Lecture Note Geology (All in one)

Engineering Geology and
Geomorphology
Lecture -1
Geology
• The science of Geology is concerned with the
Earth and the rocks of which it is composed,
the processes by which they were formed
during geological time, and the modelling of
the Earth’s surface in the past and at the
present day.
Importance of Geology in Civil
Engineering Projects
1. Dam Construction
Hoover Dam, Clark County, Nevada/ Mohave County, Arizona, U.S.

2. Building Construction
3. Construction of Highway
Dhaka-Mymensingh Highway
4. Construction of Tunnels
Hongtiguan Tunnel, China(Shanxi)

5. Groundwater Exploration and
Development
Groundwater Aquifer
6. Airport Construction
Courchevel Airport, France

7. Irrigation Canals
Irrigation Canal in Jhenaidah

8. Bridge Piers and Abutments
9. Soil Mechanics
10. Soil Excavation
11. Research in Construction Materials
Limestone
12. Sedimentation and Silt
Accumulation
Hong-Kong International Airport on Reclaimed Land

13. Soil Erosion
Doctrine of Uniformitarianism
• This principle simply means that the physical
processes operating in the present to modify
the earth surface have also operated in the
geologic past, that there is a uniformity of
processes past and present.
Earth’s Layers
Earth’s Layers
Different Layers of the Earth

Chemical Composition
The Earth has different compositional and mechanical layers .
Earths layers based on chemical compositions are called
compositional layers . Compositional layers are determined
by their components, while mechanical layers are determined
by their physical properties.
➢ Crust
➢ Mantle
➢ Outer Core
➢ Inner Core
➢ The crust is the outermost layer of the planet, the cooled and
hardened part of the Earth that ranges in depth from
approximately 5-70 km.
➢ This layer makes up only 1% of the entire volume of the Earth,
though it makes up the entire surface (the continents and the
ocean floor).
➢ Beneath the continents the crust is thicker (about 35 km) than
that beneath the ocean.
➢ Basalt (dark colored, heavy igneous rocks) dominate the crust
beneath the ocean (oceanic crust) of average density of
3 t/m³.
➢ Granite (light, grey or pink colored igneous rock) dominates
the crust beneath the continents (continental crust) of average
density of 2.6 t/m³.
Mantle
➢iron (Fe), magnesium (Mg), aluminium (Al),
silicon (Si) and oxygen (O) silicate compunds
➢solid but can slowly deform in a plastic
manner
➢67.3% of Earth's mass
➢convection in this region drives plate tectonics
Outer Core
➢The outer core is liquid
➢Density is much higher than the mantle or
crust, ranging between 9.9- 12.2 t/m3.
➢composed of 80% iron, along with nickel and
some other lighter elements.
Inner Core
➢ The inner core is composed primarily of iron and nickel.
➢ Density in the core ranges between 12.6-13.0 t/m³, which
suggests that there must also be a great deal of heavy
elements there as well – such as gold, platinum, palladium,
silver and tungsten.
➢ The temperature of the inner core is estimated to be about
5,700 K (~5,400 °C). The only reason why iron and other
heavy metals can be solid at such high temperatures is
because their melting temperatures dramatically increase at
the pressures present there, which ranges from about 330 to
360 gigapascals.
Information about the compositional layers
Layer Definition Depth
Crust The outermost solid layer of a rocky planet or natural 0-100km silicates
satellite. Chemically distinct from the underlying
mantle.
Mantle A layer of the Earth (or any planet large enough to 100-2900km iron and magnesium
support internal stratification) between the crust and silicates
the outer core. It is chemically distinct from the crust
and the outer core. The mantle is not liquid. It is,
however, ductile, or plastic, which means that on very
long time scales and under pressure it can flow. The
mantle is mainly composed of aluminum and silicates.
Core The innermost layers of the Earth. The Earth has an 2900-6370km metals
outer core (liquid) and an inner core (solid). They are
not chemically distinct from each other, but they are
chemically distinct from the mantle. The core is
mainly composed of nickel and iron.
Mechanical Composition
The mechanical layers of the Earth a differentiated by
their strength or rigidity. These layers are not the same as
the compositional layers of the Earth, such as the crust,
mantle, and core, though sometimes the boundaries fall in
the same places.
• Lithosphere
• Asthenosphere
• Mesosphere
• Liquid Outer core
• Solid Inner core
Lithosphere
➢The outer 50-100 km of the earth is a rigid
shell of rock, called the lithosphere.
➢The crust and the upper layer of the mantle
together make up a zone of rigid, brittle rock
called the Lithosphere.
➢The layer below the rigid lithosphere is a zone
of asphalt-like consistency called the
Asthenosphere.
➢The Asthenosphere is the part of the mantle
that flows and moves the plates of the Earth.
Information about the mechanical layers
Layer Definition Depth
Lithosphere The outermost and most rigid mechanical layer 0-100 km
of the Earth. The lithosphere includes the crust
and the top of the mantle. The average
me places.
thickness is ~70km, but ranges widely: It can
be very thin, only a few km thick under oceanic
crust or mid-ocean ridges, or very thick, 150+
km under continental crust, particularly
mountain belts.
Asthenosphere The asthenosphere is underneath the 100-350 km Soft plastic *note: The
lithosphere. It is about 100km thick, and is a mantle is not liquid!
region of the mantle that flows relatively easily.
Reminder: it is not liquid.
Mesosphere The mesosphere is beneath the asthenosphere. 350-2900km stiff plastic
It encompasses the lower mantle, where
material still flows but at a much slower rate
than the asthenosphere.
Outer Core A layer of liquid iron and nickel (and other 5100-6370 km solid
elements) beneath the mesosphere. This is the
only layer of the Earth that is a true liquid, and
the core-mantle boundary is the only boundary
of Earth’s layers that is both mechanical and
compositional. Flow of the liquid outer core is
responsible for Earth’s magnetic field.
References
• Aziz, M.A. (1972). Geology for Civil Engineers. Dhaka: BUET, p.4-6.
• Blyth, F. and De Freitas, M. (2003). A geology for engineers. 7th ed.
Oxford: Elsevier/Butterworth-Heinemann, p.1.
• Mukerjee, P.K. (1990). A textbook of Geology. 11th edn.,
Calcutta: World Press.
• Colorado.edu. (2017). The Earth's Inside. [online] Available at:
http://www.colorado.edu/physics/phys2900/homepages/Marianne.Hogan/in
side.html [Accessed 11 Sep. 2017].
• Williams, M. (2017). What are the Earth's Layers? - Universe Today.
[online] Universe Today. Available at:
https://www.universetoday.com/61200/earths-layers/ [Accessed 11 Sep.
2017].
• Layers of the Earth. [online] Available at:
http://staff.orecity.k12.or.us/jeremy.hill/Jeremy_Hill/Layers_of_the_Earth_
Notes.html [Accessed 11 Sep. 2017].
Geomorphology
Lecture-2
Minerals
• The ‘Minerals’ may be defined as the
inorganic substances with definite chemical
compositions and atomic structures; and the
study of minerals is termed as mineralogy. A
mineral may consist of one or more elements.
Identification of Minerals
• Minerals can be readily identified by their physical or
chemical properties. Of these two set of properties, the
more easily determined in the field or office are the
physical properties. Identification of the minerals
depends upon the determination of:
➢ Color and streak
➢ Cleavage and fracture
➢ Hardness
➢ Luster
➢ Structure
Physical Properties
• Color
➢ There are two types of color:
i. Inherent Color:
❑ This color is produced due to the composition of the
mineral and the arrangement of the constituent atoms
❑ This color is a characteristic of the mineral and can
be used to narrow down the possibilities during
identification
❑ Pyrite (fool’s gold) is brassy yellow; galena (lead
sulfide) is steely gray
Physical Properties
ii. Exotic Color
❑ This type of color depends upon the presence of
impurities or on fracturing in the material.
❑ Quartz is inherently colorless, but it is sometimes
rosy, smoky or milky.
Physical Properties
• Streak
➢ Color of a mineral when it is in powdered form.
➢ Color of a mineral may vary but streak is
constant.
➢ Determined by rubbing a mineral on a streak plate
(unglazed porcelain) of hardness 7.
➢ Hematite (Fe₂O₃) – reddish brown to black.
➢ Limonite: Yellowish brown
➢ Cassiterite: white
Physical Properties
• Cleavage
➢The capability of minerals to split along
certain planes is called cleavage; the planes are
known as cleavage planes.
➢Cleavage bears a definite relation to the crystal
structure.
➢It is a directional property, direction weakness.
➢Cleavage is always parallel to crystal faces.
Cleavage
Physical Properties
• Striations:
➢These are parallel, threadlike lines or narrow
bands.
➢It is seen on the crystal faces or cleavage
surfaces.
➢Striations in adjacent faces are perpendicular
to each other.
Striation
Fig: Striations in Plagioclase

Physical Properties
• Fracture:
➢Fracture is a description of the way a mineral
tends to break. It is different
from cleavage and parting which are
generally clean flat breaks along specific
directions. Fracture occurs in all minerals even
ones with cleavage
Fracture
Fig: Conchoidal Fracture of Quartz

Physical Properties
• Magnetism
➢Minerals that in their natural state are attracted
to a magnet are said to be magnetic
➢For example, Magnetite is strongly magnetic;
Hematite and Chromite are moderately
magnetic.
Physical Properties
• Luster:
➢It is the appearance of the mineral in ordinary
light (the apperance due to the light reflected
from its surface).
➢Luster of a mineral can be metallic (Galena
and Pyrite), Glass (Quartz), Dull or earthy
(Kaolin); Silky (Satinspar); Greasy, etc.
Luster
Engineering Geology &
Geomorphology
Lecture 3
Physical Properties
• Hardness:
➢ Hardness of a mineral measured by its ability to resist scratching.
➢ If a mineral is scratched by a knife, it is softer than the knife. If it cannot
be scratched by the knife, the two are of equal hardness or the mineral is
harder. If the knife is scratched by the mineral, the mineral is the harder.
➢ The stronger the binding forces between the atoms, the harder the
mineral.
➢ It is determined by scratching with the help of other mineral, fingernail
or knife.
➢ Hardness ranges from 1 through 10.
➢ Fingernail (<2.5), penny (<3), knife (<5.5), Quartz (<7).
➢ A simple scale known as Mohs scale has been universally adopted to
have a standard method of expressing hardness of minerals.
➢ For example, Quartz has a hardness of 7, Graphite has hardness of 1, and
Corundum has hardness of 9.
Physical Properties
• Structural Form:
➢ Some minerals are granular; such as chromite
➢ Some are bladed (flat, elongated, "knife-like"
crystals); such as Kyanite
➢ Some are botryoidal (bunches of grapes grown
together); such as some forms of hematite
➢ Many occur in the form of columns; such as
hornblende
Different Structural Forms of Minerals
Fig: Bladed crystals of Kyanite Fig: Mimetite in Botryoidal Form
Fig: Columnar Form

Physical Properties
• Specific Gravity:
➢ Majority of minerals fall within the range of 2.55 to 3.2.
➢ For example, specific gravity of quartz is 2.65.
➢ Unless determined accurately in the laboratory, it is of little

assistance in identifying hand specimens.
Physical Properties
• Tenacity:
• Tenacity refers to a mineral’s resistance to breaking,
bending, or otherwise being deformed. A mineral may
be brittle, easily broken or crushed to powder;
malleable, easily hammered into thin sheets (such as
copper or gold); sectile, easily cut with a knife; flexible,
easily bent without breaking and then staying bent; or
elastic, bending but resuming its original shape once
pressure is released.
➢ Defines its characters such as brittleness, sectility,
malleability, flexibility and elasticity.
Physical Properties
• Tenacity:
❑Brittleness: Crumbles when hammered- Quartz,
Calcite
❑Sectility: Ability to be easily cut with a knife – Talc
and Graphite
❑Malleability: Flattens into a sheet when hammered –
Silver and Gold
❑Flexibility: Can be easily bent – Chlorite
❑Elasticity: Retains its original position as the bending
force is removed – Muscovite and Biotite
Physical Properties
• Tenacity is particularly useful in telling some of
the metallic minerals apart. Gold is malleable,
pyrite (and most other look-a-likes) is not. Gold is
also sectile and – in thin sheets – flexible. Galena
is brittle, while platinum is malleable and sectile.
• Flexibility and elasticity can be useful with
minerals that are commonly found as flakes or
acicular crystals. Chlorite flakes and thin crocoite
crystals can be bent, and they will stay
bent. Mica sheets bend and then snap back to
their original shape when released.
Common Rock Forming Minerals
• Among about 98 naturally occurring minerals,
only eight enter into the composition of the
earth’s outer portions in abundance; and make
up some 98% of the observable portions of the
earth.
These are in order of abundance:
Oxygen, Silicon, Aluminium, Iron, Calcium,
Sodium, Potassium and Magnesium.
Silicate:
Ferromagnesian
Augite
Biotite
Hornblende
Olivine
Non-ferromagnesian
Feldspar
Orthoclase
Plagioclase
Albite
Anorthite
Muscovite
Quartz
Oxide
Sulfide
Carbonate
Sulfate
Halide
• Silicate:
➢ More than 90 percent of rock forming minerals are
silicates.
➢ Silicon + Oxygen + Metal(s)
➢ Fundamental unit is silicon-oxygen tetrahedron.
(SiO₄)⁴⁻
• Ferromagnesian:
➢ The silicate minerals of which silicon-oxygen
tetrahedral are joined by ions of iron and magnesium
are known as ferromagnesians.
➢ They have higher specific gravity.
Fundamental Unit of Silicates
(Tetrahedra)
Silicates - Ferromagnesians
• Olivine:
➢It is composed of isolated silicon-oxygen tetrahedron,
held together by positive ions of iron and magnesium.
➢It shows no cleavage.
➢Hardness ranges from 6.5 to 7.
➢The proportions of iron and magnesium may vary.
➢Its color changes from olive to grayish green,
sometimes brown. Streak- Pale green or white.
➢Specific gravity is 3.27 to 4.27.
➢Olivine makes up several percent of the crystal rock
and predominate in heavier and deeper seated rocks.
➢End members of olivine [(Fe,Mg)₂SiO₄] series are
forsterite, Mg₂SiO₄, and Fayalite Fe₂SiO₄.
• Augite:
➢It has a crystalline structure based on single chains of
tetrahedra, joined by iron, magnesium, calcium, sodium
and Aluminium.
➢Its color is dark green to black with colorless streak. An
important igneous rock forming mineral.
➢Specific gravity ranges from 3.2 to 3.4.
➢Hardness is from 5 to 6.
➢It has poor cleavage along two planes at right angles to
each other.
➢It is the commonest mineral of pyroxene group.
• Hornblende:
➢ It has a crystalline structure, based on double chains of
tetrahedral, joined by Fe and Mg ions and by ions of Ca,
Na and Al.
➢ Color: dark green to black
➢ Streak is colorless
➢ Hardness is 5 to 6
➢ Specific gravity is 3.2.
➢ Two directions of good cleavage meet at angles 56⁰ and
124°.
➢ It is an important and widely distributed rock-forming
mineral in igneous and metamorphic rocks.
➢ Hornblende is the commonest mineral of amphibole group.
• Biotite
➢ Black Mica
➢ It is a K-Mg-Fe-Al silicate.
➢ It is constructed of tetrahedra in sheets.
➢ Each tetrahedron is surrounded by three others and each silicon
ion has one of the four oxygen ions to itself, sharing the other
three with its neighbors.
➢ Basic unit of mica consists of two sheets of tetrahedra with their
flat surfaces facing outward and their inner surfaces held
together by positive ions.
➢ Its color is dark green or brown to black.
➢ Hardness is 2.5 to 3; streak- colorless.
➢ Specific gravity is 2.8 to 3.2.
➢ A common and important rock forming mineral in both igneous
and metamorphic rocks.
➢ Sheet silicate (Si,Al)₄O₁₀
Common Silicate Minerals
Geomorphology
Lecture - 4
Prepared by
Rifat Talha Khan
Lecturer, Department of Civil & Water Resources Engineering,
Chittagong University of Engineering & Technology
Silicates – Non-ferromagnesians
• Non-ferromagnesian:
➢These types of silicate minerals do not contain iron
or magnesium.
➢They have light color and low specific gravity
ranging from 2.6 to 2.9.
• Feldspar:
➢ Most abundant rock forming silicate make up 54% of mineral of
earth crust.
➢ They are silicate of aluminium with K, Na, and Ca.
➢ Show good cleavage in 2 directions making 90° angle with each
other.
➢ Specific gravity- 2.55-2.76.
➢ Hardness is about 6.
➢ In the tetrahedra, silicon ion is replaced by aluminium ion and
any one of K⁺, Na⁺, or Ca²⁺.
➢ Orthoclase, K(AlSi₃O₈) – Potassium feldspar.
➢ Albite, Na(AlSi₃O₈) – Sodium Plagioclase
➢ Anorthite, Ca(Al₂Si₂O₈) – Calcium Plagioclase.
Crystalline form of Feldspars
• Orthoclase: K[Al(Si₃O₈)]
➢Aluminium replaces silicon in every fourth
tetrahedron, and positive K ion correct the electron
imbalance.
➢It is white, grey or pinkish; white streak.
➢Specific gravity is 2.75, hardness is 6.
• Plagioclase:
➢ Have cleavage planes that intersect at 86°. One of the
planes marked by striations.
➢ It may be colorless, white, blue, grey, black.
➢ The relative amount of Ca and Na may vary in proportion
to the amount of Al in order to maintain electron neutrality.
➢ In Albite, Al replaces silicon in every fourth tetrahedron
and positive ion of Na correct electrical imbalance.
➢ Specific gravity of Albite is 2.62.
➢ In anorthite, Aluminium replaces silicon in every second
tetrahedron, and positive ion of Ca correct the electrical
imbalance.
➢ Its specific gravity is 2.76.
• Muscovite:
➢White mica. Same basic crystalline structure as
Biotite.
➢Each pair of tetrahedra sheets is highly cemented
together by ions of aluminium.
➢Color: light yellow, green, red, Colorless streak.
➢Hardness: 2 to 2.5, common in metamorphic rocks
➢Specific gravity: 2.8 to 3.1.
• Quartz:
➢ Most common rock forming silicate mineral that is composed
exclusively of tetrahedra.
➢ Every oxygen ion is shared by adjacent silicon ion (SiO₂).
➢ Relatively hard mineral of hardness 7.
➢ It does not exhibit cleavage but fractures along curved surface
when struck a blow.
➢ Specific gravity is 2.65.
➢ It is a pure chemical compound among all rock forming mineral.
➢ Its color is smoky to clear, colorless streak.
➢ Less common variety - purple, massive rose red, pink rose red,
quartz, milk quartz.
➢ This color variation is due to presence of other elements as
impurities.
Structural form of Feldspar and Quartz
• Oxide:
➢ They are formed by direct union of an element with oxygen.
➢ Oxide minerals are harder than any other class except the
silicates.
➢ They are heavier than others except sulfides.
➢ Main elements are Al, Fe, Sn, Mn, Cr.
➢ Common oxide minerals are ice (H₂O), corundum (Al₂O₃),
hematite (Fe₂O₃), magnetite (Fe₃O₄), Cassiterite (SnO₂).
• Sulfide minerals:
➢ Formed by direct union of an element with sulfur.
➢ Elements are: Fe, Cu, Pb, Zn, Ag, Hg.
➢ Some of these minerals occur as valuable ores like pyrite (FeS₂),
Chalcocite (Cu₂S), Galena (PbS), Sphalerite (ZnS).
• Carbonate mineral:
➢Carbonate consists of single carbon ion with three
oxygen ions packed around it (CO₃)²⁻.
➢Calcite (CaCO₃) is the principle component of
common sedimentary rock limestone.
• Halide:
➢Combination of elements (positive ions) with
halogens. (Cl, I, Br, F).
➢The very common rock salt halite (NaCl), Sylvite
(KCl).
➢Halides occur as precipitates from evaporating ponds,
salt-flats.
Cleaveage, Shape and Sample of Various Minerals
Mineraloids
➢ Some substances do not yield definite chemical formulas
upon analysis and show no sign of crystallinity. These are
said to be amorphous and have been called mineraloids.
➢ A mineral may exist in a crystalline phase or as a
mineraloid.
➢ They are formed under conditions of low pressure and
temperature.
➢ They originate during weathering of material of earth crust.
➢ Their ability to absorb other substances accounts for their
wide variations in chemical composition.
➢ Bauxite, limestone, limonite, opal.
Mineraloids
Common Opal
Limonite
Precious Opal
Geomorphology
Lecture - 5
Prepared by
Rifat Talha Khan
Rocks
Rocks
• Rocks are aggregates of minerals and are the
individual units constituting the crust of the
earth.
• Based on origin, there are three fundamental
rock types.
➢Igneous Rocks
➢Sedimentary Rocks
➢Metamorphic Rocks
Igneous Rocks
• Molten rock material which is generated within or
below the Earth’s crust reaches the surface from time to
time, and flows out from volcanic orifices as lava.
Similar material may be injected into the rocks of the
crust, giving rise to a variety of igneous intrusions
which cool slowly and solidify; The solidified lavas and
intrusions constitute the igneous rocks.
• The molten material from which igneous rocks have
solidified is called magma.
• Main minerals of igneous rocks include Quartz,
Feldspar, Muscovite, Biotite and Mafics
(Ferromagnesians).
Igneous Rocks
Fig: Gabbro
Fig: Basalt
Fig: Granite Fig: Diorite

Sedimentary Rocks
• Sedimentary rocks are defined as those which are formed by the
consolidation of sediments.
• The pre-existing rocks are worn down by the various weathering
agencies. The weathered products called sediments are carried to the
water bodies like lakes and oceans by the rivers, where they
accumulate and later by compaction and cementation form
sedimentary or secondary rocks.
• Because the sediments are deposited characteristically in the form of
layers, these are also called stratified rocks.
• Another characteristic feature of these rocks is the presence of
remains of animals and plants which get buried and preserved within
the sediments.
• Main minerals of sedimentary rocks include Quartz, Muscovite,
Kaolinite, Illite, Smectile, Calcite, Dolomite, Gypsum, Hematite,
Limonite, Pyrite, etc.
Sedimentary Rocks
Dolomite Sandstone
Organic Sedimentary Rock (Coral) Shale

Metamorphic Rocks
• Metamorphic rocks may be defined as those rocks which
are formed by the effects of heat, pressure and chemically
active fluids on the pre-existing rocks . The process is
known as metamorphism.
• The igneous and sedimentary rocks when subjected to
metamorphism, acquire certain characteristic changes in
their texture, structure and mineral composition, giving rise
to this new group of rocks.
• Some examples include:
➢ Igneous rock Granite metamorphoses (transforms) into Gneiss
➢ Sedimentary rock Sandstone metamorphoses into Quartzite.
➢ Sedimentary rock Limestone changes into Marble.
Metamorphic Rocks
Gneiss Marble
Quartzite
Metamorphism
Metamorphism:
• Some sedimentary and igneous rocks have been changed while in the solid
state, in response to pronounced changes in their environment.
• The process of modification is called metamorphism.
• Rocks undergo chemical and structural changes to adjust to conditions
different from those under which they were originally formed.
Agents of Metamorphism:
Metamorphism is limited to changes that take place in the texture or
composition of solid rock. The agents of metamorphism are,
• Heat
• Pressure
• Chemically active fluids
Agents of Metamorphism
a. Heat:
➢ It is the most essential agent of metamorphism. In fact, metamorphism
appears as if it were invariably controlled by temperature.
b. Pressure:
➢ It produces a closer atomic packing of the elements in a mineral,
recrystallization of the mineral, or formation of new minerals.
➢ When rocks are buried to depths of several kilometers, they gradually become
plastic and responsive to the heat and deforming process.
➢ When plastic, they deform by inter-granular motion, by the formation of
minute shear planes within the rock, by changes in texture, by reorientation of
grains and by crystal growth.
c. Chemically active fluids:
➢ Hydrothermal solutions released in the solidification of magma often
percolate deeper and remove ions or add ions to the rock minerals to produce
new minerals.
➢ Fine grained rocks are more readily changed than others because they expose
greater areas of grain surface to chemically active fluids.
➢ Some fluids are the liquid already present in the pores of a rock.
Types of Metamorphism
Contact metamorphism:
• When magma is intruded into the earth’s crust, it alters the surrounding rock.
• The alteration of surrounding rocks at or near their contact with a body of magma is
called contact metamorphism.
• Minerals formed by this process are known as contact metamorphic minerals.
• The type of reaction depends on the temperature, composition of the intruding mass
and the properties of the intruded rock.
• During contact metamorphism, temperature may range from 300 to 800°C and load
pressures may range from 100 to 3,000 atmosphere.
• Two types of contact metamorphic minerals are:
– Those produced by heating up the intruded rock.
– Those produced by hypothermal solutions reacting with the intruded rock.
Regional metamorphism:
• It is developed over extensive areas (thousands km² area, thousands meter thick).
• Regional metamorphism is related to the building of mountain ranges.
• They are found in the root regions of old mountains.
• Thousands of meter of rock have to be eroded in order to expose these metamorphic
rocks.
Geomorphology
Lecture – 6
Folds
Prepared by
Rifat Talha Khan
Dip and Strike
• DIP is the acute angle that a rock surface makes with a
horizontal plane.
• STRIKE is the direction of the line formed by the
intersection of a rock surface with a horizontal plane.
• Strike and dip are always perpendicular to each other on a
map.
• Dip is expressed in terms of the angle which the bed makes
with the horizontal; and the direction with respect to north,
south, east, and west, in which the bed is inclined.
• Thus if a bed is making an angle of 30⁰ with the horizontal
and inclination is directed due West; the dip of the bed may
be mentioned as 30⁰ due West and is written as 30⁰W.
Dip and Strike
True and Apparent Dip
True Dip and Apparent Dip
• It is seen that if the same set of beds, inclined
at certain angle is viewed from different angles
(positions), different angle of dip will be
observed.
• Therefore, to distinguish between such cases,
the maximum inclination is termed as true dip
while any other inclination is called apparent
dip.
Folds
Folds
• Folds are defined as the undulations or wavy
patterns of the rocks.
• Commonly it is because of the lateral
compression that the smoothly lying rocks get
buckled up and are thrown into folds.
• These are best displayed by the stratified
rocks.
• In lateral extent folds range from a fraction of
a few millimeters to several kilometers.
Fold Terminology
Fold Terminology
Classification of Folds
I. Classification on the basis of nature of bending:
1. Classification on the basis of nature of bending:
a) Anticline:
a) The beds are arched up.
b) The two limbs of such a fold dip in opposite
directions or away from each other.
b) Syncline:
❑ The bed are down-flexured.
❑ The two limbs of such a fold dip in opposite
directions but towards each other.
2) Classification on the basis of nature of fold axis:
2. Classification on the basis of nature of fold axis:
a) Nonplunging folds:
❑ The fold axis is in horizontal position.
❑ The limbs exposed over the ground surface extend
parallel to each other.
b) Plunging folds:
❑ The fold axis is in inclined position.
❑ In surface view, the beds of the limbs converge in the
direction of inclination, in an anticline; while they
diverge in the case of a syncline.
3) Classification on the basis of the axial plane
and the limbs
3) Classification on the basis of the axial plane and the
limbs
a) Symmetrical folds:
❑ Those folds in which the axial plane is in vertical position.
❑ The two limbs show the same angle of dip in opposite directions.
b) Asymmetrical folds:
❑ Those folds in which the axial plane is inclined so that the two
limbs show different angles of dip, in opposite directions.
c) Over folds/Overturned folds:
❑ Those folds in which the axial plane is so much inclined that the
two limbs dip in the same direction, commonly at different
angles.
4) Classification on the basis of intensity of
deformation:
4) Classification on the basis of intensity of
deformation:
a) Open folds:
❑ These are the gentle and wide-spread folds produced
due to the mid-intensity deformation.
b) Closed folds:
❑ When the deformation is of a high intensity, the
resulting folds are closely packed, showing thinning
and thickening of the limbs.
5) Classification on the basis of behaviour with depth
5) Classification on the basis of behaviour with depth:
a) Similar folds:
❑ Those in which the shape of the folds remains the same with
depth.
❑ Thickening and thinning effect is seen; thinning along the limbs
and thickening along the axial portions.
b) Parallel folds:
❑ The shape of the folds varies with depth but the thickness of the
folded beds remains more or less constant.
c) Supratenuous folds:
❑ These folds develop during an environment when the process of
folding takes place while sedimentation is going on.
❑ The rising anticlines show thin beds of sediments over them.
❑ The depressing synclines show thick beds over them.
Special types of folds
Domes:
Fig: Domes
• Domes:
A dome is a special type of anticline in which
the beds dip away from the central points, in
all directions.
Basins:
• Basins:
A basin is a special type of syncline in which
the beds dip towards the central point, from all
directions.
Geomorphology
Lecture – 7
Faults
Prepared by
Rifat Talha Khan
Faults
normal fault exposed in a highway road cut (I-40), Kingman, Arizona

Source: Michael Rymer, www.flickr.com
Faults
Fig: San Andreas Fault

Faults - Definition
• In geology, a fault is a planar fracture or
discontinuity in a volume of rock, across which
there has been significant displacement along the
fractures as a result of earth movement.
• Large faults within the Earth's crust result from
the action of plate tectonic forces, with the largest
forming the boundaries between the plates, such
as subduction zones or transform faults.
Fault Terminology
i. Fault Plane
ii. Fault Trace/Fault Line
iii. Dip and Strike of Fault
iv. Hade
v. Wall – hanging wall & foot wall
vi. Upthrow Side
vii. Downthrow side
viii.Throw
ix. Heave
x. Slip
Fault Terminology
Classification of Fault
1) Classification on the basis of apparent movement of the blocks
1) Classification on the basis of apparent
movement of the blocks
a) Normal Fault:
A fault in which the hanging wall has apparently
moved down with respect to the foot wall.
b) Reverse Fault:
A fault in which the hanging wall has apparently
moved up with respect to the foot wall.
2) Classification on the basis of dip of the fault:
2) Classification on the basis of dip of the fault:
a) High angle faults:
Those faults in which the fault plane dips steeply at angles
more than 45⁰. Most of the normal faults are of this type.
b) Low angle faults:
Those faults in which the fault plane dips gently at angles
less than 45⁰.
Most of the reverse faults are of this type.
A very low angle reverse fault is called a thrust fault or
just a thrust;
When displacement is of a considerable magnitude, it is
termed as an over thrust.
3)Classification on the basis of net slip of the fault:
3) Classification on the basis of net slip of the fault:
3) Classification on the basis of net slip of the
fault:
a) Dip slip fault:
Those in which net slip is in the direction of dip of the
fault.
b) Strike slip fault:
Those in which net slip is in the direction of strike of
the fault.
c) Oblique slip faults:
Those in which net slip is neither along dip nor along
strike of the fault; rather it is oblique.
Special Types of Faults
Special Types of Faults
Horst and Graben:
❑A horst is a combination of two normal faults
occurring in such a manner that the side blocks
have moved down with respect to the central
block, resulting in the formation of a raised land
mass.
❑A graben is also a combination of two normal
faults, but occurring in such a way that the central
block has moved down with respect to the side
blocks, resulting in the formation of a trough.
Folds and Fault in relation to
Engineering operations
Folds in relation to Engineering
operations
operations
operations
operations
operations
Faults in relation to Engineering
operations
operations
operations
operations
Geomorphology
Lecture – 8
Erosion Process
Prepared by
Rifat Talha Khan
Geologic Processes
• There are many geologic processes that are acting
on and within the body of the earth and bringing
about changes on earth-crust and also in the
interior of the earth.
• These processes are mainly two types:
1. External Origin
2. Internal Origin:
a) Earth-quake
b) Igneous Activity
c) Metamorphism
Geologic Processes
1. Processes of External Origin
❑Classed in two groups:
a. Denudation:
➢ It may be defined as the loosening and decay of rocks on the
earth-crust and removal of those products of rock decay by
mechanical means and by solution.
➢ Denudation is achieved by different exogenic processes,
including weathering, mass wasting and erosion by wind,
running water, waves and glaciers.
b. Deposition:
➢ Rock-fragments, sand, silt and clay are deposited in deltas and
flood plains.
➢ Materials deposited in solution, such as, rock salts.
➢ Deposition of living organisms, such as, corals.
➢ Deposition of organic matter, mainly remains of vegetation,
such as peat, coal, etc.
Denudation: Weathering, Erosion and
Mass wasting
• Weathering means the wear and tear of rocks and the production of rock-wastes
by different agents like wind, rain, heat, plants and animals, rivers, oceans and
glaciers.
• Chemical weathering involves a chemical change in at least some of the
minerals within a rock. Mechanical weathering involves physically breaking
rocks into fragments without changing the chemical make-up of the minerals
within it.
• Weathering is a surface or near-surface process. Metamorphism also produces
chemical changes in rocks, but metamorphic chemical changes occur at depth
where either the temperature and/or pressure are significantly higher than
conditions found on the Earth’s surface.
• As soon as a rock particle (loosened by one of the two weathering processes)
moves, we call it erosion or mass wasting. Mass wasting is simply movement
down slope due to gravity. Rock falls, slumps, and debris flows are all examples
of mass wasting. We call it erosion if the rock particle is moved by some
flowing agent such as air, water or ice.
• So, if a particle is loosened, chemically or mechanically, but stays put, it is
called weathering. Once the particle starts moving, it is called erosion.
Weathering
1. Mechanical Weathering:
❑It is the breakdown of rock-mass into smaller
particles without chemical alteration.
❑The agents of mechanical weathering are:
➢Frost Action
➢Plants and Animals
➢Temperature
➢Abrasion, Impact and Crushing
Weathering
2. Chemical Weathering:
It is the alteration of rock-mass by means of chemical
changes induced by surficial agents.
The agents of chemical weathering are:
➢Solution: Water is a universal solvent which dissolves some
rocks, such as limestone according to the following reaction:
CaCO3+H2O=Ca(OH)2+CO2
➢Oxidation: The following reaction shows an example of
oxidation process of chemical weathering:
4Fe+3O2=2Fe2O3
➢Carbonation: The process of carbonation is an active agent
of chemical weathering. For Example:
H2O+CO2=H2CO3
H2CO3+CaSO4=CaCO3+H2SO4
Erosion
• The loosening and carrying away of rock
debris by moving agents operating on the earth
surface is called erosion.
• Erosion is a dynamic process.
• Agents of Erosion:
i. Gravity
ii. Wind
iii. Glacier
iv. Ocean waves and currents
v. Streams
Agents of Erosion - Gravity
i. Gravity:
❑ Most erosional processes are driven by gravity.
❑ Soil, rock, water, ice, and air – all are drawn by gravitational
attraction toward the center of the earth’s mass and each
particle tends to slide or flow to low areas on the earth’s
surface as close to the earth’s center as its nature and the
earth’s configuration permits.
❑ Because of gravitational attraction, loosened rocks fall or slide
down steep slopes, streams flow downhill, and glaciers shear
or flow outward.
❑ Winds result from the flow of dense air masses beneath masses
of thinner air.
❑ Ocean currents, too, are caused by the flowing of huge bodies
of water attempting to restore gravitational equilibrium
between water masses of different density.
Landforms and Gravity
Landslide in Rangamati-Chittagong Road in Manikchari on 13 June 2017

Snow speeds down the slopes of these mountains in the Caucasus Region of Russia.
Mudflow at Stehekin in Washington State, USA

A hot lahar rushes down a river valley in Guatemala near the Santa Maria volcano, 1989.
• A landslide is the movement of rock, debris or earth down a
slope. They result from the failure of the materials which make
up the hill slope and are driven by the force of gravity.
• An avalanche is the rapid descent of a large amount of snow or
ice coming down a sloped surface or mountain.
• A lahar is mudflow that flows down a composite volcano. Ash
mixes with snow and ice melted by the eruption to produce hot,
fast-moving flows. The lahar caused by the eruption of Nevado
del Ruiz in Columbia in 1985 killed more than 23,000 people.
• Slump is the sudden movement of large blocks of rock and soil
down a slope. All the material moves together in big chunks.
• Creep is the very slow movement of rock and soil down a
hillside.
References
• Arora, D.S. (1982). Geology for Engineers. 2nd edn.,
Chandigarh: Mohindra Capital Publishers, p.23-55
• Aziz, M.A. (1972). Geology for Civil Engineers. Dhaka: BUET, p.45-53.
• CK-12 Foundation. Landforms from Erosion and Deposition by Gravity.
[online] Available at: https://www.ck12.org/earth-science/Landforms-from-
Erosion-and-Deposition-by-Gravity/lesson/Landforms-from-Erosion-and-
Deposition-by-Gravity-MS-ES/ [Accessed 23 Oct. 2017].
• Geoscience Australia. What is a Landslide?. [online] Available at:
http://www.ga.gov.au/scientific-topics/hazards/landslide/basics/what
[Accessed 23 Oct. 2017].
• Nag, O.S. (2017) . Deadliest Avalanches in History. [online] Available at:
http://www.worldatlas.com/articles/deadliest-avalanches-in-history.
[Accessed on 24 Oct. 2017]
• US Geological Survey.(1999). Weathering vs. Erosion. [online]
Available at: https://www.nature.nps.gov/geology/usgsnps/misc/gweaero.html
[Accessed 23 Oct. 2017].
Geomorphology
Lecture – 9
Erosion Process
Prepared by
Rifat Talha Khan
Agents of Weahering & Erosion - Wind
ii. Wind:
➢ The winds cause enormous erosion of the rocks.
➢ It is entirely a mechanical erosion involving physical breaking down of
larger rock masses into finer particles.
➢ This process of disintegration takes place in three different ways:
a) Deflation:
➢ The blowing away of finer products of rock-waste by the wind is called ‘deflation’.
➢ A fast blowing wind has a great amount of energy to disrupt and blow away loose
or loosely held rocks.
➢ Loose sediments (such as alluvium, desert and beach sands) and soils etc. are
readily subjected to this kind of erosion.
b) Abrasion:
➢ A wind charged with rock particles which act as sharp bits, is capable of scratching
or abrading the rocks obstructing its passage.
➢ This effect is so powerful and intense that even huge rocks standing out as hillocks
may be completely levelled down.
➢ There being a greater concentration of rock particles nearer the ground, the rocks
show a greater amount of erosion on their lower parts. As a result some rock
masses can be seen projecting above the ground, with a narrow constriction or a
neck at their base, being known as pedestal rocks.
Agents of Weathering & Erosion - Wind
c) Attrition:
➢ The rock particles carried by wind are further worn down by their
mutual scratching, known as attrition.
➢ The materials of softer nature are made into a fine powdery product.
➢ The harder ones such as sand grains are worn into finer grains.
➢ The initially sharp and angular fragments become more and more
rounded.
Controlling factors of wind erosion:

a) Nature of the rock
b) Velocity
c) Amount of rock fragments
d) Presence of moisture
e) Presence of vegetation
Transportation by Wind
• Wind also acts as a powerful transporting agent.
• The distance covered by the fine dust in the wind is not
possible by any other agent.
• The products of wind-erosion are simultaneously transported
or carried away.
• The coarser and heavier fragments may move on or go over
longer distances, while the finer particles are easily carried
by the wind and transported over far greater distances, even
may be taken from one continent to another continent.
• Controlling Factors:
– Velocity
– Size of fragments
– Density of the fragments
Deposition by Wind
• When the velocity of fast blowing wind is checked by any
obstructions or otherwise, these sediments are dumped or
deposited.
• The vegetation may also trap advancing sediments and
check their further movement.
• Water bodies like lakes and rivers also act as traps digesting
the sediments moving close to the ground surface.
• Oceans also keep on receiving wind borne sediments either
directly blown in by the winds or through the rivers.
• The fine dust is carried high up in the atmosphere, which
may be carried over enormous distances.
• This dust is brought down by the rain water and deposited.
Resulting Features
The Great Indian Desert of Thar – Rajasthan

Resulting Features - Deserts
Deserts are the vast sandy lands fromed by
prolonged and persistent wind erosion. Arid
climate (dry and hot climate) is a factor
which greatly favours the formation and
expansion of desert conditions. In a desert
one can see the entire geological work being
performed by the wind, including erosion,
transportation and deposition.
Resulting Features
Oasis in Libyan Part of Sahara

Resulting Features - Oases
The deflation may at times result in the
formation of big depressions within the sandy
lands of the deserts. The underground water
checks further erosion at the water table level
as the moist and wet sediments can not be
removed from their place. Such depressions
formed up to the water table level, in which
water starts oozing making even small lakes,
are called oases.
Resulting Features
Sossusvlei Sand Dune - Namibia

Resulting Features – Sand Dunes
In the deserts and beach areas sands may
accumulate forming mounds or hillocks known
as ‘Sand dunes’. A dune shows a gentle slope
on the wind-ward side (side facing the wind)
and a steep slope on the opposite or lee-ward
side. With the blowing of wind the sand
particles are lifted from the wind-ward side
and thrown over to the lee-ward side. As a
result, the sand dunes also advance.
Resulting Features
Loess Plataeu, Shaanxi Province, China

Resulting Features - Loess
The fine dust of wind erosion thrown in the
atmosphere is normally carried over
considerable distances. Ultimately it may be
brought down by the rains and deposited. Such
deposits are called loess. These are very fragile
and soft and do not show any layering. Having
fine particles of clay, feldspar, quartz, mica and
calcite as its constituents, a loess often shows a
buff and pale color. Such deposits provide
porous and highly fertile soil.
Geomorphology
Lecture – 10
Erosion Process
Prepared by
Rifat Talha Khan
Agents of Weathering & Erosion - River
• A river or a stream is a very powerful agent of erosion
bringing about significant changes on the earth’s
surface.
• The process of disintegration and decomposition of the
rocks by river may be of mechanical or chemical
nature.
• These processes include:
a) Hydraulic Action:
This involves physical breaking down of the rocks due to
pressure exerted by the running water. The rocks exposed
along the bed and sides of river are broken apart and
carried away along with the other loose materials.
Agents of Weathering & Erosion - River
b) Corrasion:
The rock fragments or bits carried by a river also start scouring the
river bed and the sides. This kind of erosion by the scratching
action is called corrasion or abrasion.
c) Attrition:
It is the mutual rubbing or scratching action of the materials being
carried, causing their further disintegration and ultimately resulting
in the formation of rounded fragments like boulders, pebbles,
sands and fine products like silt and clay.
d) Corrosion:
It is the process of solution. The river water, when having some
dissolved gases or other acidic or alkaline solutions, act as a
powerful solvent. Some of the carbonate rocks may be completely
dissolved away by the water rich in carbon dioxide.
Erosion by River – Controlling Factors
a) Nature of the rocks:
Softer and readily soluble varieties get easily worn down than others.
b) Inclination of the rocks:
Erosion occurs with much greater ease when the beds are horizontal or
inclined downstream.
c) Presence of Joints:
Jointed rocks get easily loosened and detached from their place.
d) Velocity of Water:
Velocity of river water controls the mechanical breaking-down of the rocks. A
rapid flow considerably increases the abrasion and the attrition effects also.
e) Nature of Water:
Acidic or alkaline water with dissolved gases and other compounds may
bring about enormous chemical decomposition.
f) Land-form:
Hilly or semi-hilly tracts provide a higher gradient to stream, favouring a
higher velocity and get eroded to a greater extent than flat or plain tracts.
Transportation by River
Transport of Sediments by Stream

• All streams, regardless of size, transport some rock
• Material
• Streams also sort the solid sediment they transport
because finer, lighter material is carried more readily
than larger, heavier particles.
• Streams transport their load of sediment in three ways:
(1) in solution (dissolved load),
(2) in suspension (suspended load), and
(3) sliding or rolling along the bottom (bed load).
1) Dissolved Load:
➢ Most of the dissolved load is brought to a stream by
groundwater and is dispersed throughout the flow.
➢ When water percolates through the ground, it acquires
soluble soil compounds.
➢ Then it seeps through cracks and pores in bedrock,
dissolving additional mineral matter.
➢ Eventually much of this mineral-rich water finds its way
into streams.
➢ Precipitation of the dissolved mineral matter occurs when
the chemistry of the water changes or the river encounters
an arid climate where the rate of evaporation is high.
Colorado River, Grand Canyon National Park.

The muddy appearance is a result of suspended sediment.
2) Suspended Load:
➢ Most streams carry the largest part of their load in
suspension.
➢ Usually only very fine sand, silt, and clay particles are
carried this way, but during flood stage larger particles
can also be transported in suspension.
➢ The type and amount of material carried in suspension
are controlled by two factors: the flow velocity and the
settling velocity of each sediment grain.
➢ The slower the settling velocity and higher the flow
velocity, the longer a sediment particle will stay in
suspension and the farther it will be carried downstream.
3) Bed Load:
➢Coarse material, including coarse sands,
gravels, and even boulders typically move
along the bed of the channel as bed load. The
particles that make up the bed load move by
rolling, sliding, and saltation. Sediment
moving by saltation appears to jump or skip
along the stream bed
Deposition by River
• A check in the velocity of a river results in deposition of its
load.
• Depending upon the check in velocity, part of the load which
the river is unable to carry, gets deposited, while the remaining
part is carried further.
• On the way of a river, sediments once deposited may again be
carried over because of an increase in the amount and velocity
of water.
• Most of the rivers end in oceans or lakes while some end
inland. The sediments carried by a river are ultimately
deposited in the lakes or oceans.
• Part of the sediments are also left behind in the plain where the
flow becomse too slow, these are known as alluvium or
alluvial deposits.
Erosional Landforms by Rivers
❑V-Shaped Valley
❑Gorges & Canyons
❑Waterfall
❑Pot hole
❑Stream Terraces
❑River Meanders
• Valleys:
A stream valley consists of a channel and the
surrounding terrain that directs water to the
stream. It includes the valley floor, which is the
lower, flatter area that is partially or totally
occupied by the stream channel, and the
sloping valley walls that rise above the valley
floor on both sides.
Gorges and Canyons
• The process of valley
deepening often gives rise
to magnificent surface
features known as Georges
and canyons.
• Georges are very deep and
narrow valley with very
steep and high walls on
either side.
• A canyon is a specific type
of George where the layers
cut down by a river are
essentially stratified and
horizontal in attitude.
Canyons
• Waterfalls:
Wherever on the way of a river a harder rock is
followed by an underlying softer bed, a quick
erosion of the soft bed steepens the slope. The
slope may ultimately become vertical. In such
a case the river water falls vertically below
making a ‘Waterfall’.
Potholes on the River Ure, close to Ayesgarth Falls.

• Potholes:
Potholes are round / oval shaped holes in the
bedrock of a river bed.
They are formed when sediment and other
material carried by a river scours the bed.
• Stream Terraces
• These are bench like ledges or flat surfaces that
occur on the sides of many river valley. From a
distance they may appear as successions of
several steps of a big natural staircase rising up
the riverbed.
Stream Terraces
Erosional Landforms by Rivers -
Meandering
• River Meandering
• When a stream flows along a curved, zigzag path acquiring a
loop-shaped course, it is said to meander. Meanders are
developed mostly in the middle and lower reaches of major
stream where lateral erosion and depositions along opposite
banks become almost concurrent geological activities of the
stream, when a stream is flowing through such a channel it
cannot be assumed to have absolutely uniform velocities all
across its width. Thus the same river is eroding its channel on
the concave side and making its progress further inland
whereas on the convex side it is depositing. A loop shaped
outline for the channel is a natural outcome where a stream
seen from a distance.
Erosional Landforms by Rivers –
Oxbow Lakes
• The Oxbow Lakes

In the advanced stages of a meandering stream only
relatively narrow strips of land separate the individual
loops from each other. During high-water times, as
during small floods, when the stream acquires good
volume of water, it has a tendency to flow straight, some
of the intervening strips of land between the loops get
eroded. The stream starts flowing straight in those
limited stretches, thereby leaving the loops or loops on
the sides either completely detached or only slightly
connected. This isolated curved or looped shaped area
of the river, which often contains some water are called
oxbow lakes.
Depositional Landforms by Rivers
• Deltas
• Alluvial Fans and Cones
• Natural Levees
Deltas
• Deltas
Deltas are defined as alluvial deposits of
roughly triangular shape that are deposited by
major river at their mouth, i.e.. where they
enter a sea.
Natural Levees
Natural Levees:
Meandering rivers that occupy valleys with
broad floodplains tend to build natural levees
by riverbank deposits parallel to their channels
on both banks. Natural levees are built by
years of successive floods.
Alluvial fans and cones
Depositional Landforms by Rivers –
Aluvial Fans and Cones
• Alluvial fans form where tributaries enter into broad
valleys from the steep hillsides or mountain ranges.
With the stream competency suddenly reduced, most of
the transported sediment is rapidly deposited. The fans
are usually formed by mud flow or sheetwash
deposition during periods of heavy rain and runoff,
although stream deposition does occur.
• The only difference between an alluvial fan and cone is
that the cone tends to be somewhat steeper and exhibits
a more conical shape.
Geomorphology
Lecture – 11
Geology of Bangladesh
Prepared by
Rifat Talha Khan
Geology of Bangladesh
• Bangladesh is a part of Bengal basin at the lower
reaches of the three mighty rivers the Ganges, the
Brahmaputra and the Meghna and their associated
tributaries. Bangladesh is, therefore called a delta
of these river system. The delta consists of a
number of overlapping sub-deltas that were
formed by intermingling of light coloured
quarternary sediments which have been deposited
by the three mighty rivers. The Himalayas were
the major sources of these sediments.
Geological Formations of Bangladesh
• There are three major geological formations in
Bangladesh that are important in relation to soils.
These are:
(i) tertiary hill sediments in the northern and
eastern hills;
(ii) the Madhupur clay of the Madhupur and
Barind Tracts in the central area and the west;
(iii) the recent alluvium in the floodplain and
estuarine areas occupying the remainder of the
country
Geomorphology of Bangladesh
There are three geomorphologic division of
Bangladesh. These are:
A. Flood plain areas (80 % of the country)
B. Terrace areas (8 % of the country)
C. Hill areas (12 % of the country)
Floodplain
• The floodplain constitutes about 80 % of the total land surface of
Bangladesh.
• It is formed by the sediments deposited by the major rivers of Tista,
Brahmaputura, Jamuna, Ganges, Meghna, Surma–Kushiara,
Karotoa–Bangali, Atrai, Punarbhaba, and other small rivers.
• During the process of deposition of sediments under different
environmental conditions, some differentiable landscapes are
formed within the broad floodplain landscape. Five major types of
floodplains are recognized:
I. active floodplain,
II. meander floodplain,
III. tidal floodplain,
IV. estuarine floodplain,
V. basin.
Active Floodplain
• The active floodplain includes charlands (land

accreted in rivers), either isolated or attached to
the young alluvial mainland along the Tista, the
Ganges, the Brahmaputura, and the Jamuna. Each
active floodplain is named after the big river by
which it is formed. The area is quite hazardous
because the land is exposed to severe river
erosion, rapid flow of floodwater over the land,
burial of new deposition of sediments almost
every year on agricultural land, and flooding is
mainly deep to very deep in the monsoon season.
Meander Floodplain
• The meander floodplain covers the most extensive areas

within the floodplain areas. They are stable mainlands
formed in the sub-recent years by the sediments of the big
rivers. Those floodplains are named after the big rivers that
have deposited sediments and have formed a landscape
characteristic of their own. Based on the differences in
landform, hydrology, and soils, they are subdivided into the
• Tista River floodplain,
• Karotoa–Bangali River floodplain,
• Brahmaputura River floodplain,
• Ganges River floodplain,
• and Meghna River floodplain.
Tidal Floodplain
• The tidal floodplain occurs mainly in the south of
the Ganges floodplain but also on the parts of the
Chittagong coastal plain, especially in the
Chakoria Sundarbans at the mouth of the
Matamahuri River. It has a distinctive, almost
level, clay landscape crossed by innumerable
interconnecting tidal rivers and creeks. The tidal
floodplain is formed under the influence of tidal
flooding. The materials carried by tidal rivers are
predominantly fine, so only narrow levees of very
fine sand and silt are formed, and fine silts and
clay are deposited in the extensive basins.
Estuarine Floodplain
• The estuarine floodplain occupies most of the
Comilla and Noakhali districts, adjoining parts
of the Barisal and Patuakhali districts, and
small parts of the Dhaka and Sylhet districts.
This land differs from tidal and meander
floodplains in being almost level, lacking high
ridges and deep basins and abandoned
channels, lacking a close network of tidal
creeks, and being almost uniformly silty
throughout its extent.
Basins
• Basins are low-lying areas that have an individual entity as a
physiographic unit. A basin is a large, gentle depressional feature is
bounded by the Old Brahmaputra floodplain in the west, the
Meghalaya plateau’s foothills in the north, the Sylhet high plain in
the east, and the Old Meghna estuarine floodplain in the south.
Numerous lakes (beels), large swamps, and haors (very large
depressions) cover this saucer-shaped area of about 7,250 sq km.
Five basins have been recognized. These are
I. Lower Atrai basin,
II. Lower Punarbhaba floodplain,
III. Gopalganj–Khulna beels,
IV. Arial beel,
V. Sylhet Basin.
Terrace
• The terrace area includes the Madhupur and
Barind Tracts.
• In the northernmost strip of the Rajshahi division,
the Pleistocene upland merges with the piedmont
of the Himalayas and in the district of
Mymensingh slopes down to the alluvial plains.
Pleistocene terraces cover an area of about 8 % of
the total land surface of Bangladesh with an
average elevation of more than 15 m above mean
sea level.
Hills
• Hill areas constitute 12 % of the total land surface of Bangladesh.
• Northern and eastern Tertiary hills cover most of the Chittagong Hill
Tracts, some small parts of southern Habiganj, and the southern and eastern
borders of Moulavi Bazar.
• Hill areas constitute 12 % of the total land surface of Bangladesh.
• The overall pattern of the northern and eastern hill ranges are long linear
ridges running generally north–south along the eastern border of
Bangladesh.
I. Northern and Eastern Hills
II. Akhaura Terrace
References
Huq, S. M., & Shoaib, J. U. (2013). The Soils
of Bangladesh. (A. E. Hartemink, Ed.) World
Soils Book Series, 31-40.

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