Fallacies of Relevance

The conclusion is logically irrelevant to the premises, even if it is psychologically or emotionally relevant.
They key to spotting a fallacy of relevance is to distinguish genuine evidence from emotional appeal.

1. Appeal to Force:

Arguing via threat: "I deserve a good grade, wouldn't you agree? If you don't agree, I'm afraid about
what might happen: I just can't control Bruno here".

2. Appeal to Pity:

Trying to support a conclusion by evoking pity in the listener. I need to pass this class in order to
graduate, if I don't graduate,, my parents will kill me. Therefore, I should receive a passing grade in the
class".

3. Appeal to the People (argumentum ad populum):

Attempting to convince by appealing to the natural desire we all have to be included, or liked, or
recognized. This type of fallacy breaks down into several sub-types.
Bandwagon: Of course God exists. Every real American believes that. Other related types: Appeal to
Vanity; Appeal to Snobbery ("Of course you should cheat; all the cool people are doing it").

Note: In general, accepting a claim only because someone else believes it is a fallacy (not because you
find them to be a credible source for instance . . .). So, we could say that another example of an ad
populum is:

Appeal to Belief. Example: "90% of those surveyed think we should not convict Clinton, so you should
too".

Closely related is the

Appeal to Common Practice. Example: "Hey, everyone speeds. So speeding isn't wrong".

4. Argument against the Person (Ad hominem):

Attacking the source of an argument instead of the argument itself. This also comes in several varieties:

Abusive: Lynch says that we should spend more state revenue on education because doing so would
result in a more productive workforce. But lynch is a bleeding-heart, liberal Yankee from New York -- so
you know that his opinion is worthless.

Circumstantial: Lynch says that we should spend more state revenue on education. But Lynch is a
professor who wants a better salary -- so you know that his opinion is worthless.

From Hypocrisy: You've claimed that smoking is bad for one's health; but you smoke too.
Notice: if a person with low credibility asserts something without supplying evidence for it, then we
should withhold judgment. But, if the person does supply reason for the claim, then we still need to look
at those reasons and evaluate whether they support the conclusion in question.

Another thing to be aware of is convicting someone of holding contradictory beliefs. If we can show this,
then we have indeed supplied a good reason to believe that the person is confused. But notice that
people can change their minds. Changing your mind is fine; contradictory beliefs are not.

5. Accident:

Applying a general rule to a case it was not designed to cover. Example: Killing is bad: therefore, it was
wrong for us to go to war against the Nazi's.

6. Straw Man:

Attacking an oversimplified version of an opponent's actual position. Example: Those who support gun
control are wrong; they believe that no one should has the right to defend themselves in any situation.

7. Missing the Point/Red Herring:

Two closely related fallacies, which involves diverting the listener's attention by changing the subject or
drawing a slightly different conclusion than the one that should be drawn. Example: The death penalty is
the only way to punish criminals. Why? Because the justice system in this country has gone straight to
hell -- what with murderers, rapists and robbers getting off scot-free! It has got change!

Informal Fallacies: Example Test

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INFORMAL FALLACY ANSWERS

Directions: Please indicate the best answer to the fallacies in the following passages. Not all passages
necessarily contain fallacies. Fallacies present here include those of relevance, presumption, and
ambiguity.

1. Old man Brown claims that he saw a flying saucer in his farm, but he never got beyond the fourth
grade in school and can hardly read or write. He is completely ignorant of what scientists have written on
the subject, so his report cannot possibly be true.

Answer

2. My client is an integral part of this community. If he is sent to prison not only will this city suffer but
also he will be most missed by his family. You surely cannot find it in your hearts to reach any other
verdict than "not guilty."

Answer

3. You ought to try to study harder in school this year, Samuel, because it will spare your parents the
embarrassment of a letter from the instructor telling them you're not taking your school work seriously..

Answer
4. You will back up my story and tell the committee I am reasoning logically; because if you don't I will do
everything in my power to see that you are fired.

Answer

5. I believe in the Bible because it is the written word of God through his prophets. Obviously, God would
not lie to his prophets. After all, the Bible says so.

Answer

6. Congress shouldn't bother to consult major universities about educational appropriations. As

members of educational establishment, they will naturally want as much money for education as they
think they can get.

Answer

7. In recent studies researchers have show that women have more accurate intuition than men do. The
reason cited is that men's intuition is more often mistaken.

Answer

8. I can see that you are in the market for a new car. We're having a sale on Pintos this month. Do you
want to pay cash or do you want the installment plan?

Answer

9. John has really worked hard on his term project, and he will really be depressed if he does not make
an A. For these reasons, you just have to give him an A on his project.

Answer

10. What is right is what is morally obligatory. What is morally obligatory is what you should do. Of
course, you should do something because it is the right thing to do.

Answer
11. I can see that the efficiency with which the Tornado Home Vacuum System works and the marvelous
way in which it saves on toil and drudgery in the home impresses you. Therefore, shall I charge it to your
account or do you want to pay cash?

Answer

12. If we wish to determine which of a person's motives determine his actions, we need only examine
which of the alternative courses of action he chooses to perform. Therefore, a person's motives are
determined by the actions he chooses to perform.

Answer

13. A prosecutor states to the jury: "You cannot let this man go free because our society is not safe with
him at large. Who knows who his next victim will be?"

Answer

14. It should be no surprise to you that if a Democrat is elected in the next presidential election that we
will have one of the worst recessions in years. Recessions always seem to be created by Democratic
administrations.

Answer

15. As I walked to the library from the Learning Center not one person spoke to me. Lander University is
not as friendly as I was led to believe.

Answer

16. How can we save our country from the bureaucratic dictatorship, the corruption, and the creeping
socialism of the present administration? Only one way vote Independent.

Answer

17. I don't care what your arguments are; you are using Mickey Mouse tactics. The arguments you give
are simply tacky.

Answer

18. Officer, please excuse my going over the speed limit, but my mother is ill and I'm being audited by
the IRS, and I don't know how I can meet all my bills.

Answer

19. Why haven't you been studying, as you should? You would feel a lot better if you would take you
school work more seriously.

Answer

20. Those who say that extra-sensory perception is not reliable are mistaken. The police, Hollywood
stars, and politicians have all relied on it.

Answer

21. But Doctor, surely your advice that I should not drink coffee is not sound advice since you yourself
often drink coffee.

Answer

22. The late Ely Culbertson, one of the world's outstanding bridge players, once declared that the United
Nations as presently constituted has serious defects. He must be right because I don't think the opinion
of a man of his caliber should be taken lightly.

Answer

23. The General Assembly of the United Nations keeps voting for radical issues. Therefore, the U. S. will
be forced to reduce its financial contribution to the U. N. unless there is a demonstrated change soon.

Answer
24. During the Gulf war many Americans made immense profits. That is an indisputable fact. Therefore,
there can be no doubt that American business interests instigated the war.

Answer

25. No mathematician has ever been able to demonstrate the truth of the variants of the Goldberg
conjecture, so they cannot all be true..

Answer

26. Everyone says that a logic course is easier than a math course, so it must be.

Answer

27. Unless you back up my story and tell the committee I am reasoning logically, I'll do everything in my
power to see that you are fired.

Answer

28. The best students make the best grades. Therefore, getting high grades will undoubtedly cause you
to be a better student.

Answer

29. Everyone believes that men write the best novels; therefore, there is little doubt that they do so.

Answer

30. Since the Bible says, "Thou shall not kill," it would be wrong to exterminate the termites in City Hall.

Answer

31. But Mom I don't see why I have to wear socks; Einstein never did wear socks.

Answer
32. I once knew a philosophy student who went crazy and another one who was not that well balanced.
You can see what the study of philosophy did to them.

Answer

33. A great many charges of graft and corruption have been brought against Senator Anderson over the
past several years, and he has had numerous opportunities to refute them, but he has never done so.
Therefore, I think, the evidence indicates he is not to be trusted.

Answer

34. The present U.S. administration has not yet developed an energy policy. Nonetheless, almost every
other developed nation in the world has an energy policy, except us. Therefore, the United States should
have a unified energy policy.

Answer

35. The welfare program is totally unnecessary. Why, I know a guy who runs a very lucrative illegal
gambling operation and drives his new Cadillac down every week to collect his welfare check.

Answer

36. It was his fault, Officer. You can tell by the kind of car I'm driving and by my clothes that I am a good
citizen and would not lie. Look at the rattletrap he is driving, and look at how he is dressed. You can't
believe anything that a dirty, longhaired hippie like that might tell you. Search his car; he probably has
pot in it.

Answer

37. General Jed M. Lamgetter believes that it is absolutely essential to our future security that we
immediately upgrading our computing systems to Linux from Microsoft NT. But his arguments are hardly
deserving of careful consideration, for in a couple of weeks General Lamgetter will retire from the Army
and become CEO and be given large stock options in Red Hat, one of the main linux producers.

Answer
38. The real reason you favor the draft is that you're too old to be drafted.

Answer

39. Richard Nixon: "Mr. Sparkman and Mr. Stevenson should come before the American people, as I have
and make a complete financial statement as to their financial history, and if they don't, it will be an
admission that they have something to hide.

Answer

40. Stanford produces the best graduates in the United States. Therefore, any every Ph.D. from Stanford
is better than any other Ph.D. in the country.

Answer

41. Water extinguishes fire. Oxygen is part of water. Therefore, oxygen will extinguish fire.

Answer

42. Priests take a vow of poverty. The Church is a corporate body composed of priests. Therefore, the
Church should not own property.

Answer

43. Since the average life-span of an individual in developing countries is thirty years, the leaders in
those countries grow old before they have time to learn the rudiments of good government.

Answer

44. As the convener of the ninth annual Women's Freedom Movement, let me remind you once again
that women have been discriminated against for centuries, and they have suffered as second-rate people
for centuries. I, for one, refuse to submit to this discrimination and second-rate treatment any longer.

Answer
45. I ought always to do what is right. I have a right to say what I think. Therefore, I ought always to say
what I think.

Answer

46. As a result of a poll of 28 adults interviewed on Main Street in Greenwood, S.C. on Friday night, we
can conclude that all people in Greenwood prefer going downtown to watching TV.

Answer

47. According to the law, a man is innocent until proved guilty. So Mr. Ratskeller must be innocent of the
charge of bribery, since he has not yet been proved guilty. Therefore, since Mr. Ratskeller is innocent, it
would be wrong to convict him.

Answer

48. Although you have said you will give me no more of your time, I'll not ask for any more of your time;
I'll just ask for the amount of time you have already given once more.

Answer

49. A description of a candidate who is woefully inept: "I most enthusiastically recommend this
candidate with no qualifications whatsoever."

Answer

50. Nothing would be better than a high score on this test, but a poor grade would be better than
nothing, so conclude that a bad grade would be better than a high score.

Answer
Fallacies of Relevance Examples Quiz I

Directions: Identify the fallacies of relevance in each of the following passages.

1. In spite of the best efforts of the scientific establishment, no cure for cancer has been forthcoming.
Therefore, I conclude that it is pointless to continue spending large sums of money looking for a cure.

ad ignorantiam

ad verecundiam

ad hominem

ad populum

ad misericordiam

ad baculum

2. Mr. Smith has set forth her reasons for the comparatively low salaries for postal employees. Her
arguments are hardly deserving of careful consideration. After all, she has worked for the US Post Office
for the last forty years.

ad ignorantiam

ad verecundiam

ad hominem

ad populum

ad misericordiam

ad baculum

3. If you ask around, you will see that most people think that algebra is pretty useless in later life. For this
reason, I cannot understand why we have to take a university course in this subject.

ad ignorantiam

ad verecundiam
ad hominem

ad populum

ad misericordiam

ad baculum

4. Michael Greensby, one of the most erudite writers of the latter twentieth century, has recently
endorsed the use of herbal remedies for rheumatism. Surely this conclusion of such a deep thinker is
one that we all should seriously consider.

ad ignorantiam

ad verecundiam

ad hominem

ad populum

ad misericordiam

ad baculum

5. The administration and staff of the university have issued a statement that registration is one of the
most efficient in the state. I wouldn't choose to disagree with this statement if I were you since you
probably would have difficulty getting into the classes you want next semester.

ad ignorantiam

ad verecundiam

ad hominem

ad populum

ad misericordiam

ad baculum
1. ad ignorantiam

2. ad hominem

3. ad populum

4. ad verecundiam

5. ad baculum

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Common Informal Fallacies

The term “fallacy” is used by some philosophers and rhetoricians only for particular types of errors in
deductive and inductive arguments, but others expand the term to include more categories of errors in
reasoning, as well as rhetorical (persuasive) techniques that lead to untrustworthy, unsound, and
improbable conclusions. Following is a list of some common informal fallacies and examples of faulty
reasoning. This list should help you to recognize weaknesses in logic when you encounter them in other
people’s arguments and help you to avoid weak and fallacious reasoning in your own arguments and
papers.

Most of the following definitions and examples of informal fallacies are from Chapter 5 of Navigating
America: “Understanding Argument and Persuasion,” and more fallacies and examples can be found in
that chapter. (Other examples and explanations were added after publication.) Some of the examples are
somewhat tongue-in-cheek, but I hope that they will still help you understand the basic thought
processes embodied in the fallacies.

The Anecdotal Evidence Fallacy occurs when a person ignores or minimizes evidence arrived at by
objective and systematic research or scientific testing in favor of one or more personal stories that are
unrepresentative. This is also called the confabulation fallacy.

Example: Smoking isn’t going to hurt me—my grandpa smoked three packs a day for sixty-five years and
wasn’t sick a day in his life. He lived to be ninety.

Appeal to Authority is the fallacy of saying that simply because an authority supports something, it must
be true—or if an authority attacks something, it must be untrue. Experts can disagree. Consider what
happens in a trial when one side brings in expert testimony—the other side responds by bringing in
experts of their own. You should consult genuine authorities, but you should also examine how they
reached their opinions and see if there is consensus in a field. Sadly, some experts allow themselves to
be bought, and they will make assertions based on what the people or corporations paying them want
disseminated to the public, not what they really believe to be true. In some cases, the so-called
“authority” isn’t really an expert in the pertinent field all. Some experts on logical fallacies list as a
subcategory the Professor of Nothing fallacy, describing it as trying to add credibility to an argument by
quoting a supposed authority who has the title of “professor” or “doctor,” while omitting to mention
that the discipline in which the title was earned has little or nothing to do with the subject.

Example: Dr. Butz is a professor and a PhD; thus, he is obviously a highly-educated man, so we should
believe him when he says that the Nazis didn’t deliberately exterminate millions of Jews. [Professor Butz
is an associate professor of electrical engineering, not a historian.]

Appeal to Belief argues, either explicitly or implicitly, that because “most” people believe something to
be true, it must therefore be true (this fallacy is sometimes employed even when the arguer is incorrect
about “most” people believing something). It is related to the Appeal to Popularity fallacy.

Example: According to a Harris poll, 84% of people believe in miracles, so we should assume miracles
really do occur—that many people can’t be wrong.

Appeal to Consequences is the fallacy that takes the form of saying we should accept conclusions that
are psychologically comfortable to us and reject conclusions if they cause us psychological discomfort.
We should always consider the consequences of an action, but we need to distinguish between
consequences that we can prove to be logically relevant and those that might simply distress some of us.
Example: I don’t believe that human actions contribute to global warming—after all, what can I do about
it? And I certainly don’t want to change my lifestyle dramatically. I like the way I live!

Appeal to Ignorance argues that if you cannot prove that something is false, it must be true, or if you
cannot prove that something is true, it must be false.

Example: I believe in ghosts—no one has ever been able to prove they don’t exist.

Appeal to Intuition takes the form of believing that because an idea does not match our experience of
how things work or how we believe they should work, then that idea is not true. (It also takes the from
of believing that what "seems" true must be true.) Essentially, it argues that for something to be
accepted as true, it must be similar to what we already believe to be true. Sometimes this fallacy is
preceded with phrases like “Common sense tells us that . . . ” or “My gut feeling is that . . . ”

Example: That kid can’t sit still—he has Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder; giving him stimulants
can’t possibly help him. [In reality, stimulants are an effective method of treatment for ADHD.]

Appeal to Popularity argues that because most people have favorable emotions toward something, it
must be good, or that because most people have unfavorable emotions against something, it must be
bad. This fallacy has been used historically to support some pretty heinous actions, including slavery and
genocide, and we still see it in operation around the world today. Think about the arguments made for
and against some current controversial issues, and you’ll probably be able to come up with a number of
examples.

Example: Most people think that it is fine to give up some rights and liberties if it could make us safer, so
it is obviously the right course of action.

Begging the Question takes the conclusion of an argument and, instead of offering a genuine premise,
simply rephrases the conclusion itself. No matter how strongly you feel about a subject, you should be
able to see that a conclusion can’t be supported with itself—it must have distinct premises that aren’t
rewordings of the conclusion. We tend to use circular reasoning when we are trying to defend principles
that we are so emotionally sure of or have believed for so long and unquestioningly that we cannot
conceive of their being false. It is also sometimes called the Vicious Circle.

Example: Gay marriage should not be legalized because marriage should be between a man and a
woman.

Common Practice is when you justify something wrong by claiming that a lot of people engage in the
same wrong. It dismisses all other relevant factors and asks the audience to accept that something
wrong is just, reasonable, or at least excusable because a lot of people engage in the activity. This is an
all-too-common justification for reprehensible behavior.

Example: I saved time by copying and pasting some paragraphs from sources I found on the Internet—
lots of students do.

Confirmation Bias occurs when a person sees or accepts only the evidence that supports a desired
conclusion. This is related to Tainted Sample.

Example: I know he really, really likes me. He said my new haircut looked OK, and he took me to a nice
restaurant that didn’t cost me too much money, and he came over to my apartment and stayed over
three hours watching the football game, and he said he’ll call me sometime soon. I’ve found Mr. Right!

False Cause, also called Questionable Cause, happens when someone claims that something that follows
something else or occurs with it must be caused by it. Sometimes the two are related only coincidentally,
or are both caused by something not yet identified. Superstitions, selective perceptions, and selective
memory lead to many examples of the False Cause fallacy.

Example: I know that walking under a ladder causes bad luck—I once walked under a ladder, and five
weeks later, I lost my wallet. I’m never going to walk under a ladder again.

An example that crops up frequently is when someone who engages in senseless, random violence is
found to have liked video games depicting violence, and the playing of these games prior to the incident
is then said to be the cause, and then the conclusion is reached that, in general, playing violence-themes
video games causes violent behavior. This ignores the hundreds of thousands of people who play such
games without ever engaging in violent behavior, and it also ignore the other factors in the life of the
person who committed the violent act. This reasoning is related to confirmation bias and appeal to
intuition. It is also the result of simply not looking at scientific research--this is all-too-common when
people do not develop critical thinking habits and rely on trying to prove that what they already believe
is true instead of trying to find out what actually is true.

A False Dilemma is produced when an arguer insists that there are only two possible options available,
when there may be three or even more—or when the two choices are not mutually exclusive. It is also
called False Dichotomy, the Black and White fallacy, and the Either-Or fallacy.

Example: Either we win the war in Vietnam, or all of Asia will fall to communism.

Invincible Ignorance is the fallacy of insisting on the legitimacy of a position in spite of overwhelming
evidence against it. It is closely related to the Slothful Induction fallacy.

Example: Yes, I smoke in my house and in my car with my kids around, but that can’t possibly hurt them
—I don’t care what those doctors say.

Shifting the Burden of Proof occurs when someone defends a proposition by demanding that a contrary
proposition be proven instead of being able to present arguments in defense of the original proposition.
This is related to Appeal to Ignorance and Slothful Induction.

Example: Ghosts exist. If you want to prove me wrong, then you'd better prove what else those eerie
sounds that I heard in the graveyard are.

Slippery Slope arguments assert that a sequence of increasingly unacceptable events will inevitably
follow from an action or event that may not itself seem undesirable or unreasonable at all, until the
arguer takes us all the way to something no reasonable person would want to see occur. False Dilemma
ignores middle grounds and alternatives. Slippery Slope acknowledges a middle ground, but moves you
from one point at the beginning to an unpleasant extreme at the other end. A may be next to B, and B
may be next to C, and so on, but that does not mean that accepting A will inevitably move you to Z.

Example: I could let pay your rent a day late this month without any problem, but next month you’ll want
to pay me two days late, and the month after that, you could ask for three, and the next thing I know,
you’re going to expect me to wait months for my money.

Slothful Induction is the fallacy of denying the logical conclusion of an inductive argument that presents
strong evidence. This fallacy is committed when someone demands an unfairly high amount of evidence
before accepting an idea. It is related to Invincible Ignorance and Shifting the Burden of Proof.

Example: I don’t accept what scientists say about climate change—after all, scientific theories are always
changing. You can't depend on what scientists say because it may be different next year.

Straw Person fallacies occur when a person attacks an exaggerated, distorted, or false version of an
opponent's argument because it is easier than dealing with the real points that the opponent makes. It
would be a lot easier to defeat a person made of straw in a fight then a real person—especially a strong
one.

Example: My opponent agrees with a federal vaccine advisory panel’s recommendation that all girls and
women between the ages of eleven and twenty-six should receive a new vaccine that prevents most
cases of cervical cancer. This cancer is related to sexual activity. Encouraging girls as young as eleven to
engage in sex is incredibly irresponsible; my opponent is clearly not fit for office.

A Tainted Sample is produced when people collect evidence in a such a way that they are likely to find
more evidence in support of their desired conclusions than against them, despite what thorough,
objective evidence-gathering would find. This is related to Confirmation Bias.

Example: I can prove my point—I found this great web site that posted dozens of articles that all show
that I am right!

Wishful Thinking is when a person accepts a claim as true or rejects it as false merely because he or she
strongly wishes a certain conclusion or outcome is true. It is related to Invincible Ignorance and Slothful
Induction.
Example: I cannot believe that Thomas Jefferson, one of our history’s greatest men, had slave mistress
and had children by her. Some things are simply morally unimaginable and just can’t be true.

A Weak Analogy happens when an argument is based on an analogy that is so weak that the argument is
too weak for the purpose to which it is put. For an argument from analogy to be effective, the things
being compared should have strongly relevant similarities and no relevant dissimilarities.

Example: Before he married Priscilla, Elvis Presley was asked what he thought about marriage, and he
responded with a question: "Why buy the whole cow when you can sneak under the fence?"