Journal of Cleaner Production 407 (2023) 137117

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Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro

Design a novel solar based system integrated with

humidification-dehumidification unit and re-compression sCO2 cycle for
sustainable development
Onder Kizilkan a, Shoaib Khanmohammadi b, *
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Technology, Isparta University of Applied Sciences, Isparta, 32200, Turkey
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kermanshah University of Technology, Kermanshah, Iran

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Handling Editor: Cecilia Maria Villas Bôas de This paper discusses thermodynamic modeling of a power generation cycle, cooling, and freshwater with the
Almeida employment of solar energy. The introduced system has different subsystems; solar dish collector, a re-
compression sCO2 Brayton cycle integrated with a combined Rankine power-ejector refrigeration system and
Keywords: humidification and dehumidification desalination unit driven with a solar dish system. The considered system is
Exergy analysis
analyzed in the context of thermodynamics index and criteria such as irreversibility, freshwater production,
HDH
energy and exergy efficiencies, and environmental metric. The performance-affecting primary variables are
Re-compression sCO2 Brayton
Solar dish determined through a parametric evaluation of the suggested system. According to the results, the system is
Sustainability capable of producing 83.3 kW of electrical power at the design point and 3.1 kW of cooling as well as 41.54 kg/h
of freshwater. A more accurate analysis of exergy destruction shows that solar dish and heat exchanger-4 have
the most significant rate of exergy destruction. In addition, parameters such as solar radiation intensity,
compressor pressure ratio, and entrainment ratio are parametrically analyzed. The results indicated that
increasing entrainment ratio from 0.3 to 0.6, will increase the refrigeration capacity from 2.33 kW to 4.66 kW
and the operation of Turbine 2 from 15.96 kW to 18.63 kW. Also, enhancing the solar radiation intensity from
650 W/m2 to 950 W/m2 has different influences the system outputs so that increasing the solar intensity will
reduce the performance of the cooling cycle and increase the freshwater produced.

source because of its unlimited and pollution-free nature (Khanmo­

hammadi et al., 2021; Kizilkan et al., 2021). It was reported as one of the
1. Introduction most feasible alternatives to satisfy the continuously growing huge
requirement, and it was accepted as a crucial solution to the worldwide
For the last decades, the expenditure of fossils and environmental energy need. It can be utilized as an energy resource for many power
concerns has become the major factor in supplying energy demand. generation processes, including co-generation and tri-generation sys­
Especially environmental contamination, secure energy generation, and tems (Dabwan and Pei, 2020; Yan et al., 2020). There are different types
sustainable aspects are the main challenges in today’s world (Smaisim of applications in order to utilize solar energy (Mozafarifard et al., 2022;
et al., 2023). In addition, past experiences and recent scientific knowl­ Hai et al., 2022; Wang et al., 2023). Among them, solar concentrating
edge denote that the rapid increment in the consumption of energy all systems have gained significant attention owing to their effective inte­
over the world and constraining the use of fossil-based fuels will not be gration, especially in power generation systems. Within the various
the exact solution for meeting forthcoming energy requirements. Prob­ types of solar concentrating systems, including solar tower systems,
ably among the most appealing methods for clean, effective, and sus­ parabolic trough solar collectors (PTSC), dish and linear Fresnel col­
tainable power generation systems is to utilize renewable resources in lectors (Adun et al., 2022), the PTSC is a practical remedy to utilize solar
order overcome global warming issues (Khanmohammadi et al., 2015). thermal power for power generation. It is suggested as a clean encour­
Accordingly, the utilization of renewable resources is crucial (Saini aging modern techniques for mercantile sustainable energy generation
et al., 2020; Keshvarparast et al., 2020; Chen et al., 2023). Within and small-scale co-generation applications (Zayed et al., 2020).
renewable resources, solar energy has become an increasingly attractive

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: sh.khanmohammadi@kut.ac.ir (S. Khanmohammadi).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.137117
Received 28 February 2023; Received in revised form 31 March 2023; Accepted 6 April 2023
Available online 11 April 2023
0959-6526/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
O. Kizilkan and S. Khanmohammadi Journal of Cleaner Production 407 (2023) 137117

Nomenclature L Loss
m Mixing region
A Area, m2 mf Mixed fluid
Cp Specific heat, kJ/kgK n Nozzle
e Specific exergy, kJ/kg opt Optical
Ė Energy rate, kW out Outlet
Ėx Exergy rate, kW pf Primary fluid
ER Entrainment ratio r Receiver
FR Heat removal factor Ref Refrigeration
F’ Solar dish efficiency factor sf Secondary fluid
h Specific enthalpy (kJ/kg) u Useful
ṁ Mass flow rate, kg/s w Water
P Pressure, kPa 0 Reference conditions
rP Pressure ratio
Rr Recovery ratio Greeek letters
η Efficiency
Q̇ Heat rate, kW
ε Humidification-dehumidification effectiveness
s Specific entropy, kJ/kgK
S Solar radiation, W/m2 Acronyms
Ṡ Entropy rate, kW/K HDH Humidification-dehumidification
SF Split fraction CSP Concentrated solar power
T Temperature, K or ◦ C BC Brayton cycle
u Velocity (m/s) EXP Expansion valve
U Heat transfer coefficient (W/m2K) GC Gas cooler
Ẇ Work rate, kW GOR Gain of ratio
HEX Heat exchanger
Subscripts
HTR Low temperature recuperator
a Aperture, air
LTR Low temperature recuperator
comp Compressor
MC Main compressor
con Condenser
RC Re-compressor
d Diffuser
ORC Organic Rankine cycle
da Dry air
RH Relative humidity
dest Destruction
tur Turbine
eva Evaporator
SD Solar dish
gen Generation
RP Rankine power cycle
in Inlet
ERC Ejector refrigeration cycle
is Isentropic

For the last decades, the implementation of carbon dioxide (CO2) as a applications of these cycles in the energy industry by Guo et al. (2022),
working agent in power cycles has become so popular because it has the status of the cycles in nuclear, solar and other industries by Li et al.
excellent heat transfer characteristics and attractive physical properties. (2017), technical progress of the cycles by Liao et al. (2019) and on
It is an incombustible and non-toxic fluid with relatively low critical utilization of the sCO2 as the working medium by Cabeza et al. (2017).
temperature and pressure. CO2 is an environmentally friendly option Overall, it was concluded that the sCO2 re-compression cycle has been
that has no potential for ozone depletion and causes almost no global an appealing one among the other sCO2 cycles by Dostal et al. (2006),
warming (Khanmohammadi et al., 2018). It can be employed either in a due to its higher cost-effective availability compared with the conven­
vapor cycle, the so-called transcritical Rankine cycle, or in a gas cycle, tional steam cycle, particularly under moderate temperature conditions.
the so-called supercritical Brayton cycle (BC). Because of its greater Furthermore, the thermodynamic efficiency of a sCO2-BC employed in
operational volume, the energy cycle dimensions can be designed to be solar energy under non-optimal conditions was studied by Lu et al.
more compact and smaller (Liu et al., 1114). (2022).
For the past years, Extensive research has been conducted on the Due to environmental concerns such as pollutants produced by
subject of power generation systems employing CO2 as the working burning fossil fuels, the concept of integrating sCO2 energy systems with
agent. A detailed study performed by Zhu (2017) about the applications solar power applications has been recognized by several researchers. A
of supercritical CO2 (sCO2) systems for energy production using detailed examination on this topic was performed out by Yin. et al. (Yin
fossil-based fuels. This article outlines the utilization of sCO2 cycles for et al., 2019). The study revealed the recent advances in the concentrated
power generation applications that involve fossil fuels. It was reported solar power-assisted sCO2 cycles with different configurations. Different
that these cycles are still being developed and can be a good alternative types of sCO2 cycles were reported in the study, including single, recu­
for future energy production technologies if the technical constraints are perated, re-compression, partial cooling, pre-compression, and
accomplished. Mohammed et al. (2020) carried out a review article split-expansion cycles. Moreover, thermodynamic analysis studies were
which investigates the latest advances in sCO2 cycles. The authors paid also reported for solar power-assisted sCO2 cycles. Al-Sulaiman and Atif
particular attention to the studies about improving the performance of (2015) executed a comparative investigation for determining the per­
these cycles by integrating a bottoming cycle for recovering the heat formance of five different sCO2 cycles driven by solar energy. The
extracted. Further reviews can be found in the literature for different required energy was supplied by means of a solar tower. Also, an opti­
perspectives, such as research and development of sCO2 cycles by Ahn mization procedure was applied for the heliostat field. They reported
et al. (2015), different cycle configurations by Crespi et al. (2017), that, among the various cycles, the greatest cycle productivity was

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O. Kizilkan and S. Khanmohammadi Journal of Cleaner Production 407 (2023) 137117

Fig. 1. Novel solar assisted re-compression sCO2-BC cycle integrated with combined RP-ERC and HDH.

obtained for the re-compression sCO2 cycle. Luu et al. (2017a), per­ the system for various heat transfer fluids (HTF). Based on the findings,
formed parametric analyses for solar power-assisted various sCO2 cy­ the system operating with Al2O3 showed the highest performance. Cel­
cles. Different approaches for operating solar-assisted sCO2 cycles were ik-Toker et al. (2021) analyzed the performance of a re-compression
developed. According to their results, the integration of re-compression, sCO2 cycle combined with refrigeration and hydrogen production. The
intercool, and re-heat cycles was reported to be the efficient one. In their multi-generation system was operated by solar power by means of a
another study, the researchers proposed a simulation model for the solar dish. In the ERC, ammonia was utilized. The authors performed
solar-powered sCO2 cycle for different layouts (Luu et al., 2017b). energy, exergy, and exergo-environmental analyses for different oper­
Sharan et al. (2019) examined the operation of the solar-assisted su­ ation parameters.
percritical cycle incorporating desalination. A re-compression sCO2 To improve the performance of thermal systems, in a cleaner way,
cycle was utilized for power generation. Concentrating solar technology several researchers have implemented integrating the systems with solar
was employed for the heat energy demand, where the energy for the thermal applications. Especially, for solar-assisted systems with
desalination system was fed by excess heat from the cycle. humidification-dehumidification (HDH), there exists an extensive
Several solar energy technologies that are integrated into thermal number of studies. Aboelmaaref et al. (2020) reviewed the present sit­
power systems are being investigated and reported by the researchers. uation and latest advances in desalination systems integrated with
Among the concentrated solar power, parabolic dish collectors gained concentrated solar power (CSP) in terms of design considerations and
attention owing to their attractive thermal features namely high-energy hybridized arrangements, energy, and economic assessments powered
conversion efficiency, high operating temperature, and high concen­ by CSP systems, either parabolic trough or parabolic dish. Within the
tration ratio. Hadelu et al. (2022) proposed a solar dish powered desalination technologies, they also evaluate in detail the studies,
poly-generation system with sCO2 cycle. The integrated system also including HDH CSP integrated systems. Kasaeian et al. (2019) reviewed
includes an ejector-driven refrigeration system, a desalination unit, and the recent papers on the HDH systems assisted by solar energy. In their
a hydrogen generation system that employs solid-oxide steam electro­ survey, different research studies such as experimental, numerical, and
lyzer. CO2 was utilized in the ejector cooling cycle (ERC). In addition, economic and optimization of HDH desalination systems were exam­
second law and economic analyses were conducted. Khan et al. (2021) ined. The examinations mainly focused on the utilization of solar power
analyzed a solar-dish-powered multi-generation with cycle outputs for applications utilizing different types enhancements including, plate,
power generation, refrigeration, H2 production, and freshwater pro­ evacuated, concentrating collectors, etc. An extensive literature review
duction. The power generation unit was a supercritical BC, where it was was carried out on solar-assisted HDH systems (Santosh et al., 2019).
integrated with an absorption cooling cycle and flash desalination. Abid The researchers tried to determine the significant aspects which
et al. (2020) performed the exergo-economic performance of a sCO2 contribute to the performance of this technology, in particular heat
Brayton power system integrated with hydrogen generation. Solar transfer mechanism, mass flow rate, types of technique, employing Nano
power was utilized to drive the system by means of parabolic dish col­ type HTFs, and phase change materials. Moreover, the impact of solar
lectors. The sCO2 unit was a re-compression type. The analysis was energy with other environmental effects such as surroundings temper­
carried out for determining how different system criterion such as such ature, and wind speed, were stated. It was reported in their results that
as solar radiation, environment temperature, and inlet temperature of there is considerable potential for the improvement of potable water
turbine affect the performance with reheat and without reheat. Another production by means of integrated systems, including different sources
study on the thermodynamic analyses of a solar-dish assisted sCO2 cycle of renewable-based systems. Another comprehensive review was con­
was done by Khan et al. (2019). The researchers compared different heat ducted by Faegh et al. (2019) on the HDH systems integrated with
transfer fluids such as Al2O3, CuO, and TiO2. The analyses were con­ cooling and energy production applications for multi-generation pur­
ducted for different operating conditions to evaluate the performance of poses. Special attention was paid to the major aspect of performance

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O. Kizilkan and S. Khanmohammadi Journal of Cleaner Production 407 (2023) 137117

Fig. 2. Illustration of ejector and pressure diagram (adapted from Ref (Zahedi and Daneshgar, 2022).).

with an HDH and an ERC for refrigeration applications. To take

Table 1 advantage of solar power, evacuated tube type collectors were employed
Assumed data for the solar assisted combined system.
whereas, for the refrigeration system, different coolants like R134a,
a) Design parameters Values R236fa, R245fa, R290, R600, and R600a were utilized for comparison.
Environmental conditions According to the results, when R600 was used in the cycle, the cooling
Ambient temperature, T0 (◦ C) 20
performance was found to be the highest. Cao et al. (2021) examined a
Ambient pressure, P0 (kPa) 101.325 solar energy-based power production unit with freshwater production.
Solar Dish The system consists of a Kalina cycle powered by a solar pond, a ther­
Solar irradiation, S (W/m2) 950 moelectric generator that harnesses the surplus heat produced by the
Number of solar dishes 65
cycle, and a system for power, refrigeration, and an HDH system. The
Diameter of dish (m) 3.64
Diameter of receiver (m) 0.2 authors conducted parametric analyses to evaluate the effect of signifi­
Solar dish efficiency factor, F′ 0.9 cant operating parameters on the integrated system’s performance.
Optical efficiency, ηopt 0.9 Delpisheh et al. (2021) evaluated the functioning of a poly-generation
Re-compression sCO2-BC process that integrates parabolic solar collectors. The system consisted
Inlet pressure of turbine, P16 (kPa) 25000
Pressure ratio, rP 3
of HDH for freshwater, a hydrogen production unit employing PEM
Isentropic efficiency of compressor, ηis,comp,BC 0.85 electrolyzer, and a Rankine cycle for power generation. The system’s
Turbine isentropic efficiency, ηis,tur,BC 0.88 performance was analyzed, followed by an optimization procedure for
Effectiveness of HTR, εHTR 0.4 the optimum design parameters.
Effectiveness of LTR, εLTR 0.5
Although many authors performed much research on the topic of
Pich-point temperature, TPP (◦ C) 10
RP-ERC solar-assisted integrated sCO2 cycles, various system layouts with
Turbine inlet pressure, P25 (kPa) 4000 different system outputs have been considered. These system outputs
Turbine extraction pressure pressure, P26 (kPa) 1200 were hydrogen production, refrigeration utilizing either absorption or
Evaporator temperature, Teva (◦ C) − 5 ejector, heating, and desalination. However, research on the thermo­
Condenser temperature, Tcon (◦ C) 25
Isentropic efficiency of pump, ηis,pump 0.80
dynamic performance of solar-dish powered re-compression sCO2-BC is
Isentropic efficiency of turbine, ηis,tur 0.82 limited. Moreover, further research is needed to improve the system
Isentropic efficiency of nozzle ηn,is 0.90 efficiency by the integration of different system outputs. Taking into
Isentropic efficiency of mixing region, ηm,is 0.85 consideration this research gap, the present study aims to examine the
Isentropic efficiency of diffuser, ηd,is 0.85 re-compression sCO2-BC performance combined with Rankine power
HDH System and ammonia-based ERC and humidification-dehumidification process.
Air inlet temperature, Ta (◦ C) 70
Relative humidity of air, RH 0.3
The necessary heat energy is provided from a solar-dish collector. The
analyses are performed for different operating conditions to determine
the effects of various system parameters.
improvement studies of the cycles by coupling them with water desali­
nation systems. Additionally, different system parameters were exam­ 2. System layout
ined for comparing different types of cycles. Almahmoud et al. (2021)
suggested a solar-powered integrated system for freshwater production The proposed solar-dish-assisted energy production system is

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O. Kizilkan and S. Khanmohammadi Journal of Cleaner Production 407 (2023) 137117

Fig. 3. Temperature-entropy diagrams for a) sCO2-BC and b) RP-ERC.

Table 2
The results of thermodynamic modeling.
b) State ṁ (kg/s) P (kPa) T (◦ C) h (kJ/kg) s (kJ/kg K) ex (kJ/kg) Ėx (kW)

1 0.65 101.3 76.85 105 8.118 0.3306 5.277

2 0.65 101.3 76.93 105.1 8.14 0.331 5.291
3 0.65 101.3 399.1 796.7 297.4 1.703 193.3
4 0.65 101.3 399.1 796.7 297.4 1.703 193.3
5 0.65 101.3 238.2 416.3 106.2 1.058 69.03
6 0.65 101.3 134.8 208.9 31.72 0.6044 20.62
7 0.65 101.3 76.85 105 8.118 0.3306 5.277
8 0.8312 8333 35 − 191.9 209.5 − 1.368 174.1
9 0.8312 25000 73.14 − 162.6 235 − 1.355 195.3
10 0.3562 8333 110.8 24.93 233 − 0.7088 83.01
11 0.3562 25000 226.8 114.3 314.4 − 0.6817 112
12 0.8312 25000 141.6 − 18.36 267.4 − 0.9738 222.3
13 1.187 25000 164.7 21.43 279.8 − 0.8804 332.3
14 1.187 25000 214.6 97.1 307.5 − 0.7165 365.1
15 1.187 25000 374.1 305.3 407.1 − 0.3461 483.4
16 1.187 8333 261.6 201.6 295.5 − 0.3193 350.9
17 1.187 8333 195 125.9 264.2 − 0.4705 313.7
18 1.187 8333 110.8 24.93 233 − 0.7088 276.7
19 0.8312 8333 110.8 24.93 233 − 0.7088 193.7
20 7.429 101.3 20 84.01 0 0.2965 0
21 7.429 101.3 25.8 108.3 0.2368 0.3784 1.759
22 0.09197 1003 25 317.5 293.4 1.408 26.99
23 0.09197 4000 26.01 323.7 298.4 1.412 27.44
24 0.09197 4000 60 491.5 310.6 1.943 28.56
25 0.09197 4000 228.2 1958 613.7 5.911 56.44
26 0.03679 1200 131.7 1756 379.3 6.023 13.95
27 0.05518 1003 119.1 1730 347.8 6.042 19.19
28 0.0948 1003 119.9 1732 348.3 6.047 33.02
29 0.0948 1003 55.12 1569 318.3 5.594 30.18
30 0.0948 1003 25 317.5 293.4 1.408 27.82
31 0.002833 1003 25 317.5 293.4 1.408 0.8311
32 0.002833 354.9 − 5 317.5 284.3 1.439 0.8053
33 0.002833 354.9 − 5 1457 178.1 5.687 0.5046
34 0.03962 1003 121 1735 349 6.053 13.83
35 13.51 101.3 21 88.19 0.007119 0.3107 0.09619
36 13.51 101.3 23.1 96.97 0.06808 0.3405 0.9198
37 0.1234 101.3 16.83 70.74 0.07226 0.251 0.008918
38 0.1234 101.3 10.59 44.59 0.6467 0.1598 0.07981
39 0.328 101.3 20 31.09 0.3743 5.721 0.1228
40 0.328 101.3 70 236.9 9.535 6.392 3.127
41 0.3309 101.3 41.83 182 4.618 6.221 1.528
42 0.3194 101.3 24.17 72.83 − 0.1911 5.865 − 0.06103
43 0.3936 101.3 20 84.01 0 0.2965 0
44 0.3936 101.3 40.74 170.7 2.929 0.5822 1.153
45 0.3906 101.3 52.08 218.1 6.825 0.7306 2.666
46 0.01154 101.3 35.07 147 1.567 0.506 0.01808

demonstrated in Fig. 1. The analyses are performed for a) solely the sCO2 above, the re-compression sCO2 cycle is driven by absorbed heat energy
re-compression cycle, b) the sCO2 cycle with refrigeration, and c) the from solar. The collected heat by solar dish is transferred to the sCO2
integrated system, including the HDH process to investigate the per­ cycle by means of HTF which is assumed to be TherminolVP1 in this
formance of the efficiency improvement of the subsystem. As mentioned study due to its favorable properties (Toker et al., 2021; Mahdavi et al.,

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O. Kizilkan and S. Khanmohammadi Journal of Cleaner Production 407 (2023) 137117

(Elakhdar et al., 2019).

Among the desalination processes, the HDH technique has achieved
significant improvement owing to its favorable operation conditions
such as reasonable temperature and pressure, economical and straight­
forward structure, applicability in remote areas, and integrability with
solar technology, which makes it a sustainable technique (Santosh et al.,
2022). Therefore, the open air-heated HDH process is chosen in this
study as the freshwater production unit. As seen in Fig. 1, air from the
environment passes through the HEX3, where it is warmed to 70 ◦ C and
enters the humidifier. In the humidifier unit, hot air directly encounters
the water stream coming from the dehumidifier and then enters the
dehumidifier section as saturated air. Simultaneously the salty water at
ambient temperature enters the dehumidifier and the moisture in the air
releases some of its heat energy, which is then absorbed by a water,
Fig. 4. The main output of the suggested system.
causing it to condense. The condensed water is collected at the bottom,
where it can be sued as freshwater (Al-Sulaiman et al., 2015).
2022). In the re-compression cycle, CO2 is heated to a supercritical
temperature in the HEX1. After exiting the HEX1, it passes through the
3. Methodology
turbine, where its pressure reduces by producing energy. CO2 then en­
ters a high-temperature recuperator (HTR) where some amount of heat
To conduct the performance analyses of the novel solar-dish assisted
transferred to the stream coming from re-compressor (RC). After HTR,
integrated system, a thermodynamic methodology is developed. The
the working agent passes through a low-temperature recuperator (LTR)
initial part of the modeling consists of equations for general mass and
and at this stage the stream is divided into two streams; one stream
energy balance followed by exergy analysis.
continues to the gas cooler (GC) while the other flows to the RC. The
The steady state mass balance equation for a control volume can be
main compressor (MC) compresses the CO2 to a supercritical pressure
defined as (Cengel and Boles, 2015);
where it mixes again with the second stream compressed by a
∑ ∑
re-compressor after passing LTR. ṁin = ṁout (1)
The integration of combined RP-ERC is shown in bottom-right side of
Fig. 1. In the cycle, the working fluid ammonia is heated by the HTF, The equation for energy balance is:
passing through the HEX2. The superheated ammonia then enters the ∑ ∑
Ėin = Ėout (2)
ammonia turbine (T2) and generates electricity. In the ammonia tur­
bine, some amount of ammonia is sent to the ejector with high pressure,
where it accelerates in the ejector’s nozzle resulting in evaporation of In Equations (1) and (2), ṁ is the flow rate, Ė is the energy rate, in de­
the ammonia in the evaporator at low pressure. At stage 34, the two notes the inlet and out represents exit of the control volume. Using these
streams are mixed with a pressure rise. At stage 28, the stream from the equations and including heat and work terms, the general energy bal­
ejector and stream from the ammonia turbine are again mixed and en­ ance equation becomes (Musharavati et al., 2022):
ters the condenser after passing HEX4. In the condenser, the working ∑ ∑
Q̇ + ṁin hin = Ẇ + ṁout hout (3)
fluid condenses and it is separated into two flows; first flow is pumped to
the HEX4, while the second passes through the expansion valve where
In Equation (3), Ẇ is the work and Q̇ is the heat.
the fluid expands to a lower pressure and enters the evaporator
For the second law analysis, the general exergy balance is defined as

Fig. 5. The exergy destruction of different elements of the suggested system.

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O. Kizilkan and S. Khanmohammadi Journal of Cleaner Production 407 (2023) 137117

Fig. 7. The effect of pressure ratio of compressor changes on the (a) subsystems
operation, (b) Turbine 1 output, and Brayton exergy efficiency.

In the above equation, ĖxQ is the exergy related with heat, ĖxW is the
exergy of work, e is the thermo-physical flow exergy. The last term in the
equation, Ṡgen represents entropy generation that is defined by the
following (Bejan et al., 1996):
˙ dest = T0 Ṡgen
Ex (6)

The exergy of heat and work are expressed as (Dincer and Rosen,
2013):
( )
˙ Q = Q̇ T − T0
Ex (7)
T

˙ W = Ẇ
Ex (8)

Fig. 6. The effect of solar radiation changes on the (a) subsystems operation, Finally, the thermo-physical flow exergy is calculated from the
(b) outputs, (c) exergy indices. following equation (Khanmohammadi et al., 2022):
e = (h − h0 ) − T0 (s − s0 ) (9)
(Dincer and Rosen, 2013);
∑ ∑ ∑ In above equation, h is the specific enthalpy (kJ/kg), s is the specific
Ėxin = Ėxout + Ėxdest (4)
entropy (kJ/kg K), and subscript 0 denotes reference conditions.

where Ėx is the exergy amount, and Ėxdest is the exergy destruction. 3.1. Solar-dish collector
Including other exergy terms, Equation (4) can be defined as (Cengel
and Boles, 2015): The useful solar energy absorbed by the solar dish can be obtained
ĖxQ − ĖxW =
∑
ṁout eout −
∑
ṁin ein + T0 Ṡgen (5) from (Kalogirou, 2013):

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O. Kizilkan and S. Khanmohammadi Journal of Cleaner Production 407 (2023) 137117

Fig. 8. The effect of solar radiation changes on the (a) subsystems operation,
(b) outputs, (c) exergy indices.
Fig. 9. The effect of main design parameters on the sustainability index.
[ ]
Ar
Q̇u = FR Aa S − UL (Tin − T0 ) (10)
Aa
3.2. Re-compression sCO2-BC
In Equation (10), UL is the heat loss coefficient, A represents the solar-
dish area, S is the absorbed solar energy, and FR is the heat removal Since, the thermophysical properties of CO2 rapidly varies around
factor. Furthermore, subscripts u, a, and r denote useful, aperture, and critical region, it is essential discretizing the HTR and LTR of the cycle.
receiver, respectively. The absorbed solar energy by the receiver is In addition, any pinch-point temperature problems have to be confirmed
determined using equation given below (Khan et al., 2019): (Padilla et al., 2015). The modelling of both recuperators is carried out
S = ηopt I (11) by employing effectiveness method. The effectiveness of the HTR can be
obtained from the equation below in respect to Fig. 1 (Ma et al., 2018):
Here, I is the solar irradiation and η0 is the optical efficiency of the solar h16 − h17
dish. The FR in Equation (10) is defined below (Kalogirou, 2013): εHTR = (15)
h16 − h(T13 , P17 )
[ ( ′ )]
ṁCp (Ar UL F )
FR = 1 − exp − (12) In the above equation, h(T13, P17) represents the specific enthalpy
Ar UL ṁCp determined as a function T13 and P17.
The effectiveness of the LTR can be calculated according to the heat
where, F′ is the efficiency coefficient. The collector efficiency coefficient
capacities of hot and cold streams:
was presumed to be 0.9 for the present study (Tyagi et al., 2007).
Additionally, the net useful solar energy with regard to HTF tem­ h17 − h18 ( ) ( )
εLTR = for ṁCp hot stream ≤ ṁCp cold stream (16a)
peratures at the entrance and exit of the receiver can be written as: h17 − h(T9 , P18 )

Q̇u = ṁCp (Tin − Tout ) (13) h12 − h9 ( ) ( )

εLTR = for ṁCp hot stream > ṁCp cold stream (16b)
h(T12 , P17 ) − h9
Finally, the solar exergy equation defined below is used (Petela, 2005):
( ( )4 ( )) Here, Cp is fluid’s the average specific heat. Furthermore, h(T9 , P18 ) is
˙
Exsolar = S A 1 +
1 T0
−
4 T0
(14) the enthalpy calculated as a function of T9 and P18 and h(T12 , P17 ) is the
3 Tsun 3 Tsun enthalpy for the temperature of state 12 and pressure of state 17.
It is very crucial to mention that the temperature of the streams at the

8
O. Kizilkan and S. Khanmohammadi Journal of Cleaner Production 407 (2023) 137117

entrance and exit of the recuperators are determined by discretizing the The entrainment ratio which is described as the ratio of primary and
heat exchangers to maintain the pinch-point temperature. In addition, secondary flows defined as:
the temperature of the fluid entering the HTR (state 13) can be calcu­
ṁsf
lated iteratively. For this aim, the temperature of state 13 is presumed at ER = (21)
ṁpf
the beginning, and the iteration method continues until the energy
balance for the mixing chamber before the HTR becomes equal (Besarati The equation of momentum for the mixing region is defined as:
and Yogi Goswami, 2014). ( )
As mentioned previously, the CO2 flow exiting the LTR is divided ṁpf upf,nout + ṁsf usf,nout = ṁpf + ṁsf umf,m (22)
into two flows. The split fraction (SF) for the LTR of the re-compression
Here, subscript mf refers to the mixed fluid and m denotes mixing re­
cycle is determined by the following formula (Ma et al., 2018):
gion. Again, compared with the primary stream velocity, the secondary
ṁ19 stream velocity can be neglected. By this assumption and using the
SF = (17)
ṁ18 definition of entrainment ratio (ER), Equation (22) can be rearranged as:
upf,nout
where ṁ19 is the flow rate of CO2 in the low temperature part and ṁ18 is umf,m = (23)
(1 + ER)
the total mass flow rate.
The isentropic efficiency for the mixing region is given above:
3.3. Combined RP-ERC umf,m
ηm,is = (24)
umf,m,is
As depicted in Fig. 1, the steam exiting the turbine enters the ejector
which is called as the primary steam. While exiting the nozzle section, The energy balance for the mixed region is determined by:
steam’s velocity reaches to very high speeds (Fig. 2). This results in a ( ) ( ) ( )
u2pf,nout u2sf,nout ( ) u2mf,m
vacuum atmosphere at the entrance of the mixing chamber of the ejector ṁpf hpf,nout + + ṁsf hsf,nout + = ṁpf + ṁsf hmf,m +
2 2 2
entraining the secondary steam from the evaporator in vapor phase.
Both steams then are combined in the mixing section and the mixed flow (25)
turns into a transitory supersonic flow. While passing through the throat While the mixed fluid exiting the ejector from diffuser region, the
section, a considerable pressure rise occurs due to a normal shock wave. pressure of the fluid increases due to the conversion of kinetic energy to
After the throat section, the speed of the flow decreases and is trans­ compressive energy.
formed to subsonic speed in the diffuser section. Finally, the flow from
the ejector is combined with the stream exiting the turbine and mixed 1( 2 )
u − u2mf,d = hmf,d − hmf,m (26)
stream enters the heat exchanger followed by the condenser (Wang 2 mf,m
et al., 2009; Zahedi and Daneshgar, 2022).
In above equation, subscript d stands for diffuser region. Once again, at
In the combined cycle, ejector is the core element. For the modelling
the diffuser exit, the velocity of the mixed stream is ignored since it
of ejector, one dimensional approach with constant pressure flow is
remains small when compared with the fluid velocity at the mixing re­
employed as the many scientists used in the literature with the as­
gion outlet. Hence, from Equation (26), enthalpy of mixed stream at the
sumptions given below (Zahedi and Daneshgar, 2022; Huang et al.,
outlet of the diffuser can be written as;
1999).
u2mf,m
hmf,d = + hmf,m (27)
• The fluid flow is steady state and can be analyzed along a single-axis. 2
• The primary stream and secondary stream entering the ejector and
The isentropic efficiency of the diffuser is calculated by:
combined stream exiting the ejector are assumed to be at stagnation
conditions. ηd,is =
hmf,d,is − hmf,m
(28)
• Isentropic relations are utilized for simplicity. hmf,d − hmf,m
• When the combined stream becomes supersonic, it is supposed that a
For the modelling of the ejector, once the properties of the primary
normal shock wave occurs upstream of diffuser entrance.
and secondary streams are given, the ER that characterizes the ejector
• Combining process of two streams is assumed to be isobaric.
performance can be found iteratively by rearranging the above-
• The ejector is assumed to be adiabatic.
mentioned equations:
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
Given the aforementioned assumptions, energy balance equation for (
hpf,nin − hpf,nout,is
)
nozzle section of the ejector can be defined by (Zahedi and Daneshgar, ER = ηn,is ηm,is ηd,is − 1 (29)
hmf,d,is − hmf,m
2022):

u2pf,nout u2pf,nin
hpf,nout + = hpf,nin + (18) 3.4. HDH unit
2 2

In Equation (18), u is the velocity, subscripts pf represents the primary The basis of the HDH process is that air can carry significant amounts
fluid, n stands for nozzle. Since the inlet velocity of the primary is too of water. The water content that can be carried by the air increases as the
slow when compared with the outlet, it can be ignored and the equation temperature rises. When air is exposed to saltwater, water molecules
becomes; evaporate and absorb air using the sensible heat of saltwater or hot air.
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
( ) The vapor can then be abstracted by passing the carrier air over cold
upf,nout = 2 hpf,nin − hpf,nout (19) surfaces and recycled. On the basis of the process described above, there
are three primary components that make up the HDH system: dehu­
The isentropic nozzle efficiency is described as:
midification, dehumidification, and heat source (Narayan et al., 2010).
hpf,nin − hpf,nout Assumptions that have been taken into account to analyze the HDH
ηn,is = (20)
hpf,nin − hpf,nout,is unit are:

where subscript is represents isentropic. • All process is considered in a steady-state condition.

9
O. Kizilkan and S. Khanmohammadi Journal of Cleaner Production 407 (2023) 137117

• HDH units are assumed to be adiabatic. value of 413.7 kW and then HEX4 with 20.34 kW has the most irre­
• The pump power of HDH is ignored. versibility rate. Calculations show that solar dish alone accounts for 80%
• The saturated water temperature of the dehumidifier outlet is of the entire system’s exergy destruction.
assumed as the average temperature of dew point of the air inlet and
the dry bulb of the air outlet (Nawayseh et al., 1999).
• Humid air currents are assumed to be saturated at the outlet of the 4.2. Parametric analysis
HDH.
Examining the effects of changing operative parameters of the sys­
For the analysis of the HDH process, first, gained output ratio (GOR) tem can lead to a better view and a more accurate understanding of the
has to be described. GOR is defined as the ratio of latent heat of pro­ system behavior. This part describes the parametric study of the system.
duced water to the inlet heat of the system: Variables including the solar irradiation (650–950 W/m2 ), the pressure
ratio of BC (3–6), the entertainment ratio of the ejector (0.3–0.6), and
GOR =
ṁfw hfg
(30) the mass fraction of re-compression cycle (0.3–0.6) are considered as
Q̇in primary parameters. The range of parameters are determined using
design limitation and commercial availability of components.
In order to keep the thermodynamic properties of the air outlet constant, The most important parameter affecting the system’s performance is
the effectiveness of the HDH can be determined. It can be defined as the the intensity of solar radiation, which is discussed in Fig. 6. Fig. 6(a)
ratio of the enthalpy changes of actual and maximum in each flow. shows the effect of changing the intensity of solar radiation on the ef­
ficiency of different components of the cycle and the water produced by
ΔḢ
ε= (31) the HDH system. The results represent that increasing the intensity of
ΔḢmax
the solar radiation has a favorable effect on the produced water by
The system mass flow ratio is defined as ratio of the water mass flow increasing the freshwater from 650 kg/h to 950 kg/h, whereas the ef­
rates at the humidifier entrance and dry air at the humidifier. ficiency of the refrigeration system diminishes from 19.63% to 14.79%
(Fig. 6(b)).
ṁw
ṁr = (32) The changes in the most important system outputs in Fig. 6(b) are
ṁda
shown by changing the intensity of the radiation. As the results show,
Here ṁda is the dry air flow rate. The recovery ratio is defined as: the output power of Turbine 1 will increase significantly from 44.19 kW
to 67.02 kW with the increase in solar radiation intensity, but the total
Rr =
ṁpw
(33) energy efficiency will decrease slightly from 19.98% to 19.73%. It is also
ṁsw be understood from Fig. 6(c) that increasing the intensity of the irradi­
ation will simultaneously increase the exergy destruction of the whole
where subscripts pw and sw represent pure and salty water, respectively.
system and reduce efficiency.
Assuming as an ideal gas of the dry air and water vapor mixture, the
One of the upstream parameters that affect all subsystems is the gas
total exergy of humid air is determined by (Alhazmy, 2007).
turbine cycle pressure ratio. The results indicate that increasing the rP
( )
( ) T T P reduces the BC efficiency but has no effect on the freshwater production,
exda = cp,a + ωcp,v T0 − 1 − ln + (1 + 1.608ω)Ra T0 ln solar dish efficiency, and ejector cooling capacity. In addition, Fig. 7(b)
T0 T0 P0
[ (
1 + 1.608ω0
)
ω
] reveals that increasing the pressure ratio due to the increase in
+ Ra T0 (1 + 1.608ω)ln + 1.608ω ln (34) compressor work will reduce the output of Turbine 1 and ultimately
1 + 1.608ω ω0
reduce the BC efficiency from 54% to 11.81%.
However, the entrainment ratio is a downstream parameter in the
4. Results and discussion
suggested system; this parameter is very important in ERC performance.
Therefore, in this section, the changes of this variable will be examined.
This part deals with the outcomes of the thermodynamic simulation,
Fig. 8(a) shows the effects of entrainment ratio increment from 0.3 to 0.6
validation, and parametric analysis. During the analyses, Engineering
on the cooling capacity and exergy destruction rate of the whole system.
Equation Solver program was used for the thermodynamic calculations
As can be seen, with an increase in entrainment ratio from 0.3 to 0.6, the
(Klein, 2021). The assumptions for the simulation of the solar assisted
cooling capacity will increase from 2.33 kW to 4.66 kW, and the total
system are given in Table 1. The data obtained from different references
exergy destruction rate changes are also small. Fig. 8(b) shows the
and based on real operating condition.
positive effects of the entrainment ratio increment on the proposed
system performance. The primary effect of the increase in entrainment
4.1. Thermal modeling results
ratio is on the output power of turbine 2, which shows an increase from
15.96 kW to 18.63 kW.
Using the assumed parameters for the solar assisted integrated power
The sustainability index is a substantial indicator for the environ­
and refrigeration system, the analysis was made for base conditions,
mental assessment of thermodynamic systems. Fig. 9(a) shows the effect
first. According to the simulation results, the T-s diagrams for the sCO2-
of two important parameters, i.e., entrainment ratio which is shown by
BC and RP-ERC were given in Fig. 3. Moreover, Table 2 shows the
“X” on the graph and solar radiation intensity, on the SI. The results
thermodynamic calculation results for the proposed system. Using the
show that increasing the entrainment ratio and decreasing the intensity
balance of mass and energy for each component, as a control volume,
of solar radiation leads to increasing SI. It is also seen that by increasing
temperature, pressure, enthalpy, and entropy are obtained.
the pressure ratio and increasing ER, the value of SI decreases. Ac­
Fig. 4 illustrates the value of the main system outputs. As can be seen,
the output power of the BC is 67.02 kW, which is much bigger than the cording to the definition of the SI, which is defined as SI = 1− 1η , larger SI
ex

generated power of the RP-ERC cycle, which is 16.85 kW. In addition, means that the exergy efficiency is close to the unit, and the increased SI
the cooling capacity ensured by the ERC is 3.1 kW. Using the HDH can be considered as a desirable change. In other words, in optimization,
system, 41.54 kg/h freshwater is produced. maximizing this parameter can be a desirable option.
For a better evaluation of the system in respect of exergy perfor­
mance, Fig. 5 shows the results of exergy degradation assessments for 5. Conclusion
different system components. Examination of the results shows that the
solar dish is the most exergy destructive component among others with a In this paper, a solar energy-assisted system employing a solar dish is

10
O. Kizilkan and S. Khanmohammadi Journal of Cleaner Production 407 (2023) 137117

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comparison to other advanced power cycles. Nucl. Technol. 154, 283–301. https://
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Onder Kizilkan: Writing – original draft, Software, simulation, Elakhdar, M., Landoulsi, H., Tashtoush, B., Nehdi, E., Kairouani, L., Energetic, R.U.,
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Faegh, M., Behnam, P., Shafii, M.B., 2019. A review on recent advances in
Declaration of competing interest humidification-dehumidification (HDH) desalination systems integrated with
refrigeration, power and desalination technologies. Energy Convers. Manag. 196,
1002–1036. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ENCONMAN.2019.06.063.
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial Guo, J.Q., Li, M.J., He, Y.L., Jiang, T., Ma, T., Xu, J.L., et al., 2022. A systematic review of
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence supercritical carbon dioxide(S-CO2) power cycle for energy industries: technologies,
the work reported in this paper. key issues, and potential prospects. Energy Convers. Manag. 258, 115437 https://
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Hadelu, L.M., Noorpoor, A., Boyaghchi, F.A., Mirjalili, S., 2022. Exergoeconomic,
Data availability carbon, and water footprint analyses and optimization of a new solar-driven
multigeneration system based on supercritical CO2 cycle and solid oxide steam
electrolyzer using various phase change materials. Process Saf. Environ. Protect.
No data was used for the research described in the article. 159, 393–421. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.PSEP.2022.01.013.
Hai, T., Abidi, A., Wang, L., Abed, A.M., Mahmoud, M.Z., Tag El, M., Din, E, et al., 2022.
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