [22].
Worldwide water pollution is a leading cause of deaths and diseases, and it accounts for the
deaths of more than 14,000 people daily. The harmful effects of contaminated water are not
only devastating to people but also to flora and fauna. The contaminated water is unfit for
drinking, recreational, agricultural and industrial purposes and it also impairs the aesthetic
quality of water bodies. More seriously, it destroys the aquatic life by reducing its reproductive
ability and is also hazardous for human health. Both the developing as well as industrialized
countries are facing this problem of water pollution. [23 & 24]. Due to this incessant water
pollution, about 20% of the world population lack access to safe drinking water and it causes
about 250 million cases of waterborne diseases annually, with death of 5 to 10 million people
[25, 11].
According to World Health Organization, annually 500 million diarrhea cases of less than five
years are reported in children of Asia, Africa and Latin America. Commonly found water borne
diseases include typhoid fever, bacillary dysentery, infectious hepatitis and other enteric
infections. The cancer may be caused by consuming polluted water containing carcinogenic
substances [26].
The water quality issues are facing many challenges due to population growth, availability of
resources and governance issues and the water gets polluted from the following activities.
344 Afaf Ayesha

Agricultural activities
Globally, the agricultural activities contribute significantly in water pollution problem. The
concern over the increases in fertilizer and pesticide runoff into water bodies has been rising
since 1970s. Agricultural activities are a leading cause of phosphorus compounds and
sediment. Nitrate is commonly found in the world’s groundwater and surface water resources.
According to UNEP study, nitrate concentrations have increased in the last decade in
watersheds in the Americas, Europe, Australasia, and most significantly, in Africa and the
eastern Mediterranean. The agricultural activities also caused salinization of surface water,
eutrophication (excess nutrients), pesticides in runoff, and altered erosion and sedimentation
patterns [21].

Industrial activities
Industrial activities are a major cause of water pollution. These activities withdraw about 20% of
total global water and this water is discharged to its source in a deteriorated condition. Globally,
the effluents from industrial facilities such as power plants, paper mills, pharmaceutical
manufacturers, semiconductor fabrication plants, chemical plants, petroleum refineries, and
bottling facilities and processes such as mining and drilling, all contribute to poor water quality.
The effluents found in industrial effluents include:
• Microbiological contaminants such as bacteria, viruses, and protozoa;
• Chemicals from industrial activities such as solvents and organic and inorganic
pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), asbestos, and many more;
• Metals such as lead, mercury, zinc, copper, and many others;
• Nutrients such as phosphorus and nitrogen;
• Suspended matter including particulates and of pollution-prevention and water-treatment
technologies used by industrial facilities.
• Temperature changes through the discharge of warm cooling-water effluent;
• Pharmaceuticals and personal care products.
Globally, the industrial activities are responsible for disposal of 300-400 million tons of heavy
metals, solvents, toxic sludge, and other waste enters into water bodies annually. The industrial
water pollution varies among different countries on the basis of amount of industrial activity in
the country and the types of pollution-prevention and water-treatment technologies used by
industries. The developed countries paid much attention towards the treatment of industrial
effluents prior to its discharge into water bodies. While the developing countries are discharging
70% of the untreated industrial effluents into the water bodies. Still, the disposal of industrial
effluent on a per-capita basis is high from developed countries as compared to developing
countries. The polluted water alter the water quality characteristics, such as temperature,
acidity, salinity, or turbidity of water bodies, leading to altered ecosystems and higher incidence
of water-borne diseases. Worldwide, industrial water pollution is a leading cause of damage to
ecosystems and human health [21].

Disposal of municipal wastes

The uncontrolled disposal of municipal waste contributes significantly in water pollution. The
practice of raw sewage disposal into water bodies is common in developing countries, and even
in less developed countries like China, India, and Iran which is a cause of fecal contamination.
Even the developed countries discharge inadequately treated sewage into water bodies
Centenary Celebration (1912 – 2012) 345

Lack of adequate sanitation facilities contaminates water bodies in the world and is one of the
most important forms of water pollution. Globally, 2.5 billion people lack access to sanitation
facilities. Over 70% of these people, (1.8 billion people who lack sanitation facilities) live in Asia.
The Asia’s rivers contain 50 times more fecal coliform bacteria than the WHO guidelines. These
pathogenic microbes enter into drinking water through inadequately treated water and are a
leading cause of water pollution. Over 80% of the untreated sewage is discharged into water
bodies of developing countries [21].

Major challenges in Pakistan

Water pollution is one of the major issues of Pakistan. Pakistan is one of the water stress
country in the world and is fastly becoming water scarce. The increasing escalating population
pressure, urbanization and unsustainable water consumption practices have placed immense
stress on the quality as well as quantity of water resources in the Country. The population
growth rate is high i.e. 80 million in 1980 and is projected to increase 230 million in 2025 (Figure
4).

250

200
Population (millions)

150

100

50

0
1980 1990 2000 2025
Years

Figure 4: Population growth in Pakistan

Simultaneously, the urbanization is rapid, the percentage of population living in urban areas
become double over the past twenty years. The absolute size of urban population has increased
by a factor of 3.5 i.e. 20 million in 1980 to 70 million in 2000 (Figure 5).
346 Afaf Ayesha

80

Urban Population (millions)

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1980 1990 2000
Years

Figure 5: Urban population growth in Pakistan

The high population growth rate and urbanization reduce the per capita water availability which
was 5300m3 in 1951 and is projected to decrease and will be less than 659m3 in 2025 (Figure 6)
[27 &28].

Declining per capita water availability (cubic

meters per capita per year)

6000

5000

4000

3000
Water Stress
2000
Water Scarcity
1000

0
1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2000 2013 2025

Figure 6: Per capita water availability in Pakistan

The over exploitation of water resources and discharge of untreated industrial and municipal
toxic effluents has created multiple environmental, social and economical challenges. The
polluted water has become a threat to various water usages including drinking, irrigation, and
sustenance of aquatic life [29].
Centenary Celebration (1912 – 2012) 347

The water quality issues can be divided into following categories:

a. Technical Issues
Water scarcity
Water quality deterioration
Over extraction of groundwater
Pollution of water bodies
b. Institutional Issues
Poor system operation and maintenance (lack of funding and poor maintenance)
Poor governance
Lack of awareness
Lack of beneficiary’s participation
Stakeholder’s conflicts
c. Monitoring and Research Issues
Lack of monitoring and measurements
Low funding for research and monitoring
Weakening of knowledge base centers
Poor linkage between research and development [8]
The assessment of water quality is not carried out regularly. The water quality laws and
regulations are present in Pakistan. Pakistan Environmental Protection Act 1997 focuses on the
protection, conservation, rehabilitation and improvement of the environment, prevention and
control of pollution, and promotion of sustainable development. The National Water Policy
(Draft), National Environment Policy and National Environmental Quality Standards (NEQS)
also exist in Pakistan, but the implementation of laws and regulations is weak [30].
The water supply and sewer discharge systems are inefficient in most of the cities. The
untreated sewage directly discharges in the drains, from where it reaches to rivers, canals or the
sea and deteriorates water quality [31]. This polluted surface water in turn contaminates the
groundwater which is a main source of drinking water. It is estimated that about 90% of the
population lack access to safe drinking water [32]. Pakistan ranks at number 80 among 122
nations regarding drinking water quality. The use of poor quality water has caused many health
related problems in the Country. According to a study of UNICEF, about 20-40% patients suffer
from water-borne diseases, which causes one third of all deaths [19]. About 25% adults and
40% children suffers from water borne diseases [33]. It has been reported by the World Bank
that Pakistan is spending 1.8% GDP on water borne diseases [34].
The major sources of water contamination in Pakistan include:
• industrial effluents
• municipal effluents
• solid waste
• agricultural runoff
348 Afaf Ayesha

The untreated industrial effluents are discharged directly into rivers and streams as well as the
Arabian Sea and are a principal source of water pollution. In Pakistan, only 1% of industrial
effluent is treated before being discharged into water bodies. In Karachi, Sindh Industrial and
Trading Estate (SITE) and Korangi Industrial and Trading Estate (KITE) are the biggest
industrial estates of the Country, but there is no wastewater treatment plant, while in Lahore, out
of hundred chemical manufacturing industries, only three industries are treating the effluents
adequately. The discharge of effluent contaminates the water bodies through toxic substances,
including heavy metals. The shallow groundwater pollution near industrial plants is common and
once the groundwater is polluted, its remediation is a long term process as it may take hundreds
or even thousands of years [35, 19].
The untreated sewage is directly discharged into nullahs and storm water drains from where it
enters into rivers, canals and streams. It is found that there is the disposal of about 2,000 million
gallons of sewage daily in the surface water bodies [19]. It is estimated that about 8% of the
urban sewage is treated in municipal treatment plants. The contaminated water is not only
hazardous for human health but also poses a threat to aquatic life and wildlife of Pakistan.
There is very little separation of municipal effluent from industrial effluent and both directly
disposed off in open drains which ultimately flow into nearby water body [27, 36].
About 48,000 tonnes of solid waste is produced daily in the Country and about 50% of the waste
is disposed off in low-lying areas where the leachate generation is a main cause of groundwater
pollution. The open dumping of solid waste also pollutes the surface water bodies and is
breeding grounds for insects [37].
About 5.6 million tonnes of fertilizer and 70,000 tonnes of pesticides are used in the Country
every year and their runoff is a main cause of pollution in the water bodies [19]. The pesticides
and insecticides leached to the groundwater with the irrigation water and pollute the
groundwater aquifers [38].
4. STRATEGIES/ THE WAY FORWARD
The water quality challenges need to be addressed in an integrated manner. The water quality
problems can be solved through adopting pollution prevention strategies (Figure 6).

Figure 6: Pollution prevention hierarchy

The water pollution can be prevented by reducing or eliminating contaminants at the source
which is the most effective way to protect water quality. The pollution prevention involves
Centenary Celebration (1912 – 2012) 349

reducing or eliminating the use of hazardous substances, pollutants, and contaminants; process
modification techniques so they generate less waste; reducing leaks and fugitive releases; and
reducing energy and water consumption. The prevention of pollution at source is a cost effective
solution as less money is required on waste handling, storage, treatment, remediation, and
regulatory monitoring. The industrial units can recycle the wastewater generated from one
process into other process if it satisfies water quality standards.
There are effective technologies and approaches for the improvement of water quality and
wastewater treatment. The industrial units and municipal institutions should be legally bound to
set up treatment plants. The local technology should be used for establishing the treatment
plant rather than importing the costly equipment. The increased investment on existing water-
quality systems and research to improve the water treatment methods reduce the cost of
treatment, and increase the reliability of existing methods.
The water-quality solutions include:
• The ongoing monitoring of water quality is required at government level on regular basis.
For this purpose, capacity building of staff, fully equipped laboratories, recurrent
budgets, latest technologies, data-sharing and management institutions should be
provided.
• The development of new technologies and effective water quality monitoring is required.
This may be useful for the successful deployment, maintenance, and operation of
systems to collect, transport, and treat human wastes, used water, stormwater, industrial
wastes and agricultural runoff.
• Strict enforcement of water quality rules and regulations need to be adopted in order to
prevent the discharge of untreated effluents from the industries and municipalities.
• Improve and preserve the water quality at international, national, and local level. There is
a need to reset global priorities, funding, and policies towards improving water quality.
• The industries are required to install wastewater treatment plants. The technologies
need to be scaled up rapidly to deal with the tremendous amount of untreated wastes
entering into water bodies daily; and water and wastewater utilities need financial,
administrative, and technical assistance to implement these approaches.
• Appropriate solid waste management system should be in place to prevent the dumping
of solid waste into the water bodies and leachate generation.
• Proper sanitary landfill sites should be constructed and the open dumping of human
excreta and animal waste should be prohibited.
• A sustainable pollution control strategy needs to be devised in order to reduce the
wastewater volumes. This approach may include the segregation of wastewater
streams, process modification techniques and recycling and reuse of wastewater.
• Conduct epidemiological study in the areas close to contaminated water bodies in order
to assess the affect of polluted water on health of the consumers.
• The global education and awareness campaigns about the importance of water-quality
needs to be launched. Media and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) can play a
vital role in this aspect.
350 Afaf Ayesha

• Integrated water resource management approach should be adopted by involving all

stakeholders for the protection of water quality. The linkage between research and
development needs to be strengthened.
References
1. Raven, P.H.; and Berg, L.R., Environment 4 / E, Water: A Fragile Resource, John Wiley
and Sons, Inc., 10/12 Janson, Hermitage Publishing Services, pp. 280, 282 (2004).
2. Todd, D.K., Groundwater Hydrology, Introduction, Second Edition, John Wiley and Sons
(Asia) Pte Ltd., 2 Clementi Loop #02-01, Singapore, pp. 7 (2004).
3. Turkes, M. and Acar, Z., Wastewater Management and its Sustainable Use in Turkey,
Wastewater Reuse-Risk Assessment, Decision Making and Environmental Security,
Springer, 415-420 (2007).
4. Mckinney, M.L.; Schoch, R.M.; and Yonavjak, L., Environmental Science: Systems and
Solutions, Water Pollution, Fourth Edition, Jones and Bartlett Publishers, 40 Tall Pine
Drive Sudbury, pp. 408 (2007).
5. Kahlown, M. A.; and Majeed, A., Pakistan Water Resources Development and
Management, Water Quality Management, pg. 6-1 (2004).
6. Mustafa, U., IUCN: Environmental Fiscal Reform in Abbottabad, Fiscal Decentralization,
Poverty and the Environment, IUCN Pakistan, Swiss Agency for Development and
Cooperation, Pakistan Institute of Development Economics and Government of the
North-East Frontier Province, IUCN Pakistan, House 9, Street 64 Sector F- 8/4,
Islamabad, pp. 5 (2009).
7. Shah, S., Pollution: An International Problem with Domestic Effects, Natura, Vol. 33
(issue 3), Communications Division WWF- Pakistan, Ferozepur Road Lahore, pp. 14
(2009).
8. Chiras, D.D., Environmental Science, Water Pollution: Sustainably Managing a
Renewable Resource, Seventh Edition, Jones and Bartlett Publishers, 40 Tall Pine Drive
Sudbury, pp. 461 (2006).
9. Bhutta, M.N., Protection of Water Quality and its Sustainable Use in Pakistan, Pakistan
Engineering Congress, World Water Day, pg. 89-100 (2009).
10. UNEP, Global Environment Outlook, State of the Environment and Policy Retrospective
1972 – 2002, Freshwater, Water Quality, http://www.unep.org/geo/geo3/english/270.htm.
11. Water Pollution Facts, http://www.grinningplanet.com/2005/07-26/water-pollution-facts-
article.htm.
12. World Water Quality Facts and Statistics, World Water Day 2010, Clean Water for a
Healthy World,
http://www.pacinst.org/reports/water_quality/water_quality_facts_and_stats.pdf.
13. UN Water, Water Pollution, Environmental Degradation and Disasters,
http://www.unwater.org/statistics_pollu.html.
14. Hays, J., Water Pollution in China, (2008)
http://factsanddetails.com/china.php?itemid=391&catid=10&subcatid=66.
Centenary Celebration (1912 – 2012) 351

15. Gleick, P.H.; Cooley, H.; Katz, D.; Lee, E.; Morrison, J.; Palaniappan, M.; Samulon, A.;
and Wolff, G.H., The World’s Water 2006 – 2007: The Biennial Report on Freshwater
Resources, The Island Press, 1718 Connecticut Avenue NW, Suite 300 Washington DC,
20009-1148, pp. 127, 128 (2006).
16. Environmental Protection Department, Punjab Sustainable Development Strategy, Final
Report, Volume 1, Water Resources, pp. 3:1 (2008).
17. Ministry of Environment, Damage Control through Environmental Improvement of
Polluted Ravi River near Lahore, Draft Report, Introduction, Pakistan Environmental
Planning and Architectural Consultants, pp.1:1 (2007).
18. Ministry of Water and Power, Pakistan Water Sector Strategy: Detailed Strategy
Formulation, Environment, Volume 4, Office of the Chief Engineering Advisor/ Chairman
Federal Flood Commission, pp. 212 (2002).
19. The World Bank, South Asia Environment and Social Unit, Pakistan Strategic Country
Environmental Assessment, Water Supply and Sanitation: Protecting Sources and
Safeguarding Supplies, The World Bank, 1818 H Street, N.W., Washington DC 20433,
USA, pp. 52, 53,54 (2006).
20. Sherbinin, A.D., Introduction: Water and Population Dynamics: Local Approaches to a
Global Challenge, http://www.aaas.org/international/ehn/waterpop/desherb.htm
21. Palaniappan, M.; Peter H. Gleick, P.H.; Allen, L.; Cohen, M.J.; Smith, J. C.; and Smith,
C., Clearing the Waters: A Focus on Water Quality Solutions, United Nations
Environment Programme, 14-21 (2010).
22. Goel, P.K., Water Pollution-Causes, Effects and Control, General, New Age
International, 2 (2006).
23. Water Pollution, http://www.scribd.com/doc/10308477/Water-Pollution-1.
24. Water Pollution, (2010) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_pollution.
25. Water Pollution Statistics, http://www.buzzle.com/articles/water-pollution-statistics.html
26. Soomro, Z.A.; Khokhar, M.I.A.; Hussain, W.; and Hussain, M., Drinking Water Quality
Challenges in Pakistan, Pakistan Engineering Congress, World Water Day, pg. 17 - 19
(2011).
27. Briscoe, J. and Qamar, U., The World Bank, Pakistan’s Water Economy Running Day,
Oxford University Press, 24, 25, 55, 56 (2006).
28. Shafique, M.S., Nature of Water Crisis in Pakistan and a Potential Way Out, 2010,
http://koolblue.wordpress.com/2010/06/15/nature-of-water-crisis-in-pakistan-a-potential-
way-out/
29. Directorate of Land Reclamation, An Atlas: Surface Water Industrial and Municipal
Pollution in Punjab, Surface Water Quality, Irrigation and Power Department, pp. 1
(2008).
30. Hashmi, I.; Qaiser, S.; Asma, S.; Khan, T.A.; and Abbas, S.; Assessing Microbiological
Safety of Drinking Water: A Case Study of Islamabad, Pakistan, Pakistan Engineering
Congress, World Water Day, pg. 30 (2011).
31. Khan, H.N., The Choked Earth, Natura, Vol. 29 (issue 3), Communications Division
WWF- Pakistan, Ferozepur Road Lahore, pp. 4 (2002).
352 Afaf Ayesha

32. Ministry of Water and Power, Pakistan Water Sector Strategy: Detailed Strategy
Formulation, Environment, Volume 4, Office of the Chief Engineering Advisor/ Chairman
Federal Flood Commission, pp. 213 (2002).
33. Bhatti, S. A. and Mustafa, Z.; Unsafe Drinking Water and Health Hazards, Pakistan
Engineering Congress, World Environment Day, pg. 85 (2009).
34. Benjamin, S.E., Water for Cities Challenges and Solutions, Pakistan Engineering
Congress, World Water Day, pg. 37 (2011).
35. World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), A Special Report: Pakistan’s Waters at Risk, Water
and Health Related Issues in Pakistan and Key Recommendations, Major Water Sectors
in Pakistan, WWF-Pakistan, Ferozepur Road Lahore, pp. 5, 6 (2007).
36. World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), Water Pollution Fact sheet,
http://www.wwfpak.org/factsheets_wps.php.
37. Ministry of Water and Power, Pakistan Water Sector Strategy: Detailed Strategy
Formulation, Environment, Volume 4, Office of the Chief Engineering Advisor/ Chairman
Federal Flood Commission, pp. 214 (2002).
38. Worldwide Fund for Nature (WWF), A Special Report: Pakistan’s Water at Risk, Water
and Health related Issues in Pakistan and Key Recommendations, Executive Summary,
pp. I (2007).