UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

Managing the Material Self

The connection of the self to one’s possessions has been an interest of the social
sciences, particularly anthropology and psychology.

Particularly in cultural anthropology, the way culture and groups has given
meaning to things has been of interest.

There were also studies on how one object gains status as a “prestige good’ or
something that give a perception that the owner has more prestige.

For example, some societies may consider having a car a sign of wealth, while
others see having more land or livestock as a sign of wealth.

Another case would be how an object becomes part of a

Family’s history, like the necklace passed down to the
eldest child of each generation.
The Material Self

▪ One of the first to describe the self as the

totality of everything that one calls his or hers,
which included what he called the “material
self.”

▪ This material self focuses more on the body, our

clothes and belongings, our immediate family,
as well as the place we call home.

William James
▪ Working from this work and the ideas of
French philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre,
Russell Belk further researched the
material self and theorized how objects
become extensions of ourselves or our
identities. These objects extend ourselves
in space and time.

▪ A tool helps double our strength, a weapon

extends our reach, a uniform helps us
relate with a group or a t-shirt can remind
us of our travels.
Russell Belk
 ▪ He noted three ways in which we connect
with objects:

1. Through controlling an object

Like learning to ride a bike or finally teaching

your dog a trick that you want him/her to do.
We also connect through using objects to
control others, like giving gifts or using bribes.

Jean-Paul Sartre
 2. Through either creating or buying it (Belk
1988).

Because you spend blood and sweat on a

project, for example, you tend to give it more
importance than having a good grade, for it
affects you emotionally more than a project
you just haphazardly made.

Spending too much money on something would

also make you care for it more, like when
someone wants to borrow your custom-made
bike or car, and you keep an eye on them in
case they scratch it.
Jean-Paul Sartre
▪ However, recent culture and economy have shifted our focus from
production to consumption (Hurson 2013).

From a sociological perspective, society affects our concept of self, and this
shift of focus to production had us consuming more and producing less for
ourselves.

Ex. buying cabinets and not making one

buying 3-in-1 coffees instead of mixing them on our own

▪ That might be a reason why most people find it relaxing or fulfilling to

construct things on their own.
 3. Knowing about something creates a
connection between you and that object of
your interest.

A simple example is investing your time in

studying or even mastering something about
engineering, biology, art, music, or history. In
time, you might be called an engineer, a
biologist, an artist, a musician, or a historian,
which will be part of your identity.

Another one is knowing about a person

romantically and on a more intimate level that
he/she becomes a part of you.
Jean-Paul Sartre
 Material Values Scale

• In 1992, Richins and Dawson developed

the Material Values Scale (MVS) to
measure materialism in consumers.

In recent years, a number of studies have

used the MVS to examine materialism as a
facet of consumer behavior.

Materialism is about the belief of a person

on the importance of material objects to the
achievement of happiness or success (Chan
2019)
Several psychological studies support that materialism is inversely related to
self-esteem. Meaning it is more likely that a materialistic person is using
objects to compensate for his/her low self-esteem or something that is lacking
in his/her personal life, like a good relationship with family, inability to make
friends or a romantic relationship, and the like (Christopher and Schenker
2004; Jarrett 2013). The set-up might be because he/she is more emotionally
connected to objects than people, or he/she is using material objects to gain
acceptance in a circle of people.

Furthermore, a study by Richins (1994) found that highly materialistic people

value their belongings for their use, especially as a boost for social status, while
less materialistic people value their possessions for the joy and comfort that
they get from them (Christopher and Schenker 2004).
Therefore, we can argue that a person who uses
objects to gain acceptance and privilege is also
more likely to ride current trends.

Our perspective and connection with

objects develop through time, like a child
playing with a ball, then transitioning to ball
games, and probably winning formal
competitions.
Self and Objects Through Life Stages

The connection of self to the material world develops and changes over time.
Studies showed that, even with cultural differences, there seems to be a
similar experience in the development of the material self throughout the life of
a person.

According to Belk (1988), there could be four stages of this development:

1. The infant distinguishes self from environment;

2. The infant distinguishes self from others;
3. Possessions help adolescents and adults manage their identities
4. Possessions help the old persons have a sense of continuity and preparation
for death.
1. The infant distinguishes self from environment and others.

Further explained by Jarrett (2013), our relationship with the material world
starts with the idea that whoever gets something first is its owner. “finders,
keepers,” so to speak. It is when a child finds a toy and does not want to let
go of it, or another baby takes the toy, and the first one throws a tantrum
because it was taken from him or her.

These objects were seen as “transitional objects,” which aim to develop the
skills of a child toward more independence. Studies show that the more
parents are engaged in parenting, the less the child becomes attached or
dependent on these things (Jarrett 2013).
2. Possessions help adolescents and adults manage their identities.

In adolescents, the attachment to objects increasingly depends on who

people are or how they want to be perceived, especially by their peers.
Various studies state that the lower the self-esteem, the more a person seems
to acquire and/or get attached to more objects, and vice versa.

Also, teens value having similar items with their peers as a sense of shared
identity and an attempt to be different from their parents (Jarrett 2013).
Young people seem to value possessions based on the following:

1. “Emotional attachment,” like the happiness that you get from it.

2. “Social meaning,” especially the ability of the object to attract people or make
you feel that you belong.

3. “Personal association” or how an object is related to our concept of self, like

buying an eight-note necklace because you think you are a musician.
The adult self continues to extend to more objects as the needs and the means
to acquire change.

For example, a teenager who was interested in drag race cars before becoming
a father would rather choose a more utilitarian type.

The material self also gets a more specific interest. You may find that later in
life you will become more interested in power tools or kitchenware or appliances
as you get older, for example.

It must be noted that the acquisition and attachment to objects still depend on
who we think we are or how we want to be perceived by others (Jarrett, 2013)
3. Possessions help the old persons have a sense of continuity and
Preparation for death.
Old age brings another aspect to the relationship between the owner and the
object. The object now becomes a vessel of memory, like a camera you used
to bring in your travels, a source of comfort as well as an achievement, like a
trophy or diploma, and it becomes a sort of legacy for the future, like your
house and lot that you will pass on to your children.
Ideas on Managing Resources

Our current economic system is based on

monetary exchanges, and being a consumer
necessitates having cash. Having some money
then became a part of our “self” as we engaged
in economic activities.

However, how finances are handled can make or

break a person, an organization, a company, and
even a family.
1. Keep your perspective in check.

The problem is the love of money, not the money itself. Money is important,
but it should be perceived as a means to a better end. You should not sacrifice
short-term satisfaction and happiness for long-term fulfillment and joy.

2. Have money, do not just pretend.

As others say, “The goal is to be rich, not to look rich.” In many instances, it is
the appearance that we perceive first. But pretension can only go so far.
Having your own money actually lets you buy what you want and what you
need. You will have a higher probability of not lending in case of emergency,
and you will not be in bad debt trying to please other people.
3. Have your own goal. Take your own time.

Have your goal for both short-term (3 months to 1 year) or long-term (more
than a year). Do not just think of something to buy but also something to
improve your financial status. Then, keep that goal in mind instead of
comparing yourself with others, as we all have different experiences, including
backgrounds. Do not chase after others; build your own.
4. Budget, budget, budget.

Many people do not like the word “budget” because it sounds restrictive, but it
is not. When you have a budget, you have a) a realistic idea of what you can
spend on whatever you want and b) peace of mind that you have at least taken
care of the important needs that you have to pay for. Start by making a list of
your common expenses for a month and the estimated money you spend on
them. Also, include how much money you are willing to save or invest. Then,
make the necessary adjustments.
25%
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5. Save in order to be safe.

Having savings in the bank provides security in case of emergencies. Others

may have or opt for a separate emergency and savings account, as the savings
account can be reserved for a long-term project, like a house. You must not use
your savings until an emergency comes or until you can finally use them to
purchase a long-term goal.

6. Keep your spending habits in check.

 Make a list when going to the grocery/mall and prioritize buying those
things in your list before you buy anything else when you have the spare
money.
  Pay in cash. Minimize the use of your credit or debit card. As many financial
experts usually advise, if you cannot pay it in cash, it is not yet within your
budget or financial capacity. At least wait until you can afford it.

✓ Wait for a day or a week before you buy something because you might just be
enticed at the moment or pressured by peers or trends that you want to buy
something now, but in reality, it is something you do not really need.

 Save first before you spend, not spend before saving what is left. That way,
you save a bigger amount, and you get a more realistic budget for all your
expenses.

 You can reward yourself without being too extravagant or overextending

your budget. Watch the movies, buy branded clothes, drink coffee at a high-end
coffee shop, buy new upgrades for your ride, and so on, as long as you keep
those things within the abovementioned premises.
7. Increase income flow.

Sometimes, the budget can be too tight, or the money in the bank is not
growing enough. Therefore, you must find legal ways to increase your income.
Any good means to add to your allowance or current income. Just also be sure
that you still have time for yourself, your studies, and your family.
8. Good debt vs. bad debt.
Ideally, we must get out of debt first before we can continue to make our
money grow. It is about having a good record and personal integrity. However,
there are also things that we can call good debts.
 Bad debts – those we acquired but do not necessarily need and/or
do not increase our financial capabilities
 Good debts are those we acquire that will increase our financial
capabilities.

Remember, installments are still debts because you are still providing
payments. It would be best if you could cash it in. Also, when you make
money, settle your debts first. It is also someone else’s efforts as well
as the future on the line that they sacrificed for you, so be grateful.
9. Make your money grow.

Increasing your financial capabilities takes time and honest work. But, there are
means of increasing your income wherein, after putting in the necessary initial
work, the money will grow on its own and will yield profit higher than just being
in a bank. This is through passive income sources or investments like stocks
exchange, mutual funds, bonds, royalties and real estate.

 Engage only in a business that you understand.

 Do not engage in quick-money pyramid schemes.

 Diversify: Do not invest all your money in one place or one

type of business, but do not enter them too thinly. Invest in
around three for a start.
10. Protect the future.

Following the plan of action, you will reach a time when you have a steady flow
of income, both from your work and your investments. You know how to budget
things so you can address your needs and enjoy some luxury.

You also have savings or an emergency account, just in case something really
bad happens. Still, your developing family or lifestyle might render that
emergency account incapable of covering them all.

Thus, you need to have insurance for your health in case you have an accident
or a sickness – life insurance so that your family can receive large financial aid
in case you leave them in this life unexpectedly, and an insurance or plan for
your assets or belongings.
 Again, research is necessary to avoid buying fake insurance.
Remember that you are doing this mainly for your family so that
they will not be financially burdened in case something happens to
you.

11. Your greatest investment is still yourself.

The steps are all about keeping you safe and helping you grow financially. The
mastermind behind all of these is you. Therefore, you must never stop learning and
improving yourself, your skills, and your passions, among others. The more you know,
the more opportunities you can see as well as traps to avoid. Health is also one of the
greatest wealth one can have, so have time to eat right and exercise.
12. Enjoy life no matter what.

Enjoy your profits, keep a good relationship with your family, have a healthy
and romantic relationship, serve the community, take a hobby, engage in arts
or sports, plant a tree, or adopt a stray pet.

People lived meaningful lives before this cash-

oriented economy, and we still can as long as
we maintain a healthy perspective on how we
relate to the material world.
The body is believed to be made up of three components:
body, soul, and spirit.

▪ The body is the physical being that responds to stimuli

and communicates with the surroundings;
▪ The soul comprises the emotions and thoughts of a
person, while
▪ The spirit is the intangible aspect that communicates
with deities in the spiritual realm.

Human beings are incomplete without the spirit.

Religion teaches us the value of a higher being who
develops in us our morality and conscience. We must
explore how to nourish the spiritual self through our
religious beliefs and practices.
“When you examine the lives of the
most influential people who have ever
walked among us, you discover one
thread that winds through them all.

They have been aligned first with their

spiritual nature and only then with their
physical selves.”
Religion, Spirituality and Identity

RELIGION

• Etymologically, the Latin word religare means to bind together. The

binding together depends on how people interpret religion.

• Refers to the beliefs and behaviors related to supernatural beings and

powers.

Notice that this definition does not specify a belief in God, because not
all religions have that belief.
Religion, Spirituality and Identity

RELIGION

• It is narrower than a worldview or cosmology, which is a culture’s

understanding of how the universe came into being, why it is the way it is,
and the place of people in it. It also differs from spirituality, which is
concerned with the sacred in an individual manner.

All cultures have religion, spirituality, a worldview, and magic. Adherents are
people who practice a religion.
 William James defined personal religion
as the “feelings, acts, and experiences of
individual men in their solitude, so far as
they apprehend themselves to stand in
relation to whatever they may consider
divine.”

Religiousness – the degree by which one is affiliated with an organized religion

in terms of the person’s participation in the prescribed rituals and practices,
connection with its beliefs, and involvement with its community of believers
(Santrock, 2014)
Theories of the Origin of Religion

There have been numerous attempts at explaining the origins of religion.

One of the earliest was Tylor’s view that people needed to explain the
differences between the living and the dead. From this came the idea of a soul.
He named this approach animism, a belief that a soul or spirit inhabits all living
objects, including plants, animals, and even minerals.

Tyler believes that eventually, the idea of a soul became polytheism, or a belief
in many deities, which eventually shifted to monotheism, or a belief in one deity.
There are still cultures that practice each of these types of religions. (Ang, 2018)
Functions of Religion

1. Stability and cohesion – shared religion binds people closely together:

a. Religions form a balanced and cohesive moral community. They protect

individuals from anomie, alienation, and the threats of disruptive mass
movements and so maximize the individual’s potential for happiness.

b. Shared religious experiences provide the social cement for group unity and
consensus.
2. Social identity – shared religion gives people an identity and social
membership.

a. This is achieved through special naming ceremonies, christening, and

baptism in the Christian church. For Durkheim, group solidarity is affirmed and
heightened during collective ceremonies and rituals.

b. Religion represents the necessary power of the social group over the
otherwise isolated, anomic individual.

c. Religion serves to integrate the person into society. It is functionally

useful for people to grow up identifying with a particular place or nation to
strengthen a person’s sense of national commitment, especially if either
religion or nation comes under threat.
3. Collective conscience – religion unites people in moral ways:
a. The group affirms its belief in the central values through its commitment to
the religious system. These sentiments produce “value consensus”.
b. Religion thereby generates and maintains the collective conscience. This was
observable in its effects and was open to scientific study. Other social effects could
be studied and analyzed by collecting relevant statistics through careful
observation and recording or other experimental methods.
c. Durkheim saw society as a moral community whose members were socialized
into accepting appropriate patterns of behavior over time. This process is
unending since people are always being integrated into new groups, adopting new
norms, absorbing new values, and adopting new patterns of behavior.
d. An orderly social life is only possible when people share moral values;
in this way, society becomes embedded in the individual.
4. Socialization and social control – religion represents the value system of
the society:

a. It is a conservative force that contributes to moral and wider social order

and stability.

b. Religious beliefs give many cultural norms sacred legitimacy.

e.g., the Ten Commandments provide a prescription for an orderly

lifestyle. By promoting such values through family, school, and church, the
process of socialization occurs.

c. Appropriate modes of thinking and behaving are controlled in ways

which will promote a good, orderly society.
5. Meaning and purpose– religion gives meaning and purpose to people’s
lives:

a. In the face of death, disease, and the hazards of everyday living, people
are vulnerable to all kinds of disasters beyond their control. Religious beliefs
offer people comfort in times of crisis.

b. It is the institution which gives people the strength to continue and

promote the long-term maintenance of society as a result.
SPIRITUALITY

• It involves experiencing something beyond oneself in a transcendent

manner and living in a way that benefits others and society. It could also be
related to a search for the sacred.

• The term ‘sacred’ may signify a person, an object, a principle, or a concept

that transcends the self. It can include a divine being or a divine object that
is ‘set apart’ and considered holy or beyond the ordinary.
SPIRITUAL IDENTITY

This term refers to the persistent sense of self that addresses ultimate
questions about the nature, purpose, and meaning of life. It results in
behaviors that are consonant with the individual’s core values.

The definition of a sense of spiritual identity focuses on the individual’s

construction of a relationship to the sacred and ultimate meaning.
The Spiritual Self

The spiritual self is considered the higher self, the inner self, and a person’s
true being that is greatly influenced by a spiritual deity. Spiritual deities
that people believe vary from one religious group to another. From history,
people’s lives have been shaped by their religious traditions and practices.

Meditation practices increase positive emotions,

which may yield positive consequences for life
satisfaction. Research has also shown that when
facing trials, greater religiosity predicts greater
subjective well-being mediated by greater social
support and meaning in life (Diener et al. 2011)
Individuals with faith in a higher being can face life challenges with greater
confidence and hope. The impossible becomes possible and the difficult
becomes manageable, because of divine intervention and guidance. Christians,
for example, gain a new sense of direction and strength after devoting some
time in prayer and meditation on the Bible or the word of God.

The faith in a higher being gives them a sense of purpose one that is greater
than the physical self. This purpose drives their other affairs, such as family and
career.
Austrian psychiatrist and Holocaust
survivor Viktor Frankl (March 26, 1905–
September 2, 1997) remains best known for his
indispensable 1946 psychological memoir Man’s
Search for Meaning (public library) — a
meditation on what the gruesome experience of
Auschwitz taught him about the primary
purpose of life: the quest for meaning, which
sustained those who survived.

It tells the story of how he survived the Holocaust by finding personal meaning
in the experience, which gave him the will to live through it. He went on to later
establish a new school of existential therapy called logotherapy, based in the
premise that man’s underlying motivator in life is a “will to meaning,” even in the
most difficult of circumstances.
Logotherapy

• From the Greek word ‘logos’ (reason or meaning)

• Developed by neurologist and psychiatrist VIKTOR FRANKL (1950s) and

considered the “Third Viennese School of Psychotherapy” after Freud’s
psychoanalysis and Adler’s Individual Psychology. It is based on an
Existential Analysis.

• Rather than power or pleasure, logotherapy is founded on belief – that is

striving to find a meaning in one’s life (that is the primary, most
powerful motivating and driving force in humans)
BASIC PRINCIPLES ON DISCOVER THE MEANING IN LIFE

1. Meaning in life

In logotherapy, man should see existence as experiencing life’s ups and downs.
Finding meaning in life does not mean that people should strive to become
perfect.

This principle emphasizes that despite the person’s wealth, status, or gender, he
should discover meaning in life events and circumstances. He should realize
that suffering is part of life that cannot be avoided and that finding meaning is
still possible even in times of great loss and deep sorrow.
2. Will to meaning

The meaning that one attaches to experience is not obvious. Since the meaning
varies from person to person and from situation to situation, it is quite
challenging to discover what the experience means to be fulfilled. The meaning
given to one’s life may also vary at any given moment.

3. Freedom to will

People are given the freedom to make life choices which includes how they
respond to life events. People can discover meaning through the values that they
attach to things connected with their lives. Values can be creative, experiential,
and attitudinal.
According to Frankl, people can discover
this meaning in life in three different
ways:

1. by creating a work or doing a deed

2. by experiencing something or
encountering someone

3. by the attitude people take toward

unavoidable suffering and that
“everything can be taken from a man
but one thing: the last of human
freedom – to choose one’s attitude in
any given set of circumstances”.
HUMAN SPIRIT AND LOGOTHERAPY

The human spirit is referred to in several of the assumptions of Logotherapy:

1. The term spirit is not “spiritual” or “religious” in Frankl’s view, the spirit is
the will of the human being.

2. The emphasis, is on the search for meaning, which is not necessarily the
search for God or any other supernatural being.

3. Noted the barriers to humanity’s quest for meaning in life. He warns against
affluence, hedonism, materialism in the search for meaning.
EXISTENTIAL VACUUM

• The psychological condition in which a person doubts, whether life has

any meaning. This new neurosis is characterized by a loss of interest and a
lack of initiative.

• Thus the individual relies mainly upon the actions of others and neglects the
meaning of his personal life.

• Hence he sees his own life as meaningless and falls into the “existential
vacuum” feeling inner void.

• Progressive automation causes increasing

alcoholism, juvenile delinquency and suicide.
The Spiritual Self and Coping with Stress

• According to Dr. Seppala of Stanford University’s Center for Compassion and

Altruism research, spiritual people engage in practices that can help reduce
levels of stress (Miller, K. 2020).

It has been observed that spiritual people are more likely to help the poor
through donations or volunteer work. They are also involved in community
services.

• Spiritually active people cope with stress through meditation rather than
overeating or engaging in unhealthy coping behaviors.

Meditations provide benefits, such as focus to decrease pain and depression

together with improved health and happiness.
• Religious people choose to spend quality time with family, and they feel a
strong sense of belonging to a community of like-minded people.

• Lastly, spiritual people have a very high regard for prayer.

Prayer helps people find comfort by assisting them in dealing with difficult
emotions, encouraging forgiveness, and leading healthier relationships.

• Furthermore, positive emotions, increasing levels of psychological resilience,

and improved immune response have all been associated with
spirituality. (Miller, K. 2020).
Spirituality is not a simple subject for
experiential study.

It is a complex system that requires serious

and dedicated effort. Nevertheless, considering
the positive correlation between spiritual,
physical, and psychological well-being, health
experts and practitioners can undeniably include
spirituality in practice in order to help patients
recover from their illnesses and have a happier
and longer life.
Starting Your Own Spiritual Journey
People worldwide have diverse religious views
and practices. The decision to seek spiritual
enlightenment is driven by the innate need
for meaning.

Joining a spiritual group helps people find

meaning in their lives. Through the spiritual
group, people find connections in troubling
times. The connection group helps ease their
stress and their depressive symptoms, and
increase their immune response.

With these benefits, it is just essential for us to

start embarking on spiritual transcendence.
Miller (2020) proposed a simple guideline on how to start with our spiritual journey.

1. Start small and make new habits easy.

We are not required to strictly follow a set of beliefs overnight. Spiritual journey is a
process and it is progressive. Becoming spiritual can be as simple as staying silent for 5 to
10 minutes a day in a peaceful environment.

2. Commit.

It is a matter of perspective. Decide to start and continue with your spiritual journey. Begin
with self-love. With growing measures of love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness,
and gratitude, one can start being more spiritual right away.
3. Practice.
Just keep on doing and progressing. Human beings must continually practice
mindful attention to their thoughts, emotions and behaviors to find experiences in
spirituality.

4. Study.

Explore and relate with others’ experiences of spirituality, whether through religion
or personal journeys. Seek advice and guidance from people who have been
through the same path.
5. Choose love and respect.
Commit to loving and respecting yourself above all else, then do it with others. If
you truly accept your own strengths and weaknesses, you can easily and
unconditionally offer love and respect to others. Even in awkward, conflicting
situations, choose to remain calm and interact with compassion and grace.
LESSON
POLITICS
• From the Greek work Politika, etymologically defined as ‘affairs of the cities.

• It is the decision-making process that applies to all group members.

• The ability to govern and control a group of people in a community, state, or

nation (https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/politics)

• It can be inferred from this news that a person’s ability to influence others by
deciding for them is one of the essential qualities in one’s political self.
The Political Self
Human nature is social, and almost all philosophers adhere to this absolute
truth. St. Thomas and Aristotle both agreed with this political nature of man,
that the state is a natural institution founded like a man (Bernardo’s 2016). A
person does not just desire to relate to others but wants to form a society of
which he is a part.

Hence a society serves as a person’s sanctuary for the fulfillment of his political
needs. Without society a person is denied of his yearning for unity, a yearning
that motivates him for social relationship with others. In entering into a social
group for the satisfaction of his needs, a person in a sense shows a political
character of his life.
• Political life is a necessary consequence of his
social existence. So that a person can secure a
place in his society, he must experience peace
and order, and this can only be done in a political
atmosphere.

According to St. Thomas Aquinas, political life must

adhere to the idea that “the ruler and the ruled”
should be able to uphold the common good. In
politics, the ruler is the government, and the ruled
are the people or the citizens.
Origin of Political System
• From a functional perspective, political systems serve some basic survival
needs, such as the need for internal order and the defence against external
enemies. Thus, some group members are granted the power to define and
enforce the norms. All adults can join in on this task in the simplest of
gathering bands.

However, the more complex the society, the greater the need to coordinate
many specialists’ activities and settle disputes among kinship groups or other
social units. At some point, loyalty to society must supersede family and local
allegiance. A governing group becomes the focus of such loyalty, with the power
to enforce rules.
• Early societies were small and needed no extensive political system. They
operated more like an extended family, with decisions being made as they
became necessary.

• Ritual and other unifying symbols create and reinforce loyalty to this
larger entity and its leader. Where ceremonies and sacred objects fail to
generate solidarity, they collectively disintegrate into hostile factions. While
the ruling cities are especially eager to use rituals to legitimize their rule,
opposition groups also need unifying symbols.

As surpluses developed and societies grew, cities emerged about 3500 BC

(Fischer 1976).
• City-states then came into being, with power radiating outward from a city
like a spider’s web.

City-states often quarreled, and wars were common. The victorious ones
extended their rule, and eventually, a single city-state was able to wield power
over an entire region.

• As these regions grew, the people slowly developed an identity with the
larger region. They began to see distant inhabitants as “we” instead of
“they”. What we call the state – the political entity that claims a
monopoly on violence within a territory came into being.
• The political organization of a complex society is called the nation-state. States
are organized sets of institutions that govern and defend a given territory. Today,
however, historical evidence suggests a more complicated picture in which the
state operates as a relatively autonomous (self-directing) institutional sphere
with its own history and logic.
LEADERSHIP
• It is closely related to the political self.

The concept of the political self involves an individual's beliefs, values,

identity, and attitudes about politics and governance.

• An important aspect of politics is the capacity to influence and lead a

group of people.

Leadership is the process by which certain group members motivate and guide
the group (Myers, 2015)
• Leadership can be exercised in a small group, such as in the family, in the
classroom, or in school as leaders of any school organization.

• Leadership may also be observed on a larger scale, such as in government

(politicians) and international affairs leaders.

In organizations, leaders are always on the frontline and are responsible for the
functions and operations of the organization.
• Studies revealed that effective leaders consistently stick to their goals,
have the self-confident charisma that influences their followers, can
communicate in clear and simple language, and have enough optimism and
faith in their group to inspire them to follow (Myers, 2015)

• The human psyche is political.

In everyday life, people need to adjust not only to themselves but to their world
and the forces in the environment that create pressures, ideas, and interests.
This leads to an independent and interactive nature of one’s psyche.

• Political behavior, in general, is not separate from other forms of human

relationships.
Theories of Leadership
A. Psychological Needs

David McClelland believed that we have three psychological needs:

1. Need for power – want others to follow him/her.

2. Need for affiliation – need to please others or you want others to like you.
3. Need for achievement – need for you to reach
your goals and to be competitive
B. Leadership Motivation Patterns
(Chan and Drasgow, 2001)

1. Affective identity motivation – the motivation to lead as a result of a

desire to be in charge and lead others.
2. Noncalculative motivation– those who seek leadership positions because
they will result in personal gain.
3. Social-normative motivation – the desire to lead out of a sense of duty or
responsibility.
C. Types of Leaders According to Path-Goal Theory

1. Instrumental– leaders who plan and organize for their subordinates.

2. Supportive – leaders who show concern for their subordinates.
3. Participative – leaders who allow subordinates to participate in
decision-making.
4. Achievement-oriented – sets challenges and rewards achievement.
Leadership style is a pattern of leadership behavior that is repeatedly shown
as evident across various situations.

It can be classified as follows:

1.Autocratic leadership – directive, non-participative and domineering

2.Democratic leadership – participative, communicative, and egalitarian
3.Laissez-faire leadership – ‘hands-off’, with few attempts made to influence
others.
About what leaders and followers offer to one another, the following are the
leaders’ descriptions:

1. Transactional leaders - focus on the proper exchange of resources and

give followers something in exchange for something the leaders want.

2. Transformational leaders (charismatic leaders) – focus on aligning the

group or organizational goals with the followers’ needs and aspirations by
developing an appealing vision (whereby organizational needs are placed
above self-interest).

3. Laissez-faire leaders – engage in ‘non-leadership,’ that is, they avoid

making decisions, hesitate in taking action, and are often absent when
needed (Hewstone et.al., 2015)
Who is a Filipino?

• At first glance, this is a very simple question to

answer. But if you throw this simple question
randomly to people on the street, you might be
surprised at how differently people who call
themselves Filipinos answer it.

It has been more than a century since the Philippines

gained independence from its colonizers, yet it
appears that until now, Filipinos still do not have a
unified notion or an otherwise clear picture of who or
what a Filipino is.
• People’s varied perceptions of what makes one a Filipino also affect how one sees
themselves. There are many ways to characterize and define a Filipino – from his
physical attributes, behaviors, values, traits, and customs to his beliefs and
practices, and all of these factors affect a person’s political self-concept in varying
degrees, depending on how much one identifies with the Filipino identity.

• However, beyond these commonly known traits associated with being a Filipino,
the Philippine Constitution, which is the supreme law of the land, also
provides a picture of who a Filipino is concerning his nation.
• In political terms, a Filipino is regarded as a citizen or an inhabitant of a given
territory, such as the Republic of the Philippines, who exercises civil and
political rights within the said territory by this citizenship. More particularly,
Section 1, Article IV of the 1987 Constitution provides:

Section 1. The following are citizens of the Philippines:

[1] Those who are citizens of the Philippines at the time of the adoption of this
Constitution;
[2] Those whose fathers or mothers are citizens of the Philippines;
[3] Those born before January 17, 1973, of Filipino mothers who elect
Philippine citizenship upon reaching the age of majority; and
[4] Those who are naturalized under the law.
Filipino Citizens by Birth

Filipinos are either natural-born or naturalized citizens of the Philippines

(De Leon 2011). This citizenship may be acquired by birth (involuntary
method) or naturalization (voluntary method). The former is further
governed by the principles of:

1. jus sanguinis – states that children should follow the citizenship of their
parents by virtue of their blood relationship.

2. jus soli – states that the person shall acquire the citizenship of the place
where he or she was born. The place of birth shall determine one’s nationality,
and the citizenship of his or her parents is immaterial.
Here in the Philippines, we adhere to the jus sanguinis principle, as outlined
in Section 1 (2) of the aforementioned Constitutional provision.

Natural-born citizens need not perform any act to acquire such citizenship. If
their parents are both Filipinos, then from the moment of their birth, they will
automatically acquire Filipino citizenship.
Filipino Citizens by Naturalization
• The naturalization process pertains to a “judicial act of adopting a
foreigner and clothing him with the privileges of a native-born citizen.”

It implies the renunciation of a former nationality and the entry of a similar

relation towards a new body of politics.

This means that a foreigner may acquire Filipino citizenship if he wants to,
provided that he renounces his former nationality in favor of the new citizenship.
This act of renunciation, however, will not automatically grant the foreigner the
desired citizenship because it is still subject to certain judicial or
administrative proceedings as prescribed by our Philippine laws.
Therefore, the Filipino identity can be formed and influenced not only by
culture and society but also by the nation and its government, to which the
Filipino citizen owes loyalty and allegiance.

Common citizenship may also be a factor in forming a national identity. How

much one identifies with a nation or government affects one’s political self-
concept and further promotes or discourages one’s engagement in the country’s
civic and political affairs.
The Concept of Nationalism and the Filipino Identity

The existence of a common citizenship is a mere piece in the puzzle depicting the
picture of the Filipino identity. Ideally, citizens of a particular territory should share a
common sense of identity hinged on a common language, historical experience, and
distinct cultural background. A national identity may also be forged through
nationalistic sentiments shared among inhabitants of a particular territory.

However, the same case cannot be applied to the Philippines. Kaufman (2013)
argued that Filipinos have a relatively weak sense of nationalism, thereby
resulting in a fragmented national identity.
He explained certain factors that may contribute to this rather fragmented identity
by applying three known nationalism theories to the Philippine context:

1. Gellner’s modernist approach (1983) suggests that a shared language as a

unifying part of a culture strengthens a national identity.

2. The ethno-symbolist approach of Anthony Smith (1998,2009) – views a

nation as “a named and self-defined human community whose members
cultivate shared myths, memories, symbols, values, and traditions, reside in and
identify with a historic homeland, create and disseminate a distinctive public
culture, and observe shared customs and common laws” (Smith as cited in
Kaufman 2013), and thus, the creation of certain historical stories through these
myths and symbols which people can attribute meaning to, can give rise to
national identity.
3. The sociological approach of Charles Tilly (2005) and Andreas
Wimmer (2002) posits that national identity emerges from social interactions
between governing elites and citizens, where the former affords protection and
security to the latter in exchange for government benefits.
Among other factors, Kaufman (2013) highlighted that:

1. The diversity of language (dialects) in the Philippines, or possibly the lack

of a dominant primary language, is creating a divide among Filipinos,
thus making it more difficult for them to create a unified identity.

2. The absence of a consistently powerful historical narrative also tends

to blur a common national history due to conflicting accounts of the revolution
and independence of our country from its colonizers. It then becomes difficult to
attach meanings and symbols to any such historical experience or milestone
without a coherent and unified narrative since these elements are what people
must identify with for a sense of national identity to emerge (Kaufman 2013).
So, “What do these elements have to do with my identity or political self-
concept?”

The nationalism theories, as briefly

discussed and applied by Kaufman (2013)
in the Philippine context, suggest that a
unified sense of national identity also
affects how a person perceives and
creates his own identity.
The relatively shaky sense of nationalism
among Filipinos might be the reason why it is
difficult to picture what really makes up a
Filipino identity.

Nevertheless, we continue to identify ourselves

as Filipinos based on a shared language (no
matter how diverse), religion, culture, and
history; however, these might have evolved over
time.
 Culture and the Filipino Identity
The set of values, beliefs, thinking patterns, and behavior
practiced by a society and transmitted from one generation to
another through time comprises culture. These typified practices
and beliefs shared within a group create a sense of identity and
foster a feeling of belongingness within the group.

Culture and identity are inextricably linked as both influences

each other on different levels. Culture, both material and
nonmaterial, shapes the formation of our identity. Across
generations, these typified beliefs and behaviors that make up the
Filipino identity were transmitted and are still being practiced.
Developing a Filipino Identity:
Values, Traits, Community and Institutional Factors

• Filipino values and psychology are centered around the concept of kapwa,
which refers to a shared inner self.

When someone regards another as a kapwa, they recognize a mutual sense of

identity and consciousness with that person. This idea is important not just
on an individual level, but also within the community.

• In the Philippines, great emphasis is placed on maintaining social harmony

and seeking social acceptance. Consequently, concern for how others perceive
one's actions and thoughts strongly influences social behavior.
3 Main Value Orientations Resulted in the Core Value of Kapwa

1. Filipinos love to connect, especially with people.

2. Filipinos like to experience the multidimensional wholeness of life.

3. Filipinos are highly participatory.

Some of the positive values that Filipinos have historically held are
important:

1. The Filipino community emphasizes the family, with children typically

remaining in their parents' homes until they get married. Caring for
aging parents is a valued expectation.

As a result, it's common to see multiple generations or families living together.

This emphasis on family is also evident in the high level of care nurses and
caregivers.

2. Humor and positivity are also important traits in Filipino culture.

Despite frequent natural calamities, Filipinos are encouraged to remain optimistic

and find the silver lining in difficult situations.
3. Filipinos value adaptability and quick thinking, as exemplified by the phrase
"bahala na" which reflects a belief in a higher power and the submission of
one's fate to uncontrollable elements.

While some view this as a form of fatalistic submission, for others, it is a positive
affirmation that allows them to face problems head-on.

4. Religion and spirituality are deeply ingrained in Filipino culture, with

Catholicism and Islam having a significant influence.

Religion plays a big role in society and shapes the values and principles of many
Filipinos.
5. Filipino hospitality is known for being warm and welcoming. Hosts typically
provide food, entertainment, and local tours to their guests. Guests are often
given pasalubong, or souvenirs, to take home as a token of appreciation.

6. "Bayanihan, or community spirit,” is a core value in Filipino culture.

Neighbors come together to help each other and make tasks easier. This is often
seen in rural areas, where entire houses are moved with the help of wooden
poles carried by a group of able-bodied men while women cheer them on and
celebrate afterward.
Negative Traits of Filipinos

1. The Filipino "Crab Mentality" is a harmful perspective on competition that

discourages others from taking opportunities and even tries to destroy their
reputation.

It sabotages others to be the only one at the top. Rather than being supportive,
Filipinos should see others' achievements as inspiration to reach their own goals
and understand that everyone's success contributes to the betterment of the
country.
2. Procrastination, or the "Mañana Habit," is a behavior that slows down
progress in the Philippines.
This can be seen in the many government projects left unfinished. Similarly,
many individuals delay starting tasks until the deadline, which often results in
poverty for years. If these projects had been completed on time, many Filipinos
would have benefited.

3. The "Bahala na" or "come what may" habit is a destructive behavior in

which people leave outcomes to chance rather than taking action to achieve their
goals.
This can be seen in students who spend more time playing computer games than
studying, hoping to pass through luck rather than hard work. It is important to
understand that faith alone is not enough to achieve success and that work is
necessary to accomplish one's goals.
exams
4. Hypocrisy, or being two-faced, is a negative trait that contradicts the
Philippines' claimed values of morality.

Many Filipinos try to live up to traditional societal standards but cannot do so

perfectly. This can lead to a double standard, in which people condemn others for
failing to meet standards they do not follow.

5. "Ningas cogon" is a behavior in which people enthusiastically start projects

or ideas but quickly lose interest and fail to finish them. This trait can be a
significant barrier to progress in the Philippines.
6. "Filipino Time," or tardiness, is a negative trait associated with being late
for events and activities.

This behavior can cause conflicts and discourage participation in productive

activities.

7. Gossiping is a behavior in which Filipinos talk about other people's lives,

often causing side damage to relationships and reputations.

This trait is not limited to women and can be just as harmful when practiced by
men.

8. Blaming others for mistakes shows irresponsibility and destroys teamwork.

This behavior is especially harmful when practiced by public officials, as it can

hinder progress in disaster relief and other critical situations.