GROUP THEORY

BY B. SRINIVASARAO .SG Lecturer in Mathematics

Sir C.R. Reddy (A) College, Eluru

UNIT – 1: Syllabus

Binary Operation – Algebraic structure – semi group-monoid – Group definition and

elementary properties Finite and Infinite groups – examples – order of a group. Composition
tables with examples.

GROUPS

Real number system

Definition (SET) : A set is a collection of well-defined objects.
Examples:1 A = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,} B= { a, b , c, d }
Example:2 Collection of Mathematics books in your College library.
Example:3 Collection of those students in your college who have secured more than 80%
marks in
Annual examination.

Number system

N = { 1,2,3,……} (Natural Numbers)

W = { 0,1,2,3,……} (Wole Numbers)

Z = { ……-2,-1,0,1,2,…..} (Integers)
Q = { p/q: p, q ∈ Z q ≠ 0 } ( Rational Numbers )
R - Q = { √2, √3,√5,…..𝜋, …} (Irrational numbers)

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R = Q ∪ (R-Q ) (Real Numbers )
C = { x +i y / x, y ∈ R and √-1 = i } (complex numbers )

Non-Empty set : A set A has at least one or more than one element is called a non empty
set and is denoted by ≠ϕ.

Binary operation : An operation 0 is said to be binary on a non-empty set G if for all a, b ∊ .G

then a 0 b ∊ G.

Example : Addition(+) is a binary operation on set of Naturals N but Subtraction(-) is not a

binary operation on N.
Since for a = 5, b=9 ∊ N then a + b = 5 + 9 = 14 ∊ N but a - b = 5 – 9 = -4 ∉ N

Algebraic Structure: -
A non empty set together with one or more than one binary operation is called an
algebraic structure.
Examples: -
1.( R,+, × ∙ ). is an Algebraic Structure where R is set of Real Numbers.
2.(N, +) , (Z, +), (Q, +) are algebraic structures but (N, -) (Z, ÷) are not an algebraic
structures
Example: Division ( ÷ ) is not a binary operations on Z .
Since for a = 2, b = 3 ∈ Z but 2 ÷ 3 = 2/3 ∉ Z .Therefore < Z,÷ >is not an Algebraic
structure.
Therefore < Z, ÷ > is not an Algebraic Structure.

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Example: Multiplication is a Binary operation on the set or Rational numbers Q
2 7 14 7
Since for all a=2/3, b=7/8 in Q then a× b = 3 × 8 = 24 = 12 ∈ Q

Therefore < Q, × > is an Algebraic Structure

Example: Division is a Binary operation on the set or Rational numbers Q
Since for a = 7/9 , b = 8/9 then a ÷ b = 7/9 ÷ 8/9 = 7/9 × 9/8 = 7/8 ∈ Q

Therefore < Q, ÷ > is an Algebraic Structure.

Definition (Group) A non empty set 𝐺 is said to be a Group w r t a Binary operation 0 if it satisfies

the following properties

1.Closure Property : ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ G ⇒ 𝑎𝑜𝑏 ∈ 𝐺.

2.Associative Property: 𝑎 𝑜 ( 𝑏 𝑜 c ) = (𝑎 𝑜 𝑏) 𝑜 𝑐 ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐺

3 Identity Properties: For all a ∈ 𝐺 there exist an element e ∈ 𝐺 such that

𝑎𝑜𝑒=𝑒𝑜𝑎=𝑎 ‘ e ‘ is called identity w r t the operation o

4. Inverse Property: For all a ∈𝐺 there exist an element b ∈ 𝐺 such that

a0b=e=b0a then b is the inverse element of a w r t operation 0

Note: In an additive Group the Identity is o (zero) and the multiplicative Identity is 1 (one)

Note : In the Additive Group G the Inverse element of a is – a and in the Multiplicative Group G

the inverse element of a is a -1

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Groupoid:
A non – empty set G is said to be Groupoid wrt to given Binary operation o if it satisfies
Closure law.
Example: Z= {. . . . . . -3, -2 ,-1, 0, 1, 2, 3 , . . . . . . .} is a Groupoid w r t – ( Subtraction).
Semi-Group:
A non – empty set G is said to be a semi-group wrt to given Binary operation o if it satisfies
Closure and Associative laws.
Example: N = {1,2, 3, . . . . . .} is a semi group wrt addition. Since Identity o is not in N.
Monoid:
A non – empty set G is said to be a Monoid wrt to given Binary operation o if it satisfies
Closure , Associative and Identity laws.
Example: N = {1,2, 3, . . . . . .} is a Monoid wrt Multiplication. Since Inverse property is not
exist in N. for a = 3 then a-1 = 1/3 is not in N.

Abelian Group :- A Group G is said to be Abelian w r t 0 if it satisfies commutative property

that is for all a , b in G then aob=b0a

Examples: The set of non- zero Rationales Q0 , Reals R0 and complex numbers C0 are all

Abelian groups wrt multiplication .

Theorem: - ( Uniqueness of identity ) Prove that every group has unique Identity.

Proof: If possible, suppose that 𝑒 and 𝑒′ are two identity elements in a group 𝐺.

𝑒 = Identity element and 𝑒 = Element

We know that a e = a = e a
∴ e ‘ e = e ‘ = e e ’ -----------------(1)
𝑒 ‘= Identity element and 𝑒 =Element
∴ ee‘=e=e‘e ---------(2)
From (1) and (2) e ‘ = e e ‘ = e
∴e‘=e
Hence the Identity element is unique.

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Theorem: (Uniqueness of inverse)
The inverse of each element of a group is unique.
Proof
For all a ∊ G to show that it has unique inverse.
Suppose b, c are two inverse elements of a in G
If b is inverse of a we get ab = e = b a ---------(1)
If c is inverse of a we get ac = e = c a ----------(2)
To show that b = c
As b = eb ( ∵ e is the Identity )
=(ca) b (∵ from (2) e = ca )
= c(ab) ∵ Associate property in G
= c(e) ∵ from (1)
=c ∴ b = c . Therefore inverse element is unique .
Theorem (Cancellation laws)
For any 𝑎≠0, 𝑏, 𝑐 in a group G. Prove that
1.If 𝑎 𝑏 = 𝑎 𝑐 ⇒ 𝑏 = 𝑐 ( Left cancellation)
2. If 𝑏 𝑎 = 𝑐 𝑎 ⇒ 𝑏 = 𝑐 (Right cancellation)
Proof: Let 𝑎 𝑏 = 𝑎 𝑐
⇒ a-1 (ab) = a-1(ac) (since a ∈ G by inverse law a-1 ∈ G)
⇒ (a-1a) b = (a-1a) c ( by Associative in G )
⇒ (e)b =(e) c ( by Inverse property in G)
⇒b=c since e is the identity
Also, if 𝑏𝑎 = 𝑐𝑎
⇒ (𝑏𝑎) a-1 = (𝑐𝑎) a-1 (since a ∈ G by inverse law a-1 ∈ G)
⇒ 𝑏 (𝑎 a-1 ) = 𝑐 ( 𝑎 a-1 ) ( by Associative in G )
⇒ 𝑏𝑒 = 𝑐𝑒 ( by Inverse property in G)
⇒𝑏=𝑐
Hence cancellation laws hold in a group G

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Theorem (Reversion rule) : In a Group G, Prove that ( 𝑎 𝑏 ) −1 = 𝑏 −1
𝑎 −1
. for all a, b in G.
−1 −1
Proof: Let c = 𝑏 𝑎 . for all a, b in G
Consider c (ab) = b-1 a-1 (ab)
= b-1( a-1 a)b ( By Associative in G )
= b-1(e)b ( By Inverse property in G)
= b-1b ( Since e is the identity )
=e
∴ c ( a b ) = e ----------(1)
Also (ab)c = (ab) b-1 a-1
= a(b b-1) a-1 ( By Associative in G )
= a(e)a-1 ( By Inverse property in G)
= aa-1 (Since e is the identity )
= e --------(2)
from (1) and (2)
∴ c(ab) = e = (ab)c ⇒ c = (ab)-1
Hence (ab)-1 = b-1 a-1

Theorem:

L et 𝐺 be a group and 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 then prove that (𝑎−1)−1 = 𝑎.

Proof: - For all a ∈ 𝐺 by Inverse property in G ∃ 𝑎−1 in G such that

a 𝑎−1 = e = 𝑎−1 a ……….(1)

Let b= 𝑎−1∈ G by inverse property ∃ an element b-1 ∈ G such that

bb-1 = e = b-1b But b= 𝑎−1

∴ (a-1 ) ( a-1 )-1=e=( a-1 )-1 a-1………………..(2)

From (1) & (2) a 𝑎−1=(a-1)-1a-1

Apply Right cancellation law

We get (𝑎−1)−1 = 𝑎.

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Problem:

Show that G = { a + b √2 : a, b ∈ Q } form an abelian group wrt Addition .

Solution: Given G = { a + b √2 : a, b ∈ Q }

To show that < G,+ > form an abelian group.

1.Closure property: ∀ x = a1 + b1 √2 y = a2 + b2 √2 ∈ G then

x + y = (a1 + b1 √2 ) +( a2 + b2 √2 ) = (a1+ a2) + (b1 + b2) √2

= a’ +b’√2 ∈ G where a’ = ( a1+ a2 ) and b’=( b1 + b2) ∈ Q

Closure property holds.

2.Associative property: Since all the elements in G are all Real numbers and < R, + > is an

Abelian Group. Therefore, Associative holds in G .

Problem: Show that the set of integers Z form a Group w r t the operation * defined by

a * b = a +b -1 for all a , b in Z

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Solution: To show that < Z,* > form a Group
1.Closure Property: for a, b ∈ Z ⇒ a + b ∈ Z and -1 ∈ Z
⇒ a + b + (-1) ∈ Z
⇒ a + b -1 ∈ Z ( Since < Z,+ > is a group.)
⇒ a*b∈Z .
2.Associative Property: for a, b, c ∈ Z then
To verify a * ( b * c ) = ( a * b )* c .
LHS = a * ( b * c ) = a* ( b + c - 1 )
= a * x where x = b + c - 1
=a+x–1
= a + ( b + c – 1) -1
=a+b+c–2
RHS = ( a * b )* c = ( a + b -1 ) * c
=y*c where y = a + b -1
= y+c–1
= ( a + b -1) + c – 1
=a+b+c–2
∴ LHS = RHS
3.Existence of Identity: For all a ∈ Z there is an element e ∈ Z ( to find ) such that
a*e=a = e*a
If a * e = a ⇒ a + e -1 = a
⇒ e -1 = 0
⇒ e = 1 ∈ Z is the Identity wrt *
4. Existence of Inverse :For all a ∈ Z there is an element x ∈ Z ( to find ) such that
a*x=e =x*a
If a * x = e ⇒ a + x -1 = 1
⇒ x = 2 - a ∈ Z is the Inverse element of a wrt * in Z
< Z, * > form a Group .

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Problem: Show that the set of Rational numbers Q 1 =Q-{-1}form an abelian Group
w r t the operation defined by
a * b = a +b - ab for all a , b in Q 1

Solution: To show that < Q1 ,* > form an abelian Group

1.Closure Property: for a, b ∈ Q1 ⇒ a + b ∈ Q1 and ab ∈ Q1
⇒ a + b + (-ab) ∈ Q1 ( since < Q1,+ > is a group)
⇒ a + b – ab ∈ Q1
⇒ a * b ∈ Q1

3.Existence of Identity: For all a ∈ Q1 there is an element e ∈ Q1 ( to find ) such that

a*e=a =e*a
If a * e = a ⇒ a + e - ae = a
⇒ e(1 – a) = 0
⇒ e = 0 ∈ Q1 is the Identity wrt *
4. Existence of Inverse: For all a ∈ Q1 there is an element x ∈ Z ( to find ) such that
a*x=e =x*a
If a * x = e ⇒ a + x - a x = 0 ( since e=0 )
⇒ x( 1- a ) = -a
⇒ x = -a / ( 1- a ) in Q1 is the Inverse element of a .

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5. Commutative property: For all a , b ∈ Q1 then
a * b = a + b – a b =b + a – b a = b * a
< Q1, * > form an Abelian Group

Problem: Show that the set of positive rational numbers Q+ form an abelian group wrt an
𝐚𝐛
operation * defined by a*b= for all a, b ∈ Q+.
𝟑
𝐚𝐛
Solution: Given that a * b = for all a, b ∈ Q+.
𝟑

To show that < Q+., * > form an abelian group.

1. Closure property: for all a, b ∈ Q+. and Q+. is a group wrt multiplication
𝟏
⇒ a b ∈ Q+. and ∈ Q+.
𝟑
𝟏
⇒ a b . 𝟑 ∈ Q+. since closure law in Q+.
𝐚𝐛
⇒ ∈ Q+
𝟑

⇒ a * b ∈ Q+.
∴ Closure property exist.

2.Associative property: for all a, b, c ∈ Q+. then to verify a * ( b* c ) = ( a * b) * c.

bc bc
LHS = a * ( b* c ) = a * ( ) = a * x where x =
3 3
bc
ax a( ) a(bc) (ab)c
3
= = = = since a ,b, c ∈ Q+
3 3 9 9
ab
( )c
3
= 3
( y )c ab
= where y = =a*b
3 3

=y*c
= ( a * b ) * c = RHS ∴ Associative property holds.
3. Identity property : for all a ∈ Q+. we have an element ( to find ) e∈ Q+. such that
a * e = a = e * a.
ae
if a*e=a⇒ = a⇒ e = 3 ∈ Q+. is the identity wrt *
3

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4.Inverse property: for all a ∈ Q+. we have an element ( to find ) x ∈ Q+. such that
a * x = e = x * a.
ax
if a*x=e ⇒ =3 since e = 3
3
9
⇒ x = ∈ Q+. is the inverse element of a wrt *
a

5. Commutative property : for all a,b ∈ Q+.

ab ba
a*b= = =b*a ( since a b = b a in Q+.).
3 3

Hence < Q+., * > form an abelian group.

cosα −sinα
Problem : Show that G = {A 𝛂 = ( ) : α ∈ Z } is an abelian group wrt
sinα cosα
Matrix multiplication.

Solution:
cosα −sinα
To show that G = {A 𝛂 = ( ) : α ∈ Z } is an abelian group wrt
sinα cosα
matrix multiplication.

cosα −sinα cosβ −sinβ

1.Closure property: For all A α =( ) Aβ =( ) in G
sinα cosα sinβ cosβ

cosα −sinα cosβ −sinβ

Then AαAβ = ( )( )
sinα cosα sinβ cosβ

cosα cosβ − sinα sinβ −cosα sinβ − sinαcosβ

=( )
sinαcosβ + cosα sinβ −sinα sinβ + cosαcosβ

cos( α + β) −sin( α + β)
=( ) = A α + β. ∈ G
sin( α + β) cos( α + β)
(Since α , β ∈ Z ⇒ α + β ∈ Z )

∴ A α A β = A α + β.

2.Associative property: we know that in matrix multiplication for any

three Matrices Associative property holds ∴ Associative property exist.

cosα −sinα
3. Identity property: For all A α =( ) there exist A 0 in G such that
sinα cosα

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 A α A 0 = Aα+ 0= A α and A 0 Aα = A 0+ α = A α

cos 0 −sin 0
∴ A0 =( ) is the identity
sin 0 cos 0

cosα −sinα
4.Inverse property: For all A α =( ) there exist A (- α) in G such that
sinα cosα

Aα A(- α ) = A α + (- α ) = A 0 and A (- α ) A α = A (- α ) + α =A0

∴ A (- α ) is the inverse matrix of A α.

5.Commutative property :

For all A α , A β in G then A α A β = A α + β = A β + α = A β A α

Hence < G , . > is an abelian group

x x
Problems: Show that the set of matrices G = {( ) : x ∈ Q − {0}} is a group wrt
x x
matrix multiplication.

Solution:
a a b b
1.Closure property: For all A = ( ) B=( ) in G
a a b b
Then

a a b b ab + ab ab + ab 2ab 2ab
AB=( )( ) =( ) =( ) in G
a a b b ab + ab ab + ab 2ab 2ab

( Since a, b ∈ Q − {0} ⇒ a b ∈ Q − {0} )

2.Associative property : We know that in matrix multiplication for any
Three Matrices A, B, C in G A ( B C ) = (A B) C holds
∴ Associative property exist.

3. Identity property:

a a e e
For all A = ( ) there exist E = ( ) in G (to find) such that
a a e e

A E = A = E A.

a a e e a a
If A E = A ⇒ ( )( )=( )
a a e e a a

2ae 2ae a a
⇒ ( )=( )
2ae 2ae a a

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 𝟏
⇒ 2ae = a ⇒ e = 𝟐 ∈ 𝐐 − {𝟎} .
1/2 1/2
∴ Identity element E = ( ) in G Exist
1/2 1/2
a a x x
4.Inverse property: For all A = ( ) there exist X = ( ) in G (to find)such that
a a x x

A X = E = X A.

a a x x e e
If A X = E ⇒ ( )( )=( )
a a x x e e

2ax 2ax 1/2 1/2

⇒ ( )=( )
2ax 2ax 1/2 1/2

1 1
⇒ 2 ax = 2 ⇒ x = ∈ Q − {0} .
4a

1/4a 1/4a
∴ Inverse of X is X -1= ( ) in G exist.
1/4a 1/4a

Hence < G, . > is a group .

Problem: Show that the set of cube roots of unity form a group wrt multiplication.
Solution : We know that the set of cube roots of unity
G = {1, ω, ω2 } where ω3 = 1.
To Construct Multiplication Table For G = {1, ω, ω 2 }

1.Closure property: Using the composition table the multiplication of any two elements in G
is also in G
That is for all a, b ∈ G ⇒ a b ∈ G.

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 Closure law exist.
2.Associative property: all the elements in G are complex numbers. But the set of complex
numbers satisfies associative.
∴ Associative exist in G.
3.Existence of Identity: Using the table
1.1 = 1, ω. 1= ω and ω2 .1= ω2
“ 1” is the identity in G.
4. Existence of Inverse: Using the table
1.1 = 1 ω . ω2 =1 and ω2 . ω = 1
Each element in G has inverse in G
Hence G is a group wrt multiplication.

Problem: Show that the set of 4th roots of unity is a Group wrt multiplication
G= { 1, -1,i,-i } form a group wrt multiplication.
Solution : Given G= { 1, -1,i,-i } where i 2 =-1 and i 3=-i and i4 =1
To Construct Multiplication Table For G = {1, -1, i, -i }

1.Closure property: Using the composition table the multiplication of any two elements in G
is also in G
That is for all a, b ∈ G ⇒ a b ∈ G.
Closure law exist.
2.Associative property: all the elements in G are complex numbers.
The set of complex numbers satisfies associative.

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 ∴ Associative exist in G.
3.Existence of Identity: Using the table
1.1 = 1, (-1 ) 1= -1 i.1= i and ( -i ) . 1= -i
“ 1” is the identity in G.
4. Existence of Inverse: Using the table
1.1 = 1 (-1)(-1)=1 , i(-i )=1 and (-i)(i) = 1
Each element in G has inverse in G
Hence G is a group wrt multiplication.

Problem : show that the set of nth roots of unity form a group wrt multiplication of complex
numbers.
n
Solution : let x = √1 = ( 1+o i )1/n = [ cos 0 + i sin 0 ]1/n
=[ cos ( 2kπ+ 0 ) + i sin ( 2kπ + 0 ) ]1/n
For k = 0,1,2,3, ……(n-1)
x = [ cos ( 2kπ ) + i sin ( 2kπ ) ]1/n
For k = 0,1,2,3, ……(n-1)
= [ cos ( 2kπ )/n + i sin ( 2kπ )/n ]
For k = 0,1,2,3, ……(n-1)
{Since [ cos 𝛉 + i sin 𝛉 ] n =[ cos 𝐧𝛉 + i sin 𝐧𝛉 ] and cos 𝛉 + i sin 𝛉 = 𝐞𝐢𝛉 }
x = ei(2kπ)/n For k = 0,1,2,3, ……(n-1)
Put k = 0,1,2,3, ……(n-1) and ω = ei(2π)/n we get
G = { ω0, ω1, ω2, ω3 ω4 . . . . . . . ωn-1 } and ω n =1

By the definition of G for all a ∈ G an=1 --------(1)

To show that G is a group wrt multiplication.
1.Closure property:
For all a , b ∈ G a n = 1 and b n =1
Now ( ab )n = a n b n =1.1=1 ⇒ a b∈ G .
∴ Closure property exist.
2.Associative Property: All the elements in G are complex numbers.
The set of complex numbers satisfies associative.
∴ Associative exist in G.

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3.Existence of Identity: By the definition of nth roots of unity 1 = ω0 = ωn
is the identity in G.
4.Existence of Inverse: For all ω r ∈G where 0 ≤ r ≤ n-1 ∃ an element
ω(n-r) ∈ G where n-r ≥ 0 such that ω r ω(n-r) = ωn =1.
∴ ω(n-r) ∈ G is the inverse element of ω r .
Hence G is a group wrt multiplication
Problem: Let G is a group then show that for all a, b ∈ G ( a b )2 = a2 b2 if and only if G is
abelian.
Solution :
⇒ Part
Suppose in a Group G for all a, b ∈ G ( a b )2 = a2 b2
⇒ ( a b )( a b ) = ( a a)( bb )
⇒ a (b a) b = a( a b)b
⇒ (b a) b = ( a b)b ( ∵ by left cancellation )
⇒ (b a) = ( a b) ( ∵ by Right cancellation )
⇒ G is abelian.
⇐ Part
Let G is abelian group. To show that for all a, b ∈ G ( a b )2 = a2 b2
LHS = ( a b )2 for all a, b ∈ G
= ( a b)( a b ) = a ( b a) b ( ∵ Associative )
= a ( a b )b ( ∵ G is abelian group )
= ( a a)( b b ) = a2 b2 = RHS

&&&&&&&&&&&&&&

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 SUB GROUPS

Syllabus
UNIT 2: SUBGROUPS: - Complex Definition -Subgroup definition –
examples subgroups. product of two subgroups to be a subgroup-
union and Intersection of subgroups.
Definition ( Complex of the Group )
If G is a Group then any non-empty subset of G is called Complex of the Group .
Example: H= { 2,3,4,5,6,…… } is a Complex of the Group < Z,+ >
Example : H={ i,-i } is a complex of the Group G={ 1,-1,i,-i }.
Properties: If H and K are complex of the group G then

-1 -1
1. H = { h : h ∈ H }

2. HH={ h1h2 : h1 ∈ H, h2 ∈ H }

-1 -1
3. HH ={ h1h2 : h1 ∈ H, h2 ∈ H }

4. HK = { h k : h∈ H , k ∈ K }

Definition (Sub group) : A non-empty subset H of a group G is said to be subgroup of G if H

satisfies all the four properties of the group or H it self is a group.

Example: H = { 1, -1 } is a sub group of G = { 1 , -1, i , -i }

Example: The set of Even Integers

2Z = {. . . . . .. -6, -4, -2,0,2,4,6, . . ...} and the multiples of 3 i.e.

3Z = { . . . . . . . -9,-6,-3,0,3,6,9, . . . . .} etc are the subgroups of Group of Integers Z.

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Result: Prove that if H is a sub group of G then H-1 = H.

Proof : let H is a sub group of G

For all h ∈ H and H is a subgroup of G

By inverse law h-1 ∈ H⇒ [ h-1]-1 ∈ H-1

⇒ h ∈ H-1

⇒ H ⊆ H -1 -------(1)

For all h-1 ∈ H -1 where h∈H but H is a subgroup of G

By inverse law h-1 ∈ H.

∴ H -1⊆ H -------(2)

From (1) and (2) H-1 = H

Note :But converse is not true. since H={ i,-i } is a subset of a Group G={ 1,-1,i,-i }.

Clearly H-1 = { i-1,(-i ) -1 } = { -i, i } = H but H is not a subgroup of G

Theorem (Necessary and sufficient condition for sub group of a group)

Statement: A non-empty subset H of a group G to be a subgroup if and only if

for all a, b ∈H ⇒ a b -1 ∈ H.

Proof: ⇒ Part Suppose H is a subgroup of G

for all a, b ∈H

⇒ a ∈ H, b ∈H

⇒ a ∈ H, b-1 ∈ H ( since H is subgroup inverse property in H)

⇒ a b -1 ∈ H. ( by closure property in H).

⇐ Part Assume that H is a subset of G and for all a, b ∈ H ⇒ a b -1 ∈ H.

1.for all a ∈ H ⇒ a∈ H, a ∈ H ⇒ a a -1 ∈ H ( given)

⇒e∈ H. Identity element exist in H.

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 2.As e ∈ H and for all b ∈ H ⇒ e b -1 ∈ H

⇒ b -1 ∈ H

∴ for all b ∈ H ⇒ b -1 ∈ H

Inverse property exists in H

3. for all a, b ∈ H ⇒ a ∈ H, b ∈ H

⇒ a ∈ H, b-1 ∈ H ( since for all b∈H ⇒ b -1 ∈ H)

⇒ a ( b-1)-1 ∈ H ( for all a, b ∈ H ⇒ a b -1 ∈ H.)

⇒ ab ∈ H

Closure property exist in H

4. as H⊆ G and G is a group and it satisfies associative property

And hence H Satisfies associative.

Hence H is a subgroup of G

Theorem: Let G is a group then prove that H is a subgroup of G ⇔ HH-1 = H.

Proof: ⇒ Part Let H is a subgroup of G the HH=H and H -1 = H ---------(1)

LHS = HH-1 = HH = H = RHS ( since from (1) )

⇐ Part Let H is a subset of G & HH-1 = H.to show than H is a subgroup

By the definition of HH -1 for all a, b ∊ H the ab-1 ∊ HH-1= H ⇒ ab-1 ∊ H.

Hence the theorem

Theorem : The necessary and sufficient condition for a nonempty finite subset H of the group
G to be a subgroup is that for all a,b ∈ H then ab ∈ H.

Proof : ⇒ Part Suppose H is a subgroup of G

∴ by closure property in H for all a,b ∈ H then ab ∈ H.

BSR_Maths
 ⇐ Part Suppose H is finite subset of group G and

for all a,b ∈ H then ab ∈ H.-------(1)

To show that H is a subgroup of G .

1. Identity property: From (1) for all a ∈ H ⇒ a, a ∈ H

⇒ aa ∈ H⇒ a2 ∈ H⇒ again for a ∈ H, a2 ∈ H

⇒ a a2 ∈ H

⇒ a3 ∈ H and so on . . . . .

We get { a,a2,a3,a4,. . . . . . .an, . . . .} ⊆ H

But H is a finite subset of G. It is impossible.

∴ some elements are repeated suppose ar = as for s > r

⇒ ar a-r = as a-r for s > r

⇒ e = a s-r for s > r

as s > r ⇒ s - r > 0

∴ Identity element e = a s - r exist in H

2.Inverse property: for all a ∈ H ∃ an element a s-r-1 ∈ H such that

a a s-r-1 = e = a s-r-1a therefore inverse exist.

3.Closure property : given that for all a,b ∈ H then ab ∈ H.

As H ⊆ G Associative holds in H.

Hence the theorem.

BSR_Maths
Theorem: Let H and K are two subgroups of a group G then prove that

HK is a subgroup of G if and only is HK=KH.

Proof : ⇒ Part Let HK is a subgroup of G

⇒ (HK)-1 = HK ( since His a subgroup ⇒ H-1=H)

⇒ K-1 H -1= HK

⇒ K H = HK (since H,K are a subgroups ⇒ H-1=H and K-1=K)

⇐ Part : suppose H and K are two subgroups of a group G and HK=KH

To show that HK is a subgroup of G

That is to show that ( HK ) ( HK )-1 = HK (since H is a subgroup of G ⇔ HH-1 = H)

LHS= ( HK ) ( HK )-1 = ( HK ) K-1 H -1

= H ( K K-1 ) H -1 ( since associative)

= H ( K ) H -1 ( K is a subgroup of G ⇔ KK-1 = K)

= ( H K ) H -1

= (KH) H -1 ( since HK=KH )

= K( H H -1)

= KH ( since HH-1 = H)

=HK = RHS

Theorem :

Prove that the intersection of two subgroups is a subgroup of the group G .

Proof: Let H1 and H2 are two subgroups of the group G.

To show that H1 ∩ H2 is also subgroup of G .

1) As H1 and H2 are two subgroups of G by Identity property

e ∈ H1 and e ∈ H2 ⇒ e ∈ H1 ∩ H2

⇒ H1 ∩ H2 is non-empty sub set of G

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 2) For all a, b ∈ H1 ∩ H2 ⇒ ab -1 ∈ H1 ∩ H2

For all a, b ∈ H1 ∩ H2 ⇒ a, b ∈ H1 and a, b ∈ H2

But Let H1 and H2 are subgroups of G

∴ ab -1 ∈ H1 and ab -1 ∈ H2

⇒ ab -1 ∈ H1 ∩ H2

Hence H1 ∩ H2 is subgroup of the group G

Theorem : Prove that the union of two subgroups is a subgroup of a group G if and only if
one is contained in other .

Proof : Let H1 and H2 are two subgroups of the group G To prove that

H1∪ H2 is a subgroup ⇔ H1 ⊆ H2 or H2 ⊆ H1

⇐Part Let H1 and H2 are two subgroups of the group G and H1 ⊆ H2 or H2 ⊆ H1

To show that H1∪ H2 subgroup

If H1 ⊆ H2 ⇒ H1∪ H2 = H2 subgroup of G

If H2 ⊆ H1 ⇒ H1∪ H2 = H1 subgroup of G

⇒ Part let H1 and H2 subgroups and H1∪ H2 is a subgroup

To show that H1 ⊆ H2 or H2 ⊆ H1

If H1 ⊄ H2 ⇒ For all a ∈ H1 ⊄ H2 => a ∈ H1 but a∉ H2 ----(1)

If H2 ⊄ H1 ⇒ For all b ∈ H2 ⊄ H1 => b ∈ H2 but b∉ H1 ------(2)

As a ∈ H1 b ∈ H2 => a, b ∈ H1∪ H2

But H1∪ H2 is a subgroup

∴ ab∊ H1∪ H2

⇒ ab ∊ H1 or ab ∊ H2 -----------------(3)

From (1) and (3)

For a ∊ H1 ab ∊ H1 ⇒ a-1 ∊ H1 ( subgroup ) ab ∊ H1

⇒ a-1(ab ) ∊ H1 ( Closure property in H1 )

⇒ (a-1a)b ∊ H1

⇒ eb ∊ H1

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 ⇒ b ∊ H1 but b ∉ H1 it is contradiction

Also from (2) and(3)

ab ∊ H2 b ∊ H2 ⇒ ab ∊ H2 b-1 ∊ H2 ( subgroup )

⇒ (ab ) b-1 ∊ H2 ( Closure property in H1 )

⇒ a(b b-1) ∊ H2

⇒ ae ∊ H2

⇒ a ∊ H2 but a ∉ H2 it is contradiction .

∴ H1 ⊆ H2 or H2⊆ H1

&&&&&&&&&&&

BSR_Maths
 COSETS IN GROUPS

B. SRINIVASARAO.

Sg. Lecturer In Mathematics.

Sir C R Reddy Autonomous College.

Eluru. WGDist

Syllabus Co-sets in Groups

Co-sets Definition – properties of Cosets–Index of a subgroups of a finite group–Lagrange’s
Theorem.

UNIT – 2
Definition ( Co sets) : Let H is a subgroup of the group G then for any a ∈ G to define a set
if H = { h1, h2, h3, . . .. h n, . . ..}
Ha = { ha: h ∈ H }
= { h1 a,h2 a,h3a , . . . . hna , . . . . } is a right coset of H.
and a H = { ah: h ∈ H }
= { ah1,ah2,ah3, . . . . ahn , . . . . } is the left coset of H in G
Example: We know that
H = {. . . . . . . -6,-4,-2,0,2,4,6, . . . . .} is a sub group of additive group of Integers
Z = {. . . . . . .-6,-5,-4,-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3,4,5,6, . . . . . .. }
Then the right cosets of H for 3∈ Z but 3 ∉' H
H + 3 = { . . . . . . -6+3,-4+3,-2+3,0+3,2+3,4+3,6+3, . . . . .}
= { . . . . . . -3,-1,1,3,5,7,9, . . . . . . . . }.
H+5 = { . . . . . . .-6+5, -4+5,-2+5,0+5,2+5,4+5,6+5, . . .}
= { . . . . . .-1,1,3,5,7,9,11, . . . . . . .} for 5∈ Z but 5 ∉' H
H+ 2 = {. . . . . . . -6+2,-4+2,-2+2,0+2,2+2,4+2,6+2, . . . . .}
={ . . . . . . .-4,-2,0,2,4,6,8, . . . . . .} =H
∴ for 2∈ H iff H+ 2 = H

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 Similarly for 4 ∈ H iff H+ 4 = H
Note: For a ∈ H if and only if Ha = H = a H.
Theorem
If H is a subgroup of the group G for any a, b ∈ G Prove that
i) Ha = Hb iff ab-1 ∈ H
ii) aH = bH iff a-1b ∈ H
⇒ part
Suppose Ha = Hb --------(1)
As a ∊ Ha ⇒ a∊ Hb since from (1)
⇒ ab -1∊ Hb b-1
⇒ ab -1∊ He
⇒ ab -1∊ H
⇐ Part .
Suppose ab -1∊ H ⇒ H ab -1 = H ( since a∊ H ⇔ Ha = H = aH)
⇒ (H ab -1) b = Hb
⇒ H a(b -1 b) = Hb
⇒ H a(e) = Hb
⇒ H a = Hb
i) Similarly to prove second one also. aH = bH iff a-1b ∈ H
Theorem: If H is a subgroup of the group G for any a, b ∈ G Prove that
i) a ∈ Hb iff Ha = Hb
ii) b ∈ Ha iff a H = b H
Proof : i) ⇒ Part
As a ∈ Hb ⇒ ab -1∊ Hbb-1
⇒ ab -1 ∊ He
⇒ ab -1 ∊ H
⇒ H ab -1 = H ( since a ∈ H if and only if Ha = H )
⇒ ( H ab -1 ) b=Hb
⇒ H a = Hb
⇐ Part Let H a=Hb clearly a ∈ Ha ⇒ a ∈ Hb since H a=Hb
Similarly, to prove b ∈ a H iff a H = b H

BSR - MATHEMATICS
Theorem : Prove that in a group G any two right or left cosets are either
identical or disjoint .

Proof: Let H is a subgroup of the group G to show that for any a, b ∈ G the
right cosets Ha and Hb are

either Ha = Hb (identical) or Ha ∩ Hb = 𝜑 (disjoint)

Part-1 suppose Ha ∩ Hb ≠ 𝜑

∴ for any x ∈ Ha ∩ Hb ⇒ x ∈ Ha and x ∈ Hb

⇒ x = h1a and x = h2b for h1, h2 ∈ H

⇒ h1a = h2b for h1, h2 ∈ H

⇒ h1 -1( h1a) = h1 -1 ( h2b )

⇒( h1 -1h1 )a = (h1 -1 h2 )b
⇒ e a = (h1 -1 h2 )b
⇒ a =h3 b ∈ Hb where h3 = h1 -1 h2 ∈ H
⇒ a ∈ Hb ⇒ Ha = Hb identical
Similarly, to prove left cosets also
Part-2 It is very clear if Ha ≠ Hb then Ha ∩ Hb = 𝜑

Lagrange’s Theorem
Statement The order of a subgroup H of a finite group G is a divisor of order of the group G
that is O(H) is a factor of O(G)

Proof. Let G be a group of finite order n. ie O(G)=n

Let H be a subgroup of G and let o (H)=m
Suppose h1 , h2,... hm are the m members of H. Let a ∈G.
Then Ha is a right coset of H in G and we have
Ha= { h1a , h2 a,... hm a }.
Ha has m distinct members, since h ia=hja⇒ hi=hj for i≠j
Therefore O ( Ha )= m. for all a ∈G
But any two distinct right cosets of H in G are disjoint
ie , they have no element in common. Since G is a finite group, the number of distinct right
cosets of H in G will be finite, say, equal to k.

BSR - MATHEMATICS
The union of these k distinct right cosets of H in G is equal to G.
Thus Ha1 , Ha2,... ,H ak are the k distinct right cosets of H in G,
∴ G = Ha1∪ Ha2∪ …………. ∪ Hak
⇒ o( G ) = O( Ha1∪ Ha2∪ ………….∪ Hak )
= O(Ha1 )+ O( Ha2 )+ ………….+O( H ak )
Since Ha1 ,Ha2,…………. Hak are disjoint co-sets
= m + m+ ………+m ( k times ) Since O( H a ) = m for all a ∊ G
n =km ( Since O(G) = n )
⇒ m/n ( Since 12 =3 × 4 ⇒ 3/12)
⇒ O(H) / O(G) that is order of the subgroup is a divisor of order of the Group
Note: n (A∪ B) = n( A ) + n( B)- n( A⋂ B ) But if A and B are disjoint ie A⋂ B =ϕ then
n ( A∪ B ) = n( A ) + n( B)
Note: 3× 5 =15 ⇒ 3 is a factor of 15 and 5 is a factor of 15 i e 3/15 5/15
And 17 × 4 = 68 ⇒ 17 is a factor of 68 and 4 is a factor of 68. ie 17/68 ,4/68

&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&

BSR - MATHEMATICS
 NORM AL SUBGROUPS

By

B.Srinivasarao. SG. Lecturer In Mathematics.

Sir C.R.Reddy( Aided & Autonomous ) College. Eluru

II B.Sc. Syllabus and UNIT –3 : NORMAL SUBGROUPS & Quotient Groups

Definition of normal subgroup – proper and improper normal subgroup– intersection of two
normal subgroups – Sub group of index 2 is a normal – simple group –Quotient group .
Definition (Normal subgroup):
A non-empty subset N of Group G is said to be a Normal subgroup of G

if 1. For all a, b ∊ N ⇒ ab-1 ∊ N (subgroup property)

2. For all x ∊ G, n ∊ N ⇒ xnx-1 ∊ N (Normal property)

Note : If H is Normal then xHx-1 = { xnx-1 : x∊ G, n ∊ H } ⊆ H

Example: H= { 1,-1 } is a Normal subgroup of G= { 1,-1,i,-i }

let x= i, n=-1 ∊ H and x-1 =i-1 = -I ∊ G

Now xnx-1= i(-1)(-i) = -1 ∊ H

Simple Group: A group G having no proper normal subgroups is called simple group

ie { e } and G are only Normal subgroups of G

Theorem: -1

If N is a subgroup of a group G then prove that N is Normal if and only if xNx -1 = N ∀ x ∈ G.

Proof: ⇒ part.

Suppose N is normal subgroup of G

∀ x ∈ G. n ∈ N ⇒ xnx-1 ∈ N

⇒ { xnx-1 ∈ N : n ∈ N } ⊆ N

⇒ xNx-1 ⊆N --------------(1)

From (1) for all x ∈ G. ⇒ x-1 ∈ G

Therefore ( x -1 ) N (x-1 )-1 ⊆ N

⇒ x -1N x ⊆ N

BSR - MATHEMATICS
 ⇒ x ( x -1N x ) x-1 ⊆ x N x -1 ∀ x ∈ G.

⇒ ( x x -1) N (x x -1 ) ⊆ x N x -1 ∀ x ∈ G.

⇒ ( e ) N (e ) ⊆ x N x -1 ∀ x ∈ G.

⇒ N ⊆ x N x -1 ∀ x ∈ G. ---------(2)

From (1) and (2) xNx-1 = N ∀ x ∈ G.

⇐ part

Suppose xNx-1 = N ∀ x ∈ G to show that N is normal

By the definition of xNx-1

∀ x ∈ G. n ∈ N ⇒ xnx-1 ∈ x N x-1 = N

⇒ xnx-1 ∈ N

Hence N is normal subgroup of G

Theorem: 2

If N is a subgroup of a group G then prove that N is Normal if and only if each left coset of N is
the right coset of N in G .

Proof: ⇒ part Suppose N is normal subgroup of G

x N x-1 = N ∀ x ∈ G.

⇒ ( x N x-1 ) x = N x

⇒ x N (x-1 x )= N x ∀ x ∈ G. ( by associative)

⇒ x N = N x ∀ x ∈ G.

⇒ each left coset of N is the right coset of N in G .

⇐ part Suppose xN=Ny ∀ x, y ∈ G. -----------(1)

As x ∈ x N = N y ∀ y ∈ G.

⇒x∈Ny ∀y ∈ G.

⇒ Nx= Ny ∀y ∈ G. --------(2)

From (1) and (2) xN=Nx ∀ x ∈ G.

⇒ x-1( x N )= x-1N x ∀ x ∈ G.

⇒ ( x-1 x )N = x-1N x ∀ x ∈ G.

⇒ e N = x-1N x ∀ x ∈ G ⇒ N = x-1N x ∀ x ∈ G.

Hence N is normal subgroup of G.

Theorem: 3

BSR - MATHEMATICS
 If N is a subgroup of a group G then prove that N is Normal if and only if product of two right
(left) cosets of N is again right(left) coset of N in G.

Proof:

⇒ Part Suppose N is normal subgroup of G and N x, Ny are two right cosets of N .

To show that ( N x Ny ) = N x y ∀ x, y ∈ G

LHS = ( N x Ny )

= N( x N )y = N( N x )y ( since N is normal subgroup⇒ x N = N x )

=NNxy

= N x y ( since H is subgroup ⇒ H H = H )

=RHS

⇐ Part Let N is a subgroup of G and product of two right co sets of N is a right co set of N in G
ie (N x)( Ny ) = N x y ∀ x, y ∈ G …………….(1)

To show that N is Normal ie for all x ∊ G n ∊ N ⇒ xnx-1∊ N

Since xnx-1= e (xnx-1) since e is the identity in H

=(ex)( nx-1) ∊ ( Hx)(Hx-1 ) since e∊ H

=(ex)( nx-1) ∊( Hxx-1 ) since from (1)

=(x)( nx-1) ∊( He)

= x n x-1 ∊ H

∴ for all x ∊ G n ∊ H ⇒ xnx-1∊ H

Hence H is normal subgroup of G

Theorem:4

Prove that the intersection of two normal subgroups is also a normal subgroup of group G.

Proof: Let N1 and N2 are two normal subgroups of the group G.

To prove that N1 ∩ N2 is also a normal subgroup of G.

1) N1 ∩ N2 is non empty.

As N1 and N2 are subgroups by Identity law e ∈ N1 and e ∈ N2

⇒ e ∈ N1 ∩ N2

⇒ N1 ∩ N2 is nonempty.

2) For all a, b ∈ N1 ∩ N2 ⇒ ab-1 ∈ N1 ∩ N2

As For all a, b ∈ N1 ∩ N2 ⇒ a, b ∈ N1 and a, b ∈ N2

But N1 and N2 are subgroups of G

⇒ ab-1 ∈ N1 and ab-1∈ N2

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 ⇒ ab-1 ∈ N1 ∩ N2

3) For all x ∈ G , n ∈ N1 ∩ N2 ⇒ x n x-1 ∈ N1 ∩ N2

As for all x ∈ G , n ∈ N1 ∩ N2 ⇒ x ∈ G , n ∈ N1 and n ∈ N2

⇒ x ∈ G , n ∈ N1 and x ∈ G , n ∈ N2

But N1 and N2 are normal subgroups

⇒ x n x-1 ∈ N1 and x n x-1 ∈ N2

⇒ x n x-1 ∈ N1 ∩ N2

Hence N1 ∩ N2 is a normal subgroup of G

Definition ( Index of subgroup): In a group G the number of distinct right or left cosets of a
subgroup H is called Index of H in G and is denoted by [ H : G]

Theorem:5

Prove that every subgroup of index 2 is normal.

Proof: Let H is a sub group of a group G and index of H is 2.

To show that H is Normal.

As index of H is 2 ∴ for any x ∈ G ⇒ x ∈ H or x ∉ H .

If x ∈ H ⇒ Hx = H = x H ⇒ H is normal.

-------- GROUP G

If x ∉ H ⇒ we get a right coset Hx or a left coset xH.

If Hx is a right coset of H in G and index of H is 2.

∴ G = H ∪ Hx or G = H ∪ x H

⇒ H ∪ Hx = H ∪ x H

⇒ Hx = x H since H , Hx and x H are disjoint

⇒ H is normal.

Theorem :6

Let H is a subgroup and N is a normal subgroup of a group G then prove that H ∩ N is a normal
subgroup of H.

Proof: As H and N are subgroups of G ⇒ H ∩ N is a sub group of G

But H ∩ N ⊆ H ⇒ H ∩ N is a sub group of H.

BSR - MATHEMATICS
 ie to show that for all x ∈ H , n ∈ H ∩ N ⇒ x n x-1 ∈ H ∩ N

As for all x∈ H , n ∈ H ∩ N ⇒ for all x∈ H , n ∈ H and n ∈ N

⇒ for all x∈ H , n ∈ H and x ∈ G , n ∈ N ( ∵ H ⊆ G)

As N is normal subgroup of G ⇒ x ∈ G , n ∈ N ⇒ x n x-1 ∈ N ------------(1)

As H is a subgroup of G ⇒ for all x ∈ H, n ∈ H⇒ x, x-1 ∈ H, n ∈ H

⇒ x n x-1 ∈ H ( ∵ H is a subgroup of G ) --------(2)

From (1) and (2) x n x-1 ∈ H and x n x-1 ∈ N

⇒ x n x-1 ∈ H ∩ N.

Hence the theorem.

Theorem :7

Let N and M are two normal subgroups of a group G then prove that NM is also a normal
subgroup of G.

Proof:

We know that any sub group is commutes with a complex of a group .

Therefore NM = MN (Here we are taking M is complex of G )

⇒ NM is a subgroup of G ( ∵ HK is subgroup of G iff HK = KH )

Now to find the normal property

For all x ∈ G , nm ∈ NM ⇒ x (nm) x -1 ∈ NM

As x (nm) x -1 = x (n e m) x -1 = x [n ( x -1 x )m]x -1

= [x n x -1 ] [x m x -1 ] ∈ NM

Since N and M are normal subgroups of G

we get [x n x -1 ] ∈ N [x m x -1 ] ∈ M

Hence NM is a normal subgroup of G

Theorem: 8 ( Normalizer of a group )

If G is a group and for any a ∈ 𝐆 show that the set

N(a) = { x∈ 𝐆 : a x = x a for a ∈ 𝐆 is a subgroup of G and is called normalize of G.

Proof:

Given that for all x ∈ N(a) ⇔ a x = x a for a ∈ G

1) N(a) is non empty: we know that a e = e a ⇔ e ∈ N(a)

⇒ N(a) is nonempty sub set of G

2) for all x ∈ N(a) ⇒ x-1 ∈ N(a)

BSR - MATHEMATICS
 As f or all x ∈ N(a) ⇒ a x = x a

⇒ x -1 ( a x ) x -1= x -1
( x a ) x-1

⇒ ( x -1 a ) ( x x -1 )= (x -1 x ) (a x-1 )

⇒ (x -1 a ) (e )= (e ) (a x-1 )

⇒ x -1a = a x -1 ⇒ x-1 ∈ N(a)

3) for all x , y ∈ N(a) ⇒ to show that x y-1 ∈ N(a)

That is to show that a ( x y-1 ) = ( x y-1 ) a

LHS = a (x y-1) = (a x ) y-1 = (x a) y-1 ( since x ∈ N(a)  a x = x a for a ∈ G)

= x (a y-1 )

= x ( y-1a ) ( since y ∈ N(a) ⇒ y -1 ∈ N(a) )

= (x y-1 ) a =RHS

∴ N(a) is a normal subgroup of G

Note : N(e) = G where e is the identity and N(a) is not a normal subgroup of G
Theorem:9 Let M and N are two normal subgroups of group G such that M ⋂ N = { e } then prove

that each element in M is commute with each element in N.

Proof : Give that M,N are Normal subgroups of G and M ⋂ N = { e }
To show that for all m ∊ M , n ∊N then m n = n m
ie ( m n) (m n )-1 = (n m) (m n )-1
ie e = (n m) ( n-1m-1 )
ie n m n-1m-1 = e
Case -1 . Let M is Normal and N is a subgroup of G
∴ for all m ∊ M , n∊ N ⊆ G
⇒ m ∊ M , n∊ G and M is Normal
⇒ n m n-1 ∊ M but m-1 ∊ M
⇒ n m n-1 m-1 ∊ M by closure in M ……….(1)

Case-2 . Let N is Normal and M is a subgroup of G

∴ for all n ∊ N , m∊ M ⊆ G
⇒ n-1 ∊ N , m ∊ G and N is Normal
⇒ m n-1 m-1 ∊ N but n ∊ N
⇒ n m n-1 m-1 ∊ N by closure in N ………(2)
From (1),(2) n m n-1 m-1 ∊ M ⋂ N ={ e }
∴ n m n-1 m-1 = e It follows m n = n m

BSR - MATHEMATICS
 Quotient Group
Theorem:10

Prove that if N is a Normal subgroup of the group G then the set of cosets of N

G/N = { N a : a ∈ G } form a Group wrt coset multiplication

N a N b = Na b for all a,b ∈ G

Proof: To show that < G/N, . > is a Group

1.Closure Property: For all Na, N b ∈ G/N then a, b ∈ G but G is a Group

⇒ab∈G

⇒ N (a b) ∈ G/N (Since a∈ G ⇔ Na ∈ G/N

⇒ ( N a)(Nb) ∈ G/N

⇒ G/N is closed

2) Associative property: For all N a, N b, N c ∈ G/N where a, b, c ∈ G

Now (Na) [( Nb)( Nc )] = (N a) [ N(b c )]

= N[a (b c )]

= N[( a b )c )] since [a (b c )] = [( a b )c )] in G

=[N(a b)]( Nc )

=[(Na) ( Nb)] (Nc )

Associative property exist.

3)Identity property : For all Na in G/N there exist a coset Ne in G/N ( since e∈ G)

Such that (N a ) (Ne)= N( ae ) = N a.

(Ne )(Na)= N( e a ) = Na.

∴ Ne = N is the Identity in G/N.

4) Inverse property: For all Na in G/N there exist a coset Na-1 in G/N (since a∈ G ⇒ a-1∈ G

such that (Na )[ Na-1 ]= N[ a (a-1 )] = Ne = N.

[ Na-1 ] ( Na ) = N (a-1 a ) = Ne = N

∴ [ Na-1 ] is the inverse element of Na in G / N.

∴ < G/N, . > is a Group

Theorem :11 Let N is an normal subgroup of the group G then prove that

If G is commutative group then G / N also commutative

BSR - MATHEMATICS
Proof: For all Na, Nb ∈ G / N where a, b∈ G

( Na) (Nb) = N(a b)

= N (b a) ( since a b=b a in G)

= ( Nb) (N a)

Commutative property holds.

&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&

BSR - MATHEMATICS
 HOMOMORPHISMS AND ISOMORHISMS

Prepared by :

B.SRINIVASARAO.

SG. Lecturer in Mathematics

SIR C R REDDY AUTONOMOUS COLLEGE

ELURU

UNIT – 4 Syllabus HOMOMORPHISM:

Definition of homomorphism – Image of homomorphism elementary
properties of homomorphism – Isomorphism – automorphism definitions and
elementary properties–kernel of a homomorphism – fundamental theorem on
Homomorphism and applications.
Homomorphisms and Isomorphisms
Definition: Let G and G‘ are groups and a function f: G → G‘ is said to be
homomorphism if

for all a, b ∈ G then f (a b) = f(a) f(b).

Definition(Endomorphism): A homomorphism f from G into itself is called
endomorphism
Definition ( Isomorphism) : A function f: G → G‘ is said to be Isomorphism if it is
1) One-one 2) onto 3) Homomorphism
And is denoted by G ≅ G’

Monomorphism : A function f from a group G into a group G’ is said to be

Monomorphism if it is
1) one-one ie for all a , b ∈ G If f(a) = f(b) ⇒ a = b.
Homomorphism.
Ephimorphism: A function f from a group G into a group G’ is said to be
Epimorphism if it is
1) Onto ie for all y ∈ G’ ∃ an element x ∈ G such that y = f(x).
2) Homomorphism.

General properties of Homomorphism’s:

Let f : G → G’ is a homomorphism then prove that
1) f(e) =e’ where e’ is the identity in G’
2) f (a-1) = [ f(a)]-1 for all a ∈ G.
Proof : 1) By identity law in G a e = a = e a

Now f(a) = f(a e) = f(a) f( e ) since f is homomorphism

f(a) e ‘ = f(a) f( e ) where e’ is the identity in G’
e’= f( e) since by left cancellation law .
2) We know by inverse law e = a a-1 = a-1 a.

Since e’= f( e) = f( a a-1 ) = f( a ) f( a-1 ) ( ∵ f is homomorphism )

∴ e’ = f( a ) f( a-1 ) -----------(1)
Again e’= f( e) =f ( a-1 a) = f (a-1) f(a ) ( ∵ f is homomorphism )
e’= f(a-1) f(a ) -------------- (2)

from (1) and (2) f( a ) f(a-1 ) =e’ = f(a-1) f(a )

( ∵ x y = e = y x ⇒ y = x-1 )
It follows f (a-1) = [ f(a)]-1
Kernel of Homomorphism: Let f : G → G’ is a homomorphism then to define
Kernal of Homomorphism by

Ker f = { x ∈ G : f( x ) = e’ where e’ is the identity in G’ }

 and is denoted by K or Ker f.
Theorem:
Let f : G → G’ is a homomorphism then prove that Ker f is a normal
subgroup of G.

Proof : By the definition of Ker f

For all x ∈ Ker f if and only if f( x ) = e’ where e’ is the identity in G’---(1)
1)Kerf is nonempty:
By The General Property f(e) =e’ ⇒ Ker f is non empty.

2)For all a, b ∈ Ker f ⇒ ab - 1 ∈ Ker f

As f (ab - 1 ) = f (a) f(b - 1 ) ∵ f is homomorphism
= f (a) f(b)-1 ∵ f (a-1) = [ f(a)]-1
= e’( e’)-1 = e’ ∵ from (1)

∴ f (ab - 1 ) = e’ ⇒ ab - 1∈ Ker f
3) For all x ∈ G , n ∈ Ker f ⇒ x n x -1 ∈ Ker f.
Now f (x n x -1) = f( x ) f( n ) f( x -1) ∵ f is homomorphism
= f( x ) f( n ) [ f( x )] -1 ∵ f (a-1) = [ f(a)]-1
= f(x) e’ f(x ) -1 ( ∵ n ∈ Ker f ⇒ f(n ) = e’ )

= f(x) f(x ) -1 = e’.

∴ f ( x n x -1) = e’ it follows x n x -1 ∈ Ker f.
Theorem: If f : G → G’ is an onto homomorphism then prove that f is
Isomorphism if and only if Ker f = { e }
Proof: ⇒ Part
Let f is isomorphism to show that Ker f = { e }

For all x ∈ Ker f ⇔ f(x) = e’ where e’ is the identity in G’

⇔ f( x ) = f(e) since f(e) =e’
 ⇔ x = e since f is one-one function
⇔x∈{e}
∴ For all x ∈ Ker f ⇔ x ∈ { e }

∴ Ker f = { e }
<= part
let f : G → G’ is an onto homomorphism and Ker f = { e } to show that f is one-
one function .
Let f ( a ) = f( b ) for all a, b ∈ G
⇒ f( a ) [ f( b )] -1 = f( b ) [ f( b )] -1

⇒ f(a ) [ f( b -1)] = e’
⇒ f( a b -1) = e’
⇒ a b -1 ∈ Ker f = { e }
⇒ a b -1 ∈ { e }

⇒ a b -1 = e
⇒a=b
∴ f is one- one function .
Theorem:
Let N is a normal subgroup of the group G and G/N is the Quotient group
.then prove that the mapping

f : G → G / N defined by f( x ) = N x for all x ∈ G

is an onto homomorphism and Ker f = N
Proof:
Given that f( x ) = N x for all x ∈ G
1) f is onto: By the definition for all N x in G / N ∃ an element x ∈ G such that

f( x ) = N x it is onto.
2) f is Homomorphism:
For all x, y in G then
f ( x y) = N x y = N x N y Since N is normal subgroup of G

= f( x ) f( y )
∴ f is Homomorphism.
3)To show that Ker f = N.
For all x ∈ Ker f ⇔ f( x ) = N Since N is the Identity element in G / N
⇔Nx=N since by the definition of f
⇔x ∈N since a ∈ H ⇔ Ha = H= Ah
Hence Ker f = N
State and prove Fundamental theorem of Homomorphisms of Groups.

Statement:
Every homomorphic image of the group is isomorphic to some quotient group of
the group
Proof : Let G and G’ are two groups and f : G → G’ is an onto homomorphism
then f(G) = G’ is the homomorphic image of the group G.

As f : G → G’ is a homomorphism
∴ Ker f = { x ∈ G : f ( x ) = e’ where e’ is the identity in G’} exist .
Let Ker f = K but kernel of homomorphism is a normal subgroup of G.
∴ G / K = { K x : x ∈ G } is a Quotient Group .
To show that G / K is Isomorphic to G’

Define a function φ : G / K → G’ by φ (x) = Kx for all x ∈ G.

1) First to show that 𝛗 is well defined function G / K → G’:
For all Kx, Ky in G/K
Let Kx = Ky ⇒ xy-1 ∈ K
⇒ xy-1 ∈ Ker f since Ker f = K
 ⇒ f ( x y-1 ) = e’
⇒ f ( x ) f( y-1 ) = e’ since f is Homomorphism.
⇒ f ( x ) [ f ( y )] -1 = e’

⇒f(x) =f(y)
⇒ φ( Kx ) = φ(Ky )
∴ φ is well defined function
2) 𝛗 is one-one function G / K → G’:
For all Kx, Ky in G/K
Let φ( Kx ) = φ(Ky ) ⇒ f ( x ) = f ( y )
⇒ f ( x ) [ f ( y )] -1 = f ( y ) [ f ( y )] -1
⇒ f ( x ) f( y-1 ) = e’ since f (y) in G’ and is Homomorphism
⇒ f ( x y-1 ) = e’
⇒ xy-1 ∈ Ker f but Ker f = K
⇒ xy-1 ∈ K
⇒ Kx = Ky.
∴ φ is one-one

𝟑) 𝛗 is onto:
As : G/K → G’= f(G) is the function for any y = f(x) ∈ G’ and f is onto ∃ x ∈ G ⇒
K x ∈ G/K such that
φ ( Kx ) = y = f ( x )
⇒ φ is onto.
4) 𝛗 is Homomorphism: for all K x, K y in G/K
To verify that φ [(K x) (K y )] = φ (K x) φ (K y )
LHS = φ [(K x) (K y )] = φ [K x y ] since K is Normal subgroup of G
= f( x y ) by the definition of φ
 = f( x ) f( y ) since f is homomorphism
= φ (K x ) φ (K y ) = RHS
Hence φ is an isomorphism and G / K ≅ G’

Result: Show that the mapping a→a-1 is Automorphism on G iff G is abelian.

Proof:
⇒ part suppose f: G → G is an aotomorphism defined by
f(a)= a-1 for all a ∈ G
to show that G is abelian group
for all a, b ∈ G and f is Homomorphism
∴ f (a b) = f(a) f(b)
⇒ ( a b )-1 = a-1 b-1
⇒ ( a b )-1 =
( b a )-1
=
⇒ ab ba
∴ G is abelian group.
<= part suppose G is abelian group To show that f is Automorphism
1) one-one: for all a, b ∈ G

Let f(a) = f(b) ⇒ a-1 = b-1 ⇒ [ a-1 ]-1 = [ b-1 ]-1= a = b

2)onto: for all y ∈ G ∃ x ∈ G ⇒ x -1 ∈ G( Group) such that y = f(x) = x -1 ∈ G.
3) Homomorphism: for all a, b ∈ G
f(a b) = (a b)-1= (b a)-1 = a-1 b-1 = f(a) f(b) ( since G is abelian group )
Hence f is Automorphism.

&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&
 6.CYCLIC GROUPS
Definition:

In a group G each element is generated some element in G is called a cyclic group,

-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
that is G = { . . . . . . .. a ,a , a , a , a ,a, a , . . . . . . . .} is a cyclic group

generated by a ∈ 𝐺 and is denoted by < a >.

Example: 1.

2Z = { . . . . . .-6,-4,-2,0,2,4,6, . . . . . . .} cyclic group generated by 2 wrt addition

Example:2.

G = { 1 , -1, i, -i } is a cyclic group w r t multiplication and generated by i.

2 3 4
Since i= i, i = -1, i = -i, i = 1.
2 3 4
ie G= { i, i , i , i } = < i >.
2
Example:3 G= { 1,𝜔, 𝜔 } is also a cyclic group w r t multiplication.
2 2 3
Since 𝜔 = 𝜔, 𝜔 = 𝜔 , 𝜔 =1 .
Result: prove that every cyclic group is abelian group.
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
Proof: Let G = { . . . . . . .. a ,a , a , a , a ,a, a , . . . . . . . .} = < a >

is a cyclic group generated by a

t s
For all x, y ∈ 𝐺 ⇒ x = a , y= a where t, s ∈ Z then
t s t+s s+t
x y = a. a = a =a ( since t, s ∈ Z)
s t
=a a =yx

∴ Every cyclic group G is abelian group.

Theorem:-1

If a is a generator of a cyclic group G then prove that a -1 is also a generator of G.

 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
Proof: Let G = { . . . . . . .. a ,a , a , a , a ,a, a , . . . . . . . .} = < a > is a cyclic group
m
generated by a. For any x ∈ 𝐺 ⇒ x=a where m ∈ Z.
-1 - m
⇒ x =( a ) where m ∈ Z.
-1 n
=( a ) where n=-m ∈ Z.
-1 n -1
∀𝑥 ∈𝐺 ⇒𝑥 =(a ) generated by a
-1
Hence a is also a generator of G.

Theorem: -2

Prove that every group of prime order is cyclic.

Proof:

Let G is a group of order p ie O(G)= p and p is a prime number.

That is p ≥ 2 ⇒ Group G contain at least two elements

2 3
∴ for any a ∈ 𝐺 ⇒ a ≠ e ⇒ a , a , a 4, .... . …∈𝐺
2 3
⇒ { a, a ,a ,a4, . . . . . . } ⊆ G
2 3
Let H = { a, a ,a , a4, . . . . . . } ⊆ G

As a ≠ e ⇒ O(a) ≥ 2 ⇒O(H) ≥ 2 And let O(H)= 𝑚, H is a subgroup generated by a.

By Lagrange’s theorem O(H) is a divisor of O(G)

m/p but p is prime number ⇒ either p =1 or p = m.

2 3
As a ≠ e ⇒ p≠1 ∴ p= m ⇒ O(H)= O(G) ⇒ { a, a ,a ,a4, . . . . . . } = G

< a > = G is a cyclic group generated by a.

Theorem: -3

Every subgroup of a cyclic group is cyclic.

Proof: suppose G = < a > is a cyclic group generated by a and H is a sub group of G

If H = { e } then it is cyclic generated by e

If H ≠ { e } then H contain negative and positive power elements of a .

m m
Let a is an element in H and m is the least positive integer ie a ∈ H.
 m
To show that H = < a > .
n +
Let a is any element in H where n ∈ Z
+
As n, m ∈ Z using Division Algorithm ∃ q, r ∈ Z such that

n =mq+r where r =0 or 0 < r < m --------(1)

⇒r=n–mq
r n–mq r n –mq
⇒ a =a ⇒ a =a a ∈ H ----------(2)
n
{Since a ∈ H, a m ∈ H ⇒ a n ∈ H, ( a m)q ∈ H ⇒ a n ∈ H, ( a m) -q ∈ H

n
⇒a ∈ H, a -mq ∈ H }

r
From (2) a ∈H but from (1) 0 < r < m and m is least positive

It is impossible ∴ r=0
n m q+0 mq m q m
From (1) a = a =a (a ) ∈ < a >
n m
∴ a ∈ < a >.
m m
Hence H = < a >. Is a cyclic group generated by a
-9 6 3 0 3 6 9
Example: let H = { . . . . . . . a ,a- ,a- ,a ,a ,a . , a , . . . . . .} is a cyclic sub group of
the cyclic group
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
G = { . . . . . . .. a ,a , a , a , a ,a, a , . . . . . . . .} In the above theorem m = 3
-1
Theorem: Prove that in a group G , o(a)=o( a ) for all a ∈ G.

Proof:

By the definition of Order of an element a least positive integer n is said to be order of the
n
element if a =e (identity) for all a∈ G.
-1
Let o(a) =m and o (a ) = n.
m
If o(a) =m ⇒ a =e
m -1 -1
⇒[a ] =e
-1 m -1
⇒[a ] =e but o (a ) = n. (least positive integer)
 ⇒ n ≤ m ---------(1)
-1 -1 n
Also o (a ) = n ⇒ [ a ] =e
n -1
⇒ [ a ] =e
n -1 -1 -1
⇒[(a ) ] =e
n
⇒ a =e But o(a) = m (least positive integer).

⇒ m ≤ n ---------(2)
-1
From (1) and (2) m = n ⇒ o(a) = o (a ) .

Theorem:
n n n
In a group G for all a, b ∈ G ( a b ) = a b for three consecutive integers n then
prove that G is abelian.

Proof: Given that if m, m+1,m+2 are three consecutive angers

m m m
(ab) =a b ---------(1)
m+1 m+1 m+1
(ab) =a b ---------(2)
m+2 m+2 m+2
(ab) =a b ---------(3)
m+2 m+1
As ( a b ) =(ab) ab
m+2 m+2 m+1 m+1
⇒a b = a b ab since from (2) and (3)
m+1 m+1 m+1 m+1
⇒a ab b = a b ab
m+1 m+1
⇒ ab =b a ( by left and right cancellation laws)
m m+1 m m+1 m
⇒ a (ab )=a (b a) for a ∈G

m+1 m+1 m m
⇒ a b = a ( b b a)
m+1 m m
⇒(ab) =(a b ) b a ( since from (2))
m m
⇒ ( a b ) (ab) =( a b ) b a ( since from (1))

⇒ ab = b a ( since by left cancellation law)

∴ G is abelian group