EM Mat Sci Soc Term 2

GOVERNMENT OF TAMILNADU
STANDARD SIX
TERM II
VOLUME 2
MATHEMATICS
SCIENCE
SOCIAL SCIENCE
Untouchability is Inhuman and a Crime
A Publication Under
Free Textbook Programme of
Government of Tamilnadu
Department of School Education

© Government of Tamilnadu
First Edition - 2012
Revised Edition - 2013, 2015
(Published under Uniform System of School Education Scheme in Trimester Pattern)
Textbook Prepared and Compiled by

State Council of Educational Research and Training
College Road, Chennai - 600 006.
Textbook Printing
Tamil Nadu Textbook and Educational Services Corporation
College Road, Chennai - 600 006.
This book has been printed on 80 G.S.M Maplitho Paper
Price : Rs.
Printed by Web Offset at :
Textbook available at
www.textbooksonline.tn.nic.in
ii
CONTENTS
UNIT TOPIC PAGE No.
MATHEMATICS (1 - 44)
Everyday Arithmetic
1. Ratio, Proportion and Direct Variation 2
Algebra
2. Constants, Variables and Expressions 16
Measurements
3. Measures of Time 23
Geometry
4. Angles 34
Practical Geometry
5. Constructing and Measuring Angles 40
Answers 42
SCIENCE (45 - 82)
Biology
1. Cell Structure 47
Chemistry
2. Separation of Subtances 59
Physics
3. Types of Energy 70
iii
UNIT TOPIC PAGE No.
SOCIAL SCIENCE (83 - 112)
History
1. The Vedic Period 84
2. Jainism and Buddhism 90
Geography
3. Rotation and Revolution of the Earth 97
Civics
4. Villages and Cities 105
5. Republic 108
iv
MATHEMATICS
Standard Six
Term II
1
Chapter - 1
1. Ratio, Proportion and Direct Variation
In this chapter we are going to learn about arithmetical concepts like ratio,
proportion and variation which we consciously or unknowingly use in our daily
activities.
1.1 Introduction
We buy a pen say for 10 rupees and a pencil for 2 rupees. We say that the cost
of a pen is 5 times the cost of a pencil.
Divya is 5 years old while her sister is ten years old. Her sister’s age is 2 times
that of divya or divya ‘s age is 1 th the age of her sister.
2
In the above cases we are comparing 2 quantities of the same kind (i.e.,) cost
in rupees and age in years respectively. The comparison of 2 quantities of the same
kind by means of division is termed as Ratio.
1.2 Ratio
• Ratio is a way to compare two or more quantities of the same kind
• The ratio of two non-zero quantities a and b is written as a : b. It is read as
“a is to b”
• The ratio is represented by the symbol “ : “
• a and b are called as the terms of the ratio. ‘a’ is called as the antecedent and
‘b’ is called as the consequent
• The ratio is represented in numbers and it does not have any unit.
• Order in a ratio is important. a : b is different from b : a.
For example : there are 15 boys and 12 girls in a class.
The ratio of boys to girls is 15 : 12 while the ratio of girls to boys is 12: 15.
• When two quantities a and b are compared they must be in the same unit .
For example: If a = 1m 20 cm and b = 90 cm then a must be written as 120 cm
and b= 90 cm
and the ratio a : b is 120 : 90
2 EVERYDAY ARITHMETIC
Ratio, Proportion and Direct Variation
Example : 1
The following table gives us information about Ishwarya and krithika.
S.No. Information Ishwarya krithika
1. Age 17 years 15 years

2. Height 1 m 36 cm 123 cm
3. Weight 31 kg 29 kg
4. Studying Time 4 hours 180 min
5. Speed of cycling 10 km/hr 15 km/hr
6. Playing Time 2 hours 1 hour
From the table we compare the ratios of the same kind and write the ratios as
1. The ratio of the age of Ishwarya to the age of Krithika is 17 : 15
2. The ratio of the age of Krithika to the age of Ishwarya is 15: 17
3. The ratio of the weight of krithika to Ishwarya is 29 : 31
4. The raio of studying time of Ishwarya to Krithika is 4 : 3
From the above table we see that the playing time of krithika is half of that of
Ishwarya.
We write the ratio of playing time of krithika to that of Ishwarya as 1 : 2 or
it can be expressed as a fraction 1 .
2
• If the terms of a ratio have common factors we can reduce it to its lowest
terms by cancelling the common facto`.
For example from the table the ratio of speed of cycling of Ishwarya to Krithika
is 10 :15 .
The common factor is 5 and we can re write it as 2 : 3
Example : 2
Fraction Reduced
S.No. Quantity Ratio form
form form
15
1. Ratio of 15 men and 10 women 15 : 10 10
3:2
500
2. Ratio of 500 gm and 1 kg 500 : 1000 1000
1:2
125
3. Ratio of 1 m 25 cm and 2m 125 : 200 200
5:8
MATHEMATICS 3
Chapter - 1
Example : 3
1. A student has 11 note books and 7 textbooks. Find the ratio of the notebooks
to that of the text books.
Solution : Number of note books = 11
Number of text books = 7
Ratio of the notebooks to the text books = 11 : 7
Example : 4
The cost of a pen is `.8 and the cost of a pencil is `.2.50
Find (1) The ratio of the cost of a pen to that of a pencil
(2) The ratio of the cost of a pencil to that of a pen.
Solution : The Cost of a pen = `.8.00 = 8.00x100 = 800 paise
The Cost of a pencil = `.2.50 = 2.50x100 = 250 paise
Ratio Fraction Reduced
S.No. Quantity
form form form
800
1. Ratio of the cost of a pen to that of a pencil 800 : 250 250
16 : 5
250
2. Ratio of the cost of pencil to that of a pen 250 : 800 800
5 : 16
Example : 5
In a Village of 10,000 people, 4,000 are Government Employees and the remaining
are self-employed. Find the ratio of
i) Government employees to people of the village.
ii) Self employed to people of the village.
iii) Government employees to self-employed.
Solution :
Number of people in the village = 10,000
Number of Government employees = 4,000
` Self employed = 10,000 – 4,000 = 6,000
Fraction Lowest
S.No. Quantity Ratio form form of
form the Ratio
Government employees to 4000
1. 4000 : 10000 10000
2:5
people of the village.
Self employed to people of the 6000
2. 6000 : 10000 10000
3:5
village.
Government employees to self 4000
3. 4000 : 6000 6000
2:3
employed.
Do These
1. Express the following ratios in the lowest form:
(i) 3:5 (ii) 15:25 (iii) 22:55 (iv) 24:48
2. Express the following ratios in the lowest form:
(i) 1kg to 500g (ii) 24cm to 4m (iii) 250ml to 3litres
(iv) 45min to 2hrs (v) 30paise to 3Rs (vi) 70students to 2teachers
3. Sundar is 50 years old, his son is 10 years old. Write down the ratio between
their ages.
(i) 5 years ago (ii) At present (iii) After 5 years
4. Match the following ratios:
Column A Column B
3:4 5:15
1:3 9:12
4:5 20:30
2:7 14:49
2:3 12:15
1.3 Equivalent Ratios
Let us divide an apple into 8 equal parts and share it between Raja and Vinod in
the ratio 2: 6
The ratio 2 : 6 can be written as 2 ; 2 = 1 . We know that 2 and 1 are called as
6 6 3 6 3
equivalent fractions. Similarly we call the ratios 2: 6 and 1: 3 as equivalent ratios.
From a given ratio a : b , we can get equivalent ratios by multiplying the terms ‘a’
and ‘ b ‘by the same non-zero number.
For example
1: 2 = 2 : 4 = 3: 6
3: 5 = 9 : 15 = 12: 20
Example : 6
Write any 5 equivalent ratios for 5 : 7
Solution :
Given ratio = 5 : 7
The ratio in fractional form = 5
7
5
The equivalent fractions of are 10 , 15 , 20 , 25 , 55
7 14 21 28 35 77
` The equivalent ratios of 5 : 7 are 10 : 14, 15 : 21, 20 : 28, 25 : 35 and 55 : 77
MATHEMATICS 5
Chapter - 1
Exercise : 1.1
1) Say whether the following are true or false
i) The ratios of 4 pens to 6 pens is 4 : 6
ii) In a class of 50 students, the ratio between 30 girls and 20 boys is 20 : 30
iii) 3 : 2 and 2 : 3 are equivalent ratios
iv) 10 : 14 is a equivalent ratio of 5 : 2
2) Choose the correct answer :
i) The fractional form of 3 : 4 is ________
(1) 4 (2) 3 (3) 1 (4) 3.4
3 4 3
ii) The equivalent ratio of 7 : 8 is ________
(1) 14 : 16 (2) 8 : 9 (3) 6 : 7 (4) 8 : 7
iii) Simplified form of 16 : 32 ________
(1) 16 (2) 32 (3) 1:2 (4) 2:1
32 16
iv) If 2 : 3, 4 : _ are equivalent ratios, then the missing term is
(1) 2 (2) 3 (3) 4 (4) 6
v) The ratio of 1 cm to 2mm is
(1) 1:20 (2) 20:1 (3) 10:2 (4) 2:10
3) Simplify the following ratios :
(i) 20:45 (ii) 100:180 (iii) 144:216
4) Write 4 equivalent ratios for the following :
(i) 3:5 (ii) 3:7 (iii) 5:9
5) Write the ratio of the following and simplify :
(i) The ratio of 81 to 108 (ii) The ratio of 30 minutes to 1 hour and 30 minutes
(iii) The ratio of 60 cm to 1.2 m.
6) Seema’s monthly income is `.20,000 and her savings is `.500. Find the ratio of
i) the monthly income to the savings
ii) the monthly income to the expenses
iii) savings to the expenses.
7) Out of 50 students in a class, 30 are boys. Find the ratio of
i) Boys to the total number of students
ii) Girls to the total number of students
iii) Boys to the Girls
8) From the given figure, find the ratio of
i) Number of triangles to Number of circles
ii) Number of circles to Number of squares
iii) Number of triangles to Number of squares
iv) Number of circles to total number of figures
v) Number of triangles to total number of figures
vi) Number of squares to total number of figures
9) Length and breadth of a rectangular field are 50 m and 15 m respectively.

Find the ratio of the length to the breadth of the field.
10) Out of 30 students in a class, 6 like football, 12 like cricket and remaining
like tennis. Find the ratio of
i) Number of students liking football to number of students liking tennis.
ii) Number of students liking cricket to number of students.
11) There are 102 teachers in a school of 3300 students. Find the ratio of the
number of teachers to the number of students.
12) Fill in the following blanks : 15 = = 10 = (Are theses equivalent
18 6 30
ratios?)
1.4 Comparison of Ratios
Since we can express ratios as a fraction ,so any given ratios can be
compared by the method used for fractions.
Let us recall when we had to compare fractions we converted the fractions to
have the same denominator.
Example : 7
Compare 3:5 and 4:7
We have to compare 3 and 4
5 7
The L.C.M of denominator 5 and 7 is 35.
3 = 3 # 7 = 21 4 = 4 # 5 = 20
5 5 7 35 7 7 5 35
21 is greater than 20
35 35
` 3 is greater than 4
5 7
Hence 3:5 is greater than 4:7
Example : 8
Divide `. 280 in the ratio 3:5
3:5 means the first quantity is 3 parts and the second quantity in 5 parts.
The Total number of parts = 3 + 5 = 8
8 parts = `.280 Parts Amount
8 280
` 1part = 280 =35
8 3 ?
` 3 parts = 3 # 35 = Rs.105 5 ?
and 5 parts =5 # 35 =`.175
MATHEMATICS 7
Chapter - 1
Example : 9
The length and breadth of a rectangle are in the ratio 4:7. If the breadth is
77cm, find the length?
Breadth = 77cm
The ratio of length to breadth is 4:7 Parts Measurements
Breadth = 7 parts 7 77
1 ?
7parts = 77cm 4 ?
1part = 77 cm = 11cm
7
length = 4 parts
4parts = 4 # 11 cm = 44cm
` Length of the rectangle = 44cm.
Example : 10
In a village of 1,21,000 people, the ratio of men to women is 6 : 5
Find the number of men and women?
Solution : Number of people in the village = 1,21,000
Ratio of men to women =6:5
Total number of parts = 6 + 5 = 11 Parts No. of people
11 parts = 1,21,000 11 121000

6 ?
1, 21, 000
` 1 part = = 11, 000 5 ?
11
` Number of men in the village = 6 # 11,000 = 66,000
` Number of women in the village = 5 # 11,000 = 55,000
Exercise 1.2
1. Which is greater (i) 2:3 (or) 3:4 (ii) 4:5 (or) 5:7
2. Which is smaller (i) 3:4 (or) 4:5 (ii) 3:7 (or) 7:9
3. (i) Divide `. 400 in the ratio 3:5
(ii) Divide 5kg 500gm in the ratio 5:6
(iii) Divide 2m 25cm in the ratio 5:4
(iv) Divide 5hours in the ratio 1:5
4. If `.6,600 is divided between Arun and Anand in the ratio 6:5, who will
get more and how much more?
5. The length and breadth of a rectangle are in the ratio 7:2. If the length is
49cm. Find the breadth?
6. The ratio of expenditure and savings in a family is 5:3. If the expenditure

is Rs3,500. What is the savings?
7. Rahim and Bhashir decides to share the gift money of competition in the
ratio 7 : 8. If they receive `.7,500. Find the share of each.
8. There are 1,00,000 voters in the city. If the ratio of male to female voters is
11 : 9, find the number of men and women voters in the city.
1.5 Proportion
When two ratios expressed in its simplest form are equal they are said to be in
proportion.
Proportion is represented by the symbol ‘ = ‘ or ‘:: ‘
If the ratio a: b is equal to the ratio c : d then a,b,c,d are said to be in proportion.
Using symbols we write as a: b = c: d or a: b :: c: d
Example : 11
1. Show that the ratios (i) 2 : 3, 8 : 12, (ii) 25 : 45, 35 : 63 are in proportion.
Solution : Ratio form Fraction form Simplified form
i) 2:3 2 2:3
3
8:12 8 =2 2:3
12 3
` 2:3, 8:12 are in proportion
ii) 25:45 25 = 5 5:9

45 9
35:63 35 = 5 5:9
63 9
` 25:45, 35:63 are in proportion
Note : In the above example (ii), multiply 45 by 35 and 25 by 63
We get 25 # 63 = 45 # 35 = 1575
If a : b and c : d are in proportion then a # d = b # c
The proportion is written as a : b :: c : d
In a proportion, the product of extremes is equal to the product of means.
Example : 12
Show that 12 : 9, 4 : 3 are in proportion.
Solution : The product of the extremes = 12 # 3 = 36
The product of the means = 9 # 4 = 36
` 12 : 9, 4 : 3 are in proportion
(i.e.) 12 : 9 :: 4 : 3
MATHEMATICS 9
Chapter - 1
Example : 13
Find the missing term in 3 : 4 = 12 : ____
Solution :
The product of the extremes = The product of the means
Therefore 3 # ____ = 4 # 12 ; By dividing both sides by 3
we get the missing term = 4 # 12 = 16
3
Example : 14
Using 3 and 12 as means, write any two proportions.
Given 3 and 12 are means
So, __:3 = 12 : __
The product of the means 3 # 12 = 36
The product of Extremes must be 36
36 can be written as 2 # 18 or 4 # 9 etc,
` 2:3=12:18 4:3=12:9
Two proportions are 2:3::12:18 and 4:3::12:9
Do These
1. Using 4 and 20 as means, write two proportions.
2. Using 6 and 15 as means, write two proportions.
Example : 15
If the cost of a book is `.12, find the ratio of 2, 5, 7 books to their cost.
What do you observe from this?
No. of Fraction Simplified
Total Cost Ratio
books form form
2
2 2 # 12 = 24 2 : 24 24
1 : 12
5
5 5 # 12 = 60 5 : 60 60
1 : 12
7
7 7 # 12 = 84 7 : 84 84
1 : 12
From the above table, we find that the ratio of the number of books to the cost of
books are in proportion.
1.6 Direct Variation

Two quantities are said to be in direct variation if an increase (or decrease) in one
quantity results in increase (or decrease) in the other quantity. (i.e.) If two quantities
vary always in the same ratio then they are in direct variation.
Example : 16
Shabhana takes 2 hours to travel 35 km. How much distance she will travel in 6
hours?
Solution : When time increases the distance also increases.
Therefore, they are in direct variation
Time (hrs) Distance (km)
2 : 6 = 35 : ⁭ 2
Time (hrs) Distance (km)
35
2 35
missing term = 6 # 35 = 105 6
6
?
?
2
Shabana has travelled 105 km in 6 hou`.
Example : 17
The cost of uniforms for twelve students is `.3,000. How many students
can get uniform for `.1250.
Solution :
No. of students Cost of the uniform
`.
12 3,000
? 1,250
When money spent decreases the number of uniform also drecreases.
They are in direct variation
12 : ⁭ = 3000 : 1250
Missing Term = 12 # 1250 = 5
3000
5 students can be given uniform for `.1,250.
Example : 18
Verify whether the following represents direct variation.
Numbers of books 10 8 20 4
Cost (in `.) 25 20 50 10
Arrange the data in ascending order.
Numbers of books 4 8 10 20
Cost (in `.) 10 20 25 50
MATHEMATICS 11
Chapter - 1
Here the ratios are 4 = 2 , 8 = 2 , 10 = 2 , 20 = 2

10 5 20 5 25 5 50 5
` 4 = 8 = 10 = 20
10 20 25 25
Here all the ratios are equal.
` They are in direct variation.
Exercise : 1.3
1) State whether the following ratios are in proportion.
i) 1:5 and 3:15 (Yes / No)
ii) 2:7 and 14:4 (Yes / No)
iii) 2:9 and 18:81 (Yes / No)
iv) 15:45 and 25:5 (Yes / No)
v) 30:40 and 45:60 (Yes / No)
2) Choose the correct answer :

i) Which of the following pair of ratios form a proportion.
(1) 3:4, 6:8 (2) 3:4, 8:6 (3) 4:3, 6:8 (4) 4:8, 6:3
ii) Find the missing term if 2:5 = ___ : 50
(1) 10 (2) 20 (3) 30 (4) 40
iii) If the cost of 6 balls is `.30 then the cost of 4 balls is
(1) `.5 (2) `.10 (3) `.15 (4) `.20
iv) If 5,6,10 _____ form a proportion (in the same order), the missing term is
(1) 60 (2) 50 (3) 30 (4) 12
v) When you divdide 100 in the ratio 3 : 2, we get _____
(1) 30, 20 (2) 60, 40 (3) 20, 30 (4) 40, 60
3) Verify whether the following represent direct variation or not.

i) Time (in hrs) 2 5 4 3
Distance (in kms) 80 200 160 120
ii) Age (in yrs) 2 6 4 8
Weight (in kg) 3.5 10.75 15 23
iii) Principal (in Rs) 300 450 250 600
Interest (in Rs) 18 27 15 36
4) Complete the table if they are in direct variation.

i) 8 10 15 4 2
16 - - - -
ii) 5 - 12 15 10
- 28 48 - -
iii) - 20 - 15 10
45 - 60 - 15
5) Sarath buys 9 cricket bats for `.1,350. How much will Manoj spend to buy
13 cricket bats at the same rate.
6) If a person reads 20 pages from a book in 2 hours, how many pages will he
read in 8 hours at the same speed?
7) If 15 people can repair a road of length 150 metres, how many people are
needed to repair a road of length 420 metres.
8) The rent for a room for 2 months is `. 9200 what will be the rent for one year
for that room.
9) The cost of 15 chairs is `. 7500. Find the numbers of such chairs that can be
purchased for `.12,000?
10) The cost of 10 kg rice is `.400. Find the cost of 3 kg rice?
11) A car needs 12 litres of petrol to cover a distance of 156 km
How much petrol will be required for the car to cover a distance of 1300 km?
1.7 Proportion - Application.

You would have seen models of cars , aircrafts, houses etc. We see that
their dimensions have been suitably reduced and they look exactly like the actual
cars or aircrafts or buildings. How are the dimensions of these models calcu-
lated?
Take your atlas and look at the map of India showing railway route or
look at the road map of Chennai. We see that in the corner of the map it is written
scale : 1 cm = 200 km. What does this mean? It means if the distance between
Chennai and Delhi is say 11 cm the actual distance between the two cities is 11 x
200 = 2200 km.
We see that Ratio and proportion have a number of applications. you can
find many more examples of applications of ratio and proportion. Try to find a
few more.
MATHEMATICS 13
Chapter - 1
Let the actual length of a rectangular garden be ‘a ‘metres. and let ‘ b ‘ be

the length of the garden in a diagram. Then ratio between the actual length and
the length in the diagram be a : b
Example : 19
A map is drawn to the scale of 1cm to 200km.
(i) What is the representive fraction.
(ii) If the distance between Nellai and Chennai is 3cm on this map, what is the
actual distance between the two places?
Note the drawn length and the actual length are not in the same unit.
Therefore convert them into the same unit.
Now 200 km = 200 # 100000 cm [ a 1km = 100000cm]
= 2,00,00,000cm
(i) The representive fraction = 1
20000000
(ii) The distance between Nellai and Chennai (on the map) = 3 cm
The actual distance between Nellai and Chennai = 3 # 200 = 600 km
Exercise 1.4
1. A map is drawn in the scale 1cm to 1000km

a) Express this as a representive fraction.
b) What is the actual distance represented by 3.5cm in the map?
c) What distance on the map will represent an actual distance of 2100km?
2. A scale used in a map is 1cm to 500m.

i) Express as a representive fraction.
ii) What is the actual distance represented by 5.5cm on the map?
iii)What distance on the map will represent an actual length of 2500m?
3. Fill in the blanks .

Scale Actual Length Drawn Length
i) 1 cm = 200m 4cm
ii) 1 cm = 250m 1750m
iii) 1 cm =_____m 3700m 5cm
4. The scale of a graph is 1 cm = 200 km. (The distance 1 cm in the graph denotes
200 km in actual length). What would be the length of 3600 km on the graph?
Activity
,, Draw a rough sketch of a rectangular field of length 400m and breadth 250m
by taking a suitable scale.
,, Look at the India map showing railway routes.
Note the scale on the map and find the actual distance between
1. Chennai and Calcutta 2. Chennai and Mumbai 3. Chennai and Delhi
Project
,, Collect recipes of 2 dishes and find out how you can use them to explain
ratio and proportion.
,, Collect information about the height ,weight, study hours and play time of
two of your friends and express your data as ratios.
,, Collect data regarding number of students in your school and in your class ,
number of boys and girls in your class and in your school. Find out as many
ratios as possible from your data.
Points to remember
• The comparison of two quantities of the same kind is called a ratio.

• When the terms of ratio are multiplied by the same number, we get
equivalent ratios.
• The equality of two ratios is called a proportion.
• In a proportion, the product of extremes = product of means.
• If two quantities vary in the same ratio, then they are in direct variation.
MATHEMATICS 15
2. Constants, Variables and Expressions
2.1 Introduction
We have so far dealt with numbers and shapes. We have learnt the fundamental
operations on numbers and have learnt to apply them in real life situations. The study
of numbers, their operations, properties and application is a branch of mathematics
called Arithmetic. In this chapter we are going to start learning about another branch
of mathematics called Algebra. It is an interesting branch of mathematics and one
which provides us with a powerful tool to solve puzzles and problems that occur in
science and social sciences.
Let us have a small game on numbers and learn to identify patterns .
The class may be divided into small groups and each group is asked to think of
a 2 digit number. Then the groups execute the following steps.
Check
Step 1 : Multiply the two digit number by 2.
1. 38 # 2=76
2. 76+4=80
Step 2 : Add 4 to the result 3. 80 # 5=400
4. 400–20=380
Step 3 : Multiply the result by 5
Step 4: then subtract 20 from the result
Step 5: divide the result by 10.
All the groups will find that the final result they get is the same number they
had thought of.
Let all the groups compare the number they get in step 4 .
For example if there are 5 groups and the result they get are 230, 420, 380,
370,180.
They should observe the pattern that had resulted and should be able to conclude
that the result in the fourth step is always the product of the number they had taken
and 10.
16 ALGEBRA
Constants, Variables and Expressions
Do it Yourself
• Think of a 3 digit number (All the three digits should not be same).
• Form the largest and smallest number with the digits
• Subtract the smaller number from the larger number.
• Keep repeating the step till you get the same number in 2 succesive steps.
• Repeat the steps with another 3 digit number.
• The constant number you get is called as Kaprekar constant.
Exercise : 2.1
1) Find the missing number in the sequence. 5, 10, 15, _, 25, 30.
(i) 20 (ii) 2 (iii) 22 (iv) 23
2) Choose the next three shapes from the pattern
(i) (ii) (iii)
(iv)
3.
First number 1 2 3 4 5 6
Second number 10 20 30 40 50 60
What is the pattern obtained from the table?
(i) Second number = 10 + first number. (ii) Second number = 10 – first number.
(iii) Second number = 10 ' first number. (iv)Second number = 10 # first number.
MATHEMATICS 17
Chapter - 2
2.2 Introduction of constants and variables through patterns

Latha made the following triangular patterns with the match sticks she had.
1. 2. 3. 4.
To find out the total match sticks used for the above formation she prepared
the following table.
Numbers of
1 2 3 4 ....
triangles
Number of match 3 6 9 12 ....
sticks used. 3 # 1 3 # 2 3 # 3 3 # 4 ....
From the table we observe that the number of match sticks required changes
with the number of triangles formed.In each case the value of the number of
matchsticks is dependent on the number of triangles. If we represent the number of
triangles by the letter x we can write the relation as
Number of matchsticks required = 3 x x which is written as 3x

The above relation is a rule to find the number of matchsticks when x takes
values 1,2,3 ….
‘x’ is an example of a variable.
When x = 2, number of matchsticks = 3 × 2 = 6
When x = 3 , number of match sticks = 3 × 3 = 9.
Hence if we need to know the number of matchsticks needed to form say 15
triangles, we need not draw the pattern or a table. We can take x = 15. Then number
of matchsticks = 3 × 15 = 45.
Therefore the quantity that takes different numerical values is called as a
variable. variable does not have a fixed value , its value keeps changing.
We represent variables using small case letters of the alphabet, ,b,c………
x,y,z.
18 ALGEBRA
From the pattern on triangles we see that the number of match sticks used to
form a triangle remains same irrespective of the number of triangles formed.
Such a quantity which takes a fixed numerical value is called as a constant.
Example : 1
1. 2. 3.
4. 5.
Number of E
1 2 3 4 5 ....
formation
Number of 5 10 15 20 25 ....
match sticks
used 5 #1 5 #2 5 #3 5 #4 5 #5
Law obtained from the above table.
Number of match sticks used = 5 # (Number of E formation)
Number of E formation is denoted as the variable x.

Therefore, number of match sticks used = 5 # x = 5 x
Note :
Step 4 of the game at the beginning can now be written as
Result = 10 y where y is the 2 digit number initially taken.
MATHEMATICS 19
Chapter - 2
Example : 2
Look at the pattern of the Asoka tree given. The base is always formed with
two match sticks. The top portion of the tree differs in multiples of 3.
1 2 3 4 5
Number of
1 2 3 4 5 ....
top portions
Number of
3 6 9 12 15 ....
match sticks
needed for
the top portion 3#1 3#2 3#3 3#4 3#5 ....
Number of
match sticks
2 2 2 2 2
needed for
the base
Total num-
ber of match (3 # 1)+2 (3 # 2)+2 (3 # 3)+2 (3 # 4)+2 (3 # 5)+2 ....
sticks used
Law obtained from the above table,

Number of match sticks used = ( 3 # Number of top portions) + Number of
match sticks used for the base
If the number of triangular formations is denoted as the variable x,
Number of match sticks used = (3 # x) + 2 = 3x + 2
20 ALGEBRA
Exercise 2.2
1. Choose the correct answer:
a)
First
16 26 36 46 56 66
number
Second
10 20 30 40 50 60
number
Choose the law in which the above pairs are based on?
1) Second number = first number + 6
ii) Second number = first number – 6
iii) Second number = first number ' 6
iv) Second number = first number # 6
b)
First number 1 2 3 4 5
Second number 9 10 11 12 13
Choose the law in which the above pairs are based on?
i) Second number = first number ' 8 ii) Second number = first number -8
iii) Second number = first number + 8 iv) Second number = first number # 8
2. If a box contains 40 apples, the total number of apples depends on the

number of boxes given. Form an algebraic term (Consider the number of
boxes as ‘x’).
3. If there are 12 pencils in a bundle, the total number of pencils depends

on the number of boxes given . Form an algebraic term (Consider the
number of bundles as ‘b’).
MATHEMATICS 21
Chapter - 2
4. From the following patterns given below, form an algebraic term.

i)
ii)
iii)
Project
,, Make one square, two squares, three squares ... ten squares using match sticks
and listout how many match sticks are required for each squares.
Points to remember
• A variable denotes the quantity that can take different numerical value.
The result changes in a rule when the variable changes its value.
• Variables are denoted by small letters a, b, c, ... x, y, z...
• Expressions can be related using variables.
• In arithmetic and geometry, formulae are obtained using variables.
22 ALGEBRA
3. Measures of Time
Introduction
The measurement of time began when people started to observe that certain
events like rising and setting of sun, change of seasons, waxing and waning of the
moon etc. happened at regular intervals. You have learnt in your geography lessons
that the earth rotates about its axis and this rotation causes day and night. This regular
change was most obvious and was observed byastronomers. This led to the invention
of variety of devices to measure the duration of events and the intervals between
them based on the se regular changes. The time interval between successive rising of
the sun was called a day.
Study of devices measuring time is called horology
Variety of devices has been designed to measure time from early civilisations.
Egyptians and Indians have used shadow clock and water clock, Chinese have used
rope clocks and oil clocks, and Europeans have used oil, candle and sand clock. In
course of time more clocks to measure time accurately have been invented.
Shadow Clock Candle Clock Rope Clock Water Clock Sand Clock
The division of the day into 24 hours, an hour into 60 minutes and a minute into 60
seconds, probably came from the Babylonians. They divided the circular path of the
sun across the day sky, into 12 equal parts, awarded the night cycle 12 hours and
concluded a 24 hour day.
3.1 Units of time
Second, minute, hour, day, week, month and year are all units of time. Let us
learn the relationship between the units.
MATHEMATICS 23
Chapter - 3
1 minute = 60 seconds 60 seconds = 1 minute

1 hour = 60 minutes = 60 # 60 seconds
1 sec = 1 minute
= 3600 seconds 60
1 day = 24 hours = 1440 minutes (24 # 60) 60 minutes = 1 hour
= 86,400 seconds (24 # 60 # 60) 1 minute = 1 hour
60
Example : 1
Convert 120 Seconds into minutes
a 60 seconds = 1 minute
Solution:
120 seconds = 120 # 1 = 120 = 2 minutes 1 second = 1 minute
60 60 60
120 seconds = 2 minutes
Example : 2
Convert 360 minutes into hours
60 minutes = 1 hour
Solution :
360 minutes = 360 # 1 = 360/60 = 6 hours ` 1 minute = 1 hour
60 60
360 minutes = 6 hours.
Example : 3
Convert 3 hours 45 minutes into minutes
Solution : 1 hour = 60 minutes
3 hours = 3 # 60 = 180 minutes
3 hours and 45 minutes = 180 minutes + 45 minutes
= 225 minutes.
Example : 4
Convert 5400 seconds into hours
Solution : 3600 seconds = 1 hour
5400 Seconds = 5400 # 1 hour 1 hour
3600 ` 1 second =
3600
= 9 = = 1 1 hours.
3
6 2 2
5400 seconds = 1 1 hours.
2
Do it yourself
1) Convert the duration of the lunch break into seconds.
2) Convert play time in the evening into hours.
Example : 5
Convert 2 hours 30 minutes 15 seconds into seconds.
Solution : 1 hour = 3600 seconds & 2 hours = 2 # 3600 = 7200 seconds
1 minute = 60 seconds & 30 minutes = 30 # 60 = 1800 seconds
2 hours 3 minutes 15 seconds = 7200 + 1800 +15 = 9015 seconds.
24 MEASUREMENTS
Measures of Time
We normally denote time from 12 mid-night to 12 noon as a.m. (Ante meridiem) and
the time from 12 noon to 12 mid-night is noted as p.m. (post meridiem).
Note : We denote 4 hours and 30 minutes as 4 : 30 (or) 4 . 30. Even though we are
using the decimal point it is not a usual decimal number.
9.00 hours in the
morning is denoted
as 9.00 a.m. and 4.30
hours in the evening is
denoted as 4.30 p.m.
Exercise 3.1
1. Fill in the blanks
i) 1 hour = -----------------minutes
ii) 24 hours = -----------------day
iii) 1 minute = -----------------seconds
iv) 7 hours and 15 minutes in the morning is denoted as-------------------------
v) 3 hours and 45 minutes in the evening is denoted as--------------------------
2. Convert into seconds

i) 15 minutes ii) 30 minutes 12 seconds
iii) 3 hours 10 minutes 5 seconds iv) 45 minutes 20 seconds
3. Convert into minutes

i) 8 hours ii) 11 hours 50 minutes
iii) 9 hours 35 minutes iv) 2 hours 55 minutes
4. Convert into hours

i) 525 minutes ii) 7200 seconds
iii) 11880 seconds iv) 3600 seconds
3.2 Railway time

Study the following table. What do you observe?
MATHEMATICS 25
Chapter - 3
Train Name of the Place of Departure Arrival

Sl.No. Destination
Number Train Departure Time Time
Kanyakumari
1. 2633 Egmore Kanyakumari 17.25 hrs. 6.30 hrs.
Express
Muthunagar
2. 2693 Egmore Tuticorin 19.45 hrs. 6.15 hrs.
Express
Nellai
3. 6123 Egmore Nellai 19.00 hrs. 8.10 hrs.
Express
Pandian Madurai
4. 2637 Egmore 21.30 hrs. 6.15 hrs.
Express Junction
Rock Fort
5. 6177 Egmore Trichirappalli 22.30 hrs. 5.25 hrs.
Express
Vaigai
6. 2635 Egmore Madurai 12.25 hrs. 20.10 hrs.
Express
Pallavan
7. 2605 Egmore Trichirappalli 15.30 hrs. 20.50 hrs.
Express
We see that in the departure and arrival time we see time written as 21.30
hours, 17.25 hours etc. It is different from what we generally use like 5.30 a.m. or
5.30 p.m. The railways follow a 24 hour clock to avoid any confusion between am
and pm.
In a 24 hour clock, 12 o’ clock midnight is taken as zero hour. 1 o’ clock in the
afternoon will be 13 hours , 2 o’ clock as 14 hours ,……………….. and 11 o’ clock
as 23 hours.
In the following examples you will learn how to convert time in 12 hour
format to a 24 hour format and vice versa.
Example : 6
Convert the following into 24 hour format.
i) 8 a.m. ii) 12 noon iii) 5.30 p.m.
i) In this case when the time is before noon the time is same in the 12 hour
and 24 hour format. ` 8 a.m. = 8.00 hours
ii) 12 noon = 12 hours
iii) for time in the afternoon add 12 to the given time
` 5.30 pm will become 5.30 + 12 = 17.30 hours.
Example : 7
Convert the following into 12 hour format
i) 6.00 hours ii) 23.10 hours iii) 24 hours
26 MEASUREMENTS
Measures of Time
i) If the number is less than 12 it will be taken as am and the time remains same
` 6.00 hours = 6 .00 a.m.
ii) If it is greater than 12, 12 will be subtracted from the given time and it will be
taken as p.m.
23.10 – 12 = 11.10 p.m.
iii) 24 hours = 24 – 12 = 12 midnight
Exercise 3.2
1. Express in 24 hour format.
(i) 6.30 a.m. (ii) 12.00 midnight (iii) 9.15 p.m. (iv) 1.10 p.m.
2. Express in 12 hour format.
(i) 10.30 hours (ii) 12.00 hours (iii) 00.00 hours (iv) 23.35 hours
3.3 Calculating time interval

Deepa said to her friend Jancy that she studied for 3 hours from 8.00 a.m. to
11.00 a.m. How did Deepa calculate the duration of time as 3 hours?
Example : 8
Find the duration of time from 4.00 a.m. to 4.00 p.m.
Solution :
4.00 pm = 4 + 12 = 16 hours.
4.00 am = 4 hours
` Duration of time interval = 16 – 4 = 12 hours
Example : 9
Cheran Express departs from Chennai at 22.10 hours and reaches Salem at 02.50
hours the next day. Find the jouney time.
Solution :
Arrival at Salem = 02.50 hrs.
Departure time form Chennai = 22.10 hrs.
(previous day)
Journey time = (24.00 – 22.10) + 2.50 = 1.50 + 2.50 = 4.40
` Journey time = 4 hours 40 minutes.
Example : 10
A boy went to school at 9.00 a.m. After school, he went to his friend’s house and
played. If he reached back home at 5.30 p.m. find the duration of time he spent out
of his house.
MATHEMATICS 27
Chapter - 3
Solution :
Starting time from home = 9.00 a.m.
Duration between starting
time and 12.00 noon
= 12.00 – 9.00
= 3.00 hours
Reaching time (home) = 5.30 p.m
` Duration of time he spent out of his house = 3.00 + 5.30 = 8.30 hours.
Exercise 3.3
1. Calculate the duration of time
(i) from 3.30 a.m to 2.15 p.m. (ii) from 6.45 a.m. to 5.30 p.m.
2. Nellai Express departs from Tirunelvelli at 18.30 hours and reaches Chennai
Egmore at 06.10 hours. Find the running time of the train.
3. Sangavi starts from her uncle’s house at 10.00 hours and reaches her house at 1.15
p.m. What is the duration of time to reach her house?
3.4 Leap Year
Rama was celebrating his birth day happily. His friend Dilip was sitting aloof
at a corner. Rama asked Dilip “why are you sad?”. Dilip replied “I can’t invite you
every year for my birthday”. When Rama asked ‘why’, Dilip said “I can celebrate
my birth day only once in 4 years”. Rama exclaimed “why is that so?”
“Because my birthday falls on 29th February” replied Dilip.
Satish asked “29” February! what are you talking Dilip? But February has only
28 days”. “Yes Satish, generally it is 28 days. But once in 4 years February has 29
days. We call that year as a leap year. There are 366 days in a leap year and 365 days
in an ordinary year” Dilip said.
“Why do we have an extra day in a leap year?”
“I don’t know. Let us ask our teacher” replied Dilip.
Both went to meet their teacher and expressed their doubt. The teacher explained
the reason as follows:
You know that the earth takes one year to make one complete revolution around
the sun and 365 days make 1 year. But in fact the earth takes 365.25 days to make one
revolution.
This extra 0.25 day x 4 gives one full day. This extra one day is added to the month of
February once in 4 years. Every year that has 366 days it is called a leap year. Therefore
in a leap year February will have 29days.
28 MEASUREMENTS
Measures of Time
1day = 24 hours
1 week = 7 days
Know yourself 1 year = 12 months
1. Which century are we in? 1 year = 365 days
2. Which is a millennium year? 1 leap year = 366 days
10 years = 1 decade
100 years = 1 century
How will you identify a leap year? 1000 years = 1 millennium
A year which is divisible by 4 is a leap year. For example the years 1980, 2012,
and 2016 are all leap years.
100, 200 are divisible by 4. Are they leap years?
No. We have a second rule which states that years which are multiples of 100
though they are divisible by 4 have to be divisible by 400 then only the years will be
leap years.
100, 200, 300 are not leaping years while 1200, 1600, 2000 are all leap years.
Example : 11
Which of the following are leap years?
(i) 1400 (ii) 1993 (iii) 2800 (iv) 2008
solution : (i) Divide 1400 by 400 3
1400 ' 400 gives 400 1400
1200
Quotient 3, Remainder 200
` 1400 is not a leap year 498 200
4 1993
(ii) Divide 1993 by 4 16
1993 ' 4 gives Quotient 498 remainder 1 39
36
` 1993 is not a leap year.
33
32
1
(iii) Divide 2800 by 400 7
2800 ' 400 gives Quotient = 7, Remainder = 0 400 2800
502 2800
` 2800 is leap year.
4 2008 0
20
(iv) Divide 2008 by 4
08
2008 ' 4 gives Quotient = 502, Remainder = 0 08
` 2008 is leap year. 0
MATHEMATICS 29
Chapter - 3
Example : 12
Find the number of days from 15th August to 27th October.
Solution : Note :
There are 31 days in August.
Since it is given from 15th
Number of days in August = 31 – 14 = 17 days
August Substract 14 days
Number of days in September = 30 days
Number of days in October = 27 days (Prior to 15th) from 31 (The
Total = 74 days total number of days of the
month)
Example : 13
Convert 298 days into weeks.
Solution : 1 week = 7 days.
298 days = 298 weeks 1 day = 1 week.
7 7
` 298 days = 42 weeks and 4 days.
Example : 14
Find the number of days between 12th January 2004 and 7th March 2004.
Solution :
Find whether the given year is a leap year or not.
2004 ' 4
Quotient = 501, remainder = 0.
` 2004 is a leap year and has 29 days in February.
Number of days in January = 31–12 = 19 days

Number of days in February = 29 days
Number of days in March = 6 days
Total Number of days = 54 days
` Number of days between 12th January 2004 and 7th March 2004 are 54 days.
Exercise 3.4
1. Fill in the blanks.
(i) 1 week = _________ days.
(ii) In a leap year, February has _________days.
(iii) 3 days = _________ hours.
(iv) 1 year = _________ months.
(v) 1 hour = _________ seconds.
30 MEASUREMENTS
Measures of Time
2. Which of the following are leap years?

(i) 1992 (ii) 1978 (iii) 2003 (iv) 1200 (v) 1997
3. Find the number of days from 4th January 1996 to 8th April 1996.
4. Find the number of days from 5th January 2001 to 28th April 2001.
5. Find the number of days between 26th February 2000 and 7th June 2000.
6. Find the number of days between 20th February 2004 and 27th May 2004.
7. Convert into weeks.
(i) 328 days (ii) 175 days
Example : 15
An office functions from 10 in the morning till 5.45 in the evening with a
lunch break in the afternoon from 12.45 to 1.30. If the office works for 6
days a week, find the total duration of working hours in a week.
Solution :
hrs. min.
The closing time of the office = 17 45 5.45 p.m. = 17.45 hrs
The opening time of the office = 10 00
1.30 p.m. = 13.30 hrs.
-----------
Time in between = 07 45 Hrs. Min.
Lunch break [13:30-12:45] = 00 45 12 90
----------- 13 30
Working hours for 1 day = 07 00 12 45
----------- 0 45
` Total working hours for 6 days = 7 # 6 hrs.
= 42 hrs.
` Total duration of working hours in a week = 42 hrs.
Example : 16
A clock is fast by 5 seconds per hour find the time that it will show at 4 p.m.
if it was adjusted to correct time at 6 a.m.
Solution :
4 p.m. = 16.00 hrs.
6 a.m . = 06.00 hrs.
-----------
Duration of time = 10.00 hrs.
-----------
MATHEMATICS 31
Chapter - 3
In 1 hr, the clock runs fast by 5sec.
In 10 hrs, it runs fast by 10 # 5sec. = 50sec.

Hence, the clock will show 50sec more than the correct time at 4 p.m.
(i.e.) at 4 p.m., the clock will show 4 hrs 00 Min 50 sec in the afternoon.
Do These
1. A bank functions from 9 in the morning till 3.30 in the afternoon with a
lunch break in the afternoon from 12.30 to 1.15. If the bank works for 6
days in a week, find the total duration of working hours in a week.
2. A clock is slow by 6 seconds. per hour. If it was adjusted to correct time at

5.a.m. find the time the clock will show at 3.00.p.m.
Activity
,, List your daily routines in 24 hour timings and convert them into 12 hour
timings.
,, Make them to find out the leap years between 1980 to 2012.
,, Divide the class into different groups. Ask them to compare their ages and
find out the eldest. Compare all the groups and find the eldest and youngest
in the class.
,, Find out the years of your birthday and family members as ordinary year or
a leap year.
Do These
1. Convert the following into seconds:

i) 2 minutes = sec
ii) 5 minutes 7 seconds = sec
iii) 2.5 minutes = sec
iv) 3.5 hrs = sec
32 MEASUREMENTS
Measures of Time
2. Convert the following into minutes

i) 30 seconds = min.
ii) 2.4 hrs = min.
iii) 1 hr. 16 min. = min.
iv) 2 days 1 hr. = min.
3. Convert the following into hours.

i) 90 minutes = hrs.
ii) 2.25 days = hrs.
iii) 2 days 14 hrs = hrs.
iv) 1 week 2days = hrs.
4. Calculate the time interval for the following

i) 4.45 p.m. to 9.50 p.m. Ans : hrs. mins.
ii) 7.15 a.m. to 7.25 p.m. Ans : hrs. mins.
iii) 2.05 p.m. to 6.45 a.m. the next day. Ans : hrs. mins.
iv) 5.36 a.m. yesterday to 9.38 p.m. today. Ans : hrs. mins.
Points to remember
• Seconds, minutes, hours, day, week, month and year are the units of time.
• 12.00 midnight to 12.00 noon is forenoon.
• 12.00 noon to 12.00 midnight is afternoon.
• 12 hours in forenoon and 12 hours in afternoon together gives 24 hours of

railway timings.
• An ordinary year has 365 days. But a leap year has 366 days.
MATHEMATICS 33
4. Angles
4.1 Introduction
Mark a point ‘O’ on a sheet of paper. From ‘O’
draw two rays OA, OB as shown in the figure.
In this figure both the rays start from a single point

‘O’. An angle is formed at ‘O’. Two rays OA, OB are
called as arms (or sides) of the angle. The common
point ‘O’ is called as the ‘vertex’ of the angle. The angle
is represented by a small curve as shown in the figure 1.
The figure formed by two rays with the same initial

point is called an angle.
The angle shown in fig. 1 is represented as +AOB

or +BOA . We read it as angle AOB or angle BOA.
Vertex of the angle is always written in the middle.
Sometimes the angle is represented as +O .
Observe the adjacent figure (fig.2)
fig.2
We know that rays are named by two points - one
at its start and one on the remaining portion. So, OA, OB
represent the same ray. Likewise OC, OD also represent
the same ray. Therefore, the angles can be represented
by the following ways.
+O, +COA, +DOA, +COB, +DOB, +AOC, +AOD, +BOC, +BOD
In fig.3, with ‘O’ as the centre, OA rotates in the

anticlockwise direction and reaches OB .
The rotation made by the ray is called the measure of fig.3
that angle.
34 GEOMETRY
Angles
Right angle
Fold a piece of paper as shown in the

figure and unfold it. We get two intersecting
line segments. Name these as AB and CD.
These line segments make four angles at
the point of intersection ‘O’. We see that
the four angles
+AOC, +BOC, +DOB, +AOD are equal.
The measure of the
angle at 3 o’ clock = 90o.
Each of them is called a right angle.

Right angle measures 90o. In the fig. +XOY is a right angle
Straight angle
An angle whose measure is 180o is
called a striaght angle.
Measure of the angle

at 6 o’ clock = 180o.
Acute angle
An angle whose measure is greater than

0o but less than 90o is called an acute angle
Example : 2o, 10o, 37o, 80o, 89o.
Measure of the
angle at 11.55.
MATHEMATICS 35
Chapter - 4
Obtuse angle
An angle whose measure is greater than 90o and less
than 180o is called an obtuse angle
Example : 91o, 96o, 142o, 160o, 178o.
Measure of the
angle at 8 o’ clock.
Zero angle
If both the rays coincide, the angle formed is 0o.
Measure of the
angle at 12 o’ clock.
The angle traced out by the minute hand in one hour or 60 minutes = 360 degree
Hence angle traced out by the minute hand in one minute = 360 = 6 degree
60
Let number of minutes = m then the rule for calculating the angle traced in
m minutes = 6m
If m = 5 minutes then angle traced by the minute hand in 5 minutes = 6 × 5 = 30
degree
Exercise 4.1
1. State whether the given angles are acute, right or obtuse angle.
(i) 45o (ii) 138o (iii) 100o (iv) 175o
2. Classify the type of the angle formed by the hour hand and minute hand of a clock
for the following timings:
(i) 12.10 (ii) 4.00 (iii) 9.00 (iv) 7.45
3. Name the angles and write its kind.
(i) (ii)
36 GEOMETRY
Angles
Activity
1. Through how many degrees does the minute - hand turn in 15 minutes?
2. Through how many degrees does the minute-hand turn in 30 minutes?
3. Through how many degrees does the minute-hand turn in 1 hour?
4. Through how many degrees does the hour-hand turn in 3 hours?
5. Through how many degrees does the hour-hand turn in 6 hours?
6. Give some examples for right angle from your environment?
4.2 Complementary angles and Supplementary angles
Complementary angles
In the figure given +AOB = 90c, we know that it is a

right angle. The other angles are
+AOC = 30c, +COB = 60c. Sum of +AOC and +COB
is 90o.
(i.e) 30o + 60o = 90o

30o and 60o are complementary angles.
If the sum of the measures of two angles is 90o then they
are called complementary angles.
For Example :
When a ladder is leaning on a wall, the angles made by
the ladder with the floor and the wall are always complementary.
Example : 1
The complement of 40o = 90o – 40o = 50o
Supplementary angles
In the given figure the angle formed by AB with ‘O’ is a
straight angle (ie) 180o.
Here +AOC = 50c, +COB = 130c.
Moreover the sum of these two is 180o.
(i.e.) 130o + 50o = 180o
130o and 50o are supplementary angles.
MATHEMATICS 37
Chapter - 4
If the sum of measures of two angles is 180o then they

are called supplementary angles.
Example : The angles formed at the centre point of a
see-saw are always supplementary angles.
supplement of 40o = 180o – 40o = 140o supplement of 78o = 180o – 78o = 102o
supplement of 110o = 180o – 110o = 70o supplement of 66o = 180o – 66o = 114o
Exercise 4.2
1. Find the complementary angles for the following.
(i) 37o (ii) 42o (iii) 88o (iv) 0o (iv) 16o
2. Find the supplementary angles for the following.
(i) 6o (ii) 27o (iii) 88o (iv) 104o (v) 116o (vi) 146o (vii) 58o (viii) 179o
3. Find the measures of the angle from the figure.
+BOC = ______
4. State whether true or false.
(i) Measure of a striaght angle is 180o.
(ii) If the sum of the measure of two angles is 90o, then they are called
complementary angles.
(iii)Complement of 26o is 84o.
(iv) If the sum of the measures of two angles is 180o, then it is called a right
angle.
(v) The Complement of an acute angle is an acute angle.
(vi) The supplement of 110o is 70o.
5. State whether the given angles are complementary or supplementary
(i) 25o, 65o (ii) 120o, 60o (iii) 45o, 45o (iv) 100o, 80o
6. (i) Find the angle which is equal to its complement?
(ii) Find the angle which is equal to its supplement?
7. Fill in the blanks
(i) Supplement of a right angle is ................
(ii) Supplement of a acute angle is ................
(iii) Supplement of a obtuse angle is ................
(iv) Complement of an acute angle is ................
38 GEOMETRY
Angles
Project
,, Use paper folding method to form different angles and list them.
,, From your home or school environment identify different angles and

classify as acute, obtuse or right angle. For example angle formed at the
corner of a room = 90 degree.
,, Make a model of a clock and trace different angles of your choice.
Try These
1. State the type of angle (acute, right, obtuse or straight) for the following:
i) 45o Type of angle : ii) 62o Type of angle :
iii) 90o Type of angle : iv) 105o Type of angle :
v) 180o Type of angle : vi) 32o Type of angle :
vii) 155o Type of angle : viii) 162o Type of angle :
2. Calculate the complementary angles for
i) 15o complementary angle = degrees
ii) 79o complementary angle = degrees
iii) 56o complementary angle = degrees
3. a and b are complementary angles. If a = b find the value of a.
a= degrees
4. x and y are complementary angles. If x = 2y find the values of x and y.
x= degrees, y = degrees
5. Calculate the supplementary angles for
i) 56o supplementary angle = degrees
ii) 92o supplementary angle = degrees
iii) 105 supplementary angle =
o
degrees
6. a and b are supplementary angles. If a = 2b find the values of a and b.
a= degrees, b = degrees
7. x and y are supplementary angles. If x = 5y find the values of x and y.
x= degrees, y = degrees
MATHEMATICS 39
5. Constructing and Measuring Angles
5.1 Constructing and Measuring Angles

We have studied the concept of an angle and the different kinds of angle in the
previous chapter. We shall now learn how to measure and draw the given angle.
The unit for measurement of an angle is degree and an angle is measured with
the help of the protractor.
Example : 1
Construct an acute angle of 60o.
Sept 1 : Draw a line segment PA.
Sept 2 : (i) Place the protractor on the line
segment PA
(ii) Place the mid point of the protractor
at point P as shown in the figure.
Sept 3 : (i) On PA from the right start counting
from 0o in the ascending order
(anticlock wise direction and
finally mark a point Q using a
sharp pencil at the point showing
60o on the semi-circular edge of
the protractor.
(ii) Remove the protractor and join PQ
(iii) We get the required angle m+APQ = 60c
Example : 2
Construct an obtuse angle 125o
Follow the procedure given in example 1 for
step 1 and step 2
Sept 3 : (i) On PA from the right start counting from
0o in the ascending order (anticlock wise
direction ) and finally mark a point Q
using a sharp pencil at the point between
120o and 130o showing 120o on the semi-
circular edge of the protractor.
(ii) Remove the protractor and join PQ
(iii) We get the required angle m+APQ = 125c
40 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY
Constructing and Measuring Angles
Exercise 5.1
1. Draw and name the following angles.
(i) 65o (ii) 35o (iii) 110o (iv) 155o (v) 69o
2. Draw and measure the angle formed by the hour and minute hand of a clock at
(i) 9 o’ clock (ii) 4 o ‘ clock (iii) 7 o’ clock (iv) 2 o’ clock
3. Measure and name the angles for the following figures.
4. From the given figure measure and 5. Measure the following six angles
write m+ABC, m+BCD, m+CDE in the figure given below.
1. m+AOB
2. m+AOC
3. m+AOD
4. m+BOC
5. m+BOD
6. m+COD
6. Measure and name the angles in the following figure.
Do These
1. Draw different angles and measure them.
2. Draw angles for different measures as you like.
MATHEMATICS 41
ANSWERS
Exercise 1.1
1. (i) True (ii) False (iii) False (iv) False
2. (i) 2 (ii) 1 (iii) 3 (iv) 4 (v) 3
3. (i) 4 : 9 (ii) 5 : 9 (iii) 2 : 3 4. (i) 6 : 10, 9 : 15, 12 : 20, 24 : 40
(ii) 6 : 14, 12 : 28, 15 : 35, 30 : 70 (iii) 10 : 18, 15 : 27, 30 : 54, 40 : 72
5. (i) 3 : 4 (ii) 1 : 3 (iii) 1 : 2 6. (i) 40 : 1 (ii) 40 : 39 (iii) 1 : 39
7. (i) 3 : 5 (ii) 2 : 5 (iii) 3 : 2
8. (i) 1 : 2 (ii) 4 : 3 (iii) 2 : 3 (iv) 4 : 9 (v) 2 : 9 (vi) 1 : 3
9. 10 : 3 10. (i) 1 : 2 (i) 2 : 5 11. 17 : 550 12. 5, 12, 25 yes
Exercise 1.2
1. (i) 3 : 4 (ii) 4 : 5 2. (i) 3 : 4 (ii) 3 : 7
3. (i) 150, 250 (ii) 2k.g 500g, 3kg. (iii) 1m 25c.m, 1m. (iv) 50 min, 6hr 10min.
4. Arun got `. 600 more than Anand
5. 14c.m, 6. `. 2,100 7. `. 3,500, `. 4,000
8. 55,000, 45,000
Exercise 1.3
1) (i) yes (ii) No (iii) Yes (iv) No (v) Yes
2) (i) 1 (ii) 2 (iii) 4 (iv) 4 (v) 2
3) (i) yes (ii) No (iii) No
4) (i) 20, 30, 8, 4 (ii) 20, 7, 60, 40 (iii) 30, 30, 40, 22.5
5) Rs. 1950 6) 80 7) 42 8) `. 55,200 9) 24 10) 120 11) 100
Exercise 1.4
1) (i) 1 (ii) 3,500 k.m. (iii) 2.1 c.m.
10, 00, 00, 000
2) (i) 1 (ii) 2,750 k.m. (iii) 5 c.m.
50, 000
3) (i) 800 m. (ii) 7 c.m. (iii) 740 m 4) 18 c.m.
Exercise 2.1
1) (i) 20 2) (ii) 3) (iv) Second number = 10 x First number
42 ANSWERS
Exercise 2.2
1) a) (ii) b) (iii) 2) 40x 3) 12b
4) (i) 6x (ii) 6y (iii) 7z
Exercise 3.1
1) (i) 60 (ii) 1 (iii) 60 (iv) 07.15 a.m. (v) 3.45 p.m.
2) (i) 900 seconds (ii) 1812 seconds (iii) 11,405 seconds (iv) 2720 seconds
3) (i) 480 minutes (ii) 710 minutes (iii) 575 minutes (iv) 175 minutes
4) (i) 8 hours 45 minutes (ii) 2 hours (iii) 3 hours 18 minutes (iv) 1 hour
Exercise 3.2
1) (i) 6.30 hours (ii) 0 hour (iii) 21.15 hours (iv) 13.10 hours
2) (i) 10.30 a.m. (ii) 12 noon (iii) Midnight 12 (iv) 11.35 p.m.
Exercise 3.3
1) (i) 10 hours 45 minutes (ii) 10 hours 45 minutes
2) 11 hours 40 minutes 3) 3 hours 15 minutes
Exercise 3.4
1) (i) 7 (ii) 29 (iii) 72 (iv) 12 (v) 3600
2) (i), (iv) 3) 96 4) 114 5) 101 6) 96
7) (i) 46 weeks and 6 days (ii) 25 weeks
Exercise 4.1
1. (i) Acute angle (ii) Obtuse angle (iii) Obtuse angle (iv) Obtuse angle
2. (i) Acute angle (ii) Obtuse angle (iii) Right angle (iv) Acute angle
3. (i) +AOB Straight angle +DOB Obtuse angle +BOA Straight angle
+ AOD Acute angle +DOC Acute angle +AOC Right angle
(ii) +AOB Acute angle +AOC Acute angle +AOD Right angle
+BOC Acute angle +COD Acute angle
Exercise 4.2
1) (i) 53o (ii) 48o (iii) 2o (iv) 90o (v) 74o
2) (i) 174o (ii) 153o (iii) 92o (iv) 76o (v) 64o
(vi) 34o (vii) 122o (viii) 1o
3) 50o
4) (i) True (ii) True (iii) False (iv) False (v) True (vi) True
5) (i) Complementary (ii) Supplementary (iii) Complementary (iv) Supplementary
6) (i) 45o (ii) 90o
7) (i) Right angle (ii) Obtuse angle (iii) Acute angle (iv) Acute angle
MATHEMATICS 43
44
SCIENCE
Standard Six
Term II
45
Note to the teacher…
As we present this revised edition of the Science Textbook, we would like to

express our deepest gratitude to the learners and the teaching community for
their enthusiastic responses.
In science some concepts could be subject to change from time to time as
new theories and principles are constantly being evolved.
We have tried to present facts and concepts of science (both concrete and
abstract) in a visually appealing manner without detracting from the content.
Activity based learning is now accepted as the basis of science education.
These activities should be regarded as a means for open-ended investigation
rather than for verification of principles/content given in the textbook are has
been designed to facilitate low cost activities and experiments using locally
available materials. With a view to streamlining the activities, we have now
segregated them into three groups:
yy I Do - activities to be done by an individual learner.
yy We Do - activities to be done by a group of learners. and
yy We Observe - activities to be demonstrated by the teacher.
The third group of activities have a higher degree of difficulty or require
careful handling as it may involve dealing with chemicals, electricity etc.,
The “More to know” snippets in the text represents some unusual and
interesting facts or information in which the students need not be examined.
The evaluation section is nothing but another space for learning in a different
manner. As the focus is on understanding, rote learning is to be discouraged
thoroughly. Application of learnt ideas, problem solving skills and critical thinking
is to be encouraged. There could be scope for more than one answer to a
question, which should be acknowledged always.
To facilitate further reference, books and websites have been suggested
at the end of each lesson. Suggestions and constructive criticism are most
welcome. Valuable suggestions will be duly incorporated.
- Authors
sciencetextbook@gmail.com
46
Cell Structure 1
What is a building made up of?
Activity 2
What is our human body made up of? We Observe
Just as a building that is made up
of many bricks, the human body is If there is a microscope in your
also made up of several small units school laboratory, observe the
called cells. The Cell is the basic cells of an onion peel under it with
structural and functional unit of all the help of your teacher.
living organisms.
Do you know who saw the cell first?
Can you see a cell with your It was Robert Hooke, an optic seller.
naked eye? No, cells are very minute In those days, glass bottles were
and cannot be seen with our naked closed with lids made of cork. He cut
eyes. They can be observed only thin sections of the cork and observed
through a scientific instrument called
them through his hand-made lens and
'microscope'. saw many small identical hexagonal
Activity 1 chambers. Robert Hooke named
We Observe these chambers 'cells' in 1665. In
Latin, the word 'cellula' means "a
To show the parts of a compound
small chamber". He became a famous
microscope.
scientist by showing the cell magic
Eyepiece lens through his lens.
When we observe the cells of an
onion peel and the bricks on the wall,
we will find that they are similar in
Adjustment structure.
knob
Objective lens
Stage
Arm
Mirror
Base The wall of a building
compound microscope
Not only human beings, but other

organisms like plants and animals are
also composed of cells.
cells of an onion peel
SCIENCE 47
Chapter - 1
Can we see the inner parts of a cell? A cell that does not contain
The same question arose in the membrane-bound organelles and
minds of Robert Hooke and the a well defined nucleus is called a
biologist Robert Brown. Robert Brown Prokaryotic cell i.e. a simple cell.
was a school teacher and he was e.g. Bacteria.
studying the structure of a cell. He
invented an advanced microscope
with a higher degree of magnification
through which very small objects
could be viewed with greater clarity.
With the help of that microscope,
he examined the cell and found that A cell that contains a well defined
there is a different world within a cell. nucleus,a nuclear membrane and
The cell is like a small factory membrane-bound cell organelles is
with nearly twelve to thirteen cell called a Eukaryotic cell, i.e. a complete
organelles, which are involved in cell. e.g. cells of plants an animals.
various specified tasks. The plant and animal cells are
Classification of Cells : not alike. They vary in their size and
structure according to their functions,
The cells of plants and animals are
but both the cells are similar in their
not similar. Bacteria and some algae
basic organisation.
are made up of a single cell. They lack
membrane-bound organelles. Now, let us observe an animal cell.
Structure of an Animal cell

Plasma membrane
Mitochondrion
Centriole
Endoplasmic reticulum
Nucleolus
Ribosome
Nucleus
Lysosome
Golgi bodies
Cytoplasm
Vacuole
48 BIOLOGY
Cell
Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell
Plant cell Animal cell
(( Cell wall
Protoplasm Plasma membrane Protoplasm
(( Plasma membrane
Cytoplasm Nucleus Cytoplasm Nucleus
(( Mitochondrion (( Nuclear membrane (( Mitochondrion (( Nuclear membrane

(( Golgi bodies (( Chromatin reticulum (( Golgi bodies (( Chromatin reticulum
(Dictyosomes) (( Nuclear sap (( Endoplasmic reticulum (( Nuclear sap
(( Endoplasmic reticulum (( Nucleolus (( Ribosome (( Nucleolus
(( Ribosome
(( Lysosome
(( Lysosome
(( Vacuole
(( Vacuole
(( Centrosome
(( Plastids
SCIENCE
Cell Structure
The cell and its components
49
Chapter - 1
Each cell is a small factory by itself. J.E. Purkinjee coined the term
Let us learn the specific function of protoplasm. 'Proto' means 'first' and
each component of an animal cell. 'plasma' means 'colloid'.
Shall we enter a busy cell factory
and explore it?
Cytoplasm :
I hear someone calling me........ "Hello! I am cytoplasm. I am
located inbetween the plasma
Plasma membrane : membrane and the nucleus.
"Hi! The Animal Cell welcomes I am made up of carbohydrates
you. I am the plasma membrane, and proteins. Organelles and
enveloping the cell. I give shape to lipid droplets are present in me.
the cell. I act as a guard. I control the
entry and exit of materials. Come on Nucleus :
my friends, come and introduce "I am the control centre of the
yourselves." cell, but I need not be present at the
"Please come inside.The centre. I am known as the nucleus.
Protoplasm is waiting for you." I am spherical in shape. I have the
nucleoplasm, the nucleolus and the
Protoplasm: chromatin reticulum. I am enclosed
"I am a colloid, found inside by the nuclear membrane. I carry the
the plasma membrane. I have two genetic characters from generation to
components of the cell namely the generation".
cytoplasm and the nucleus. My name
is protoplasm".
Fat Cell White Blood Cell
Muscle Cell
Neuron
50 BIOLOGY
Cell Structure
Nuclear membrane
Chromatin reticulum Nuclear sap
Nucleolus
Nucleus
Mitochondria- (singular -
Mitochondrion )
"We are involved in cell respiration.
We help in the oxidation of food
materials that you eat and provide
energy. We do not rest. We are also
known as the Powerhouses of the
cell."
Golgi bodies
Outer membrane Endoplasmic reticulum :
Inner membrane "Hello! I am the endoplasmic
reticulum. I help in transportation of
Cristae materials from one part of the cell to
another."
Mitochondrion
Golgi bodies:
"Hi, come on! We are tubular
structures, involved in the secretion of Endoplasmic reticulum
digestive enzymes and the formation
Ribosomes :
of lysosomes.We separate proteins
from the ingested food and give "Please come. Take a look at us!
strength to the cells and the body. We are granular structures. We are
In plant cells, we are known as called the Protein factories of the cell.
Dictyosomes." We help in protein synthesis."
SCIENCE 51
Chapter - 1
Lysosomes :
"Are you interested in knowing
about us? We are spherical yellow
coloured bodies. We help in cell
protection. We destroy the pathogens centrosome
that enter the cell. We are called the
Suicidal bags of the cell. In addition to Vacuoles :
this, we help in cell digestion."
"Wait! please don't avoid us.
We are vacuoles. We are light blue
in colour and appear like bubbles.
We store cell sap. We maintain
intracellular pressure. Oh! this work is
very difficult."
Did you meet all the workers in the
Lysosome animal cell factory? Now, let us learn
Centrosome : about the plant cell.
"Let me introduce myself. I am the Plant cell :
centrosome. you can see me only in Have you ever wondered about
the animal cell. I look like a stick and the different features of a plant cell?
I am a microtubule. I am found near Let us examine a plant cell and see
the nucleus. I have centrioles in me. I how it differs from an animal cell.
play an important role in cell division We see that:
i.e., formation of new cells."
Structure of a plant cell
Cell wall
Chloroplast
Plasma membrane
lysosome
Vacuole
Endoplasmic Nucleus
reticulum Ribosome
Mitochondrion
52 BIOLOGY
Cell Structure
yy T he centrosome is absent in the shape to the cell. It is made up of
plant cell. cellulose. Its function is to protect the
yy Plants are more rigid than animals inner organelles and to give shape to
due to the presence of the cell the cell.
wall. Plastids :
yy They have plastids. These organelles are found only
yy They have larger vacuoles. in plant cells. They contain pigments.
Cell wall : Based on the pigments, they are
classified into three types.
It is an outer layer, which gives
Type Pigment Functions

Chloroplast Chlorophyll - green pigment gives green colour to
the stem and leaves
Chromoplast Carotene - orange pigment gives colour to flowers
Xanthophyll - yellow pigment and fruits
Leucoplast No pigments - colourless found in roots and

underground stems
Activity
Activity :3
3 We Do
We divide ourselves as various components of the cell factory and enact

their functions.
Let us now list the differences between a plant cell and an animal cell.
Sl.No. Plant cell Animal Cell
1. Presence of cell wall Absence of cell wall
2. Presence of plastids Absence of plastids
3. Centrosome is absent Centrosome is present
4. Vacuoles are large in size Vacuoles are small in size
All activities like eating, drinking, jumping, playing, breathing, thinking and
even sleeping are due to the functioning of the cells. Each cell is a small factory.
The brain has several million cells.
When the cells, the so called small factories get affected and injured,
diseases are caused and we visit a doctor.
e.g. cancer, hereditary diseases, diabetes, etc.
SCIENCE 53
Chapter - 1
Activity 4 We Do
Making a cell model Organelles Materials we use
We shall divide ourselves into Nucleolus bindhi
groups and make the structure of Chromatin
a plant cell using easily available colour thread
reticulum
materials. We shall build the model of Nuclear
a cell and learn about cell organelles. bangle pieces
membrane
Materials required : Cytoplasm paste, sand
A thick cardboard from any old Endoplasmic
colour thread
notebook, a white sheet of paper, reticulum
paste, broomsticks, colour thread, Ribosome mustard
sand, broken pieces of bangle, Lysosome broken chickpeas
bindhi, groundnut shells, green gram,
Golgi bodies bangle pieces,
cowpeas, broken chickpeas, pepper,
peas, mustard, cardamom, colour (dictyosomes) pepper
papers. Mitochondria groundnut shells
green gram/peas/
Method we follow: Plastids
yy We take a thick cardboard and paste cardamom
a white sheet of paper over it. Vacuoles bits of paper
yy We draw the outline of the Plasma
thread
plant cell (from the textbook) on membrane
the white sheet. Cell wall broomstick
yy We draw the nucleus at the centre
of the plant cell.
yy We make the organelles by pasting
the materials as listed in the given
table.
We label the parts one below the other, by sticking black threads.
We have learnt
The structure of a plant cell and the difference between a plant cell and
an animal cell.
Facts at a glance
1. There are about 6,50,00,000 cells 4.
In animals, the nerve cell is the
in the human body. longest cell.
2. Bones are made up of a special 5.
In animals, the bone cell is the
type of dry cells. toughest cell.
3.
Anton Van Leeuwenhoek (1675) 6.
Mature Red Blood Cells of
discovered that blood contains mammals do not contain a nucleus.
RBC (Red Blood Cells).
54 BIOLOGY
Cell Structure
Activity
Activity:55 We Do
We divide ourselves into groups. We discuss and present the structure
of a cell, the functions of the cell components and their names with the
help of the model we have made.
Having learnt the various components of the cell, shall we now learn their
functions too?
Cell organelles and their functions
S.
Cell components Functions
No
yy It gives shape to the cell.
yy It selects the substances required by the cell and
Plasma transports them in and out.
1.
membrane yy It controls the movements of substances in and out
of the cell.
yy It protects the cell.
2. Cytoplasm yy It distributes the nutrients within the cell.
yy It controls all the activities of the cell.
3. Nucleus yy It carries the hereditary characters from one
generation to another.
4. Mitochondria yy They provide energy to the cell.
yy They secrete enzymes and hormones.
5. Golgi bodies yy They store protein.
yy They help in the formation of Lysosome.
Endoplasmic yy It helps in transportation within the cell.
6.
reticulum yy It helps in protein synthesis.
7. Ribosomes yy They synthesize protein.
yy It destroys the germs that enter the cell.
8. Lysosome
yy It helps in intracellular and extracellular digestion.
9. Centrosome yy It helps in cell division.
yy They control intracellular pressure.
10. Vacuoles
yy They store cell sap.
yy They help in photosynthesis.
11. Plastids
yy They give colour to flowers and fruits.
12. Cell wall yy It gives shape and protection to the plant cell.
SCIENCE 55
Chapter - 1
EVALUATION
I. Choose the correct answer:
1. The structural and functional unit of the living organism is ________.
a) nucleus b) cell c) mitochondria d) ribosome
2. The instrument used to magnify things placed on a slide is______.
a) telescope b) microscope c) binocular d) periscope
3. Select the prokaryotic cell from the given cells.
(a) (b) (c) (d)
4. The ________ is the powerhouse of the cell.

a) mitochondria b) ribosome c) lysosome d) nucleus
5. The organelle which is known as ‘suicidal bag’ is the ________.
a) dictyosome b) ribosome c) centrosome d) lysosome
6. The spherical organelle which controls the activities of the cell is ________.
a) golgi bodies b) ribosome c) nucleus d) lysosome
7. The organelle that involves in destroying the germs which enters the cell is
______.
a) dictyosome b) ribosome c) centrosome d) lysosome
8. The organelle which is found only in the animal cell is _______.
a) mitochondria b) centrosome c) plasma membrane d) chloroplast
9. The cell of a /an _______contains a large vacuole.
a) onion peel b) bacteria c) nerve d) muscle
10. The longest cell is the ________.
a) bone cell b) nerve cell c) cell of a muscle d) blood cell
II. Who am I?
1. I'm a tiny organelle. Cell respiration occurs in me. I'm also called the 'Powerhouse
of the cell'. Who am I?
56 BIOLOGY
Cell Structure
2. I help in Photosynthesis. I am found only in plants. Who am I?
3.I give shape and protection to plants. I'm made up of cellulose. I'm found only
in plants. Who am I?
4. I help in cell division. I'm seen only in the animal cell. Who am I?
5.
I’m a colloid, found inbetween the plasma membrane and the nucleus.
I distribute the nutrients within the cell. Who am I ?
III. Pick the odd one out:
1. nucleus, nucleolus, chromatin reticulum, plasma membrane
2.
Robert Hooke, Anton
Van Leeuwenhoek, Schleiden and Schwann,
Newton
3. lysosome, centrosome, ribosome, chromosome
4. cell wall, chloroplast, large vacuole, centrosome
IV. Match:
Cell Organelles Other names Functions

Mitochondria “Suicidal bag” protein synthesis
transfer of hereditary
Ribosome “Powerhouse of the cell”
characters
Lysosome “Control centre of the cell” production of energy
Nucleus “Protein factory of the cell” cell destruction
V. Draw and label:

1. Nucleus (nuclear membrane, chromatin reticulum, nuclear sap, nucleolus)
2. Mitochondria (outer membrane , cristae, inner membrane)
VI. Draw the following diagram of the animal cell and label the parts:
SCIENCE 57
Chapter - 1
VII. Answer the following questions based on the given diagram:
1. Name this organelle.
2. How is this organelle known in a plant cell?
3. What is the function of this organelle?
VIII. Explore and answer:

1. T
he leaves appear green due to the presence of a green pigment called chlorophyll.
A ripened mango appears yellow. Give reason.
2.Nucleus is known as the ‘control centre of the cell’. Give reason.
IX. Fill in the empty bubbles:
Lysosome
Nucleus Cytoplasm
Nuclear
membrane Vacuole
Plant cell
FURTHER REFERENCE
Webliography:
www.enchanted learning.com
www.biology4 kids.com
www.teacher vision.fen.com
www.diffen .com
www.wiki.answers.com
58 BIOLOGY
Separation of Substances 2
Ibrahim loves science and participates in all science competitions.
Last week, he won the first prize at the Science Talent
Search Competition. Ibrahim found the competition interesting
and challenging. Each participant was provided with
(i) an empty bucket (ii) a bucket full of water (iii)
a bag of sand (iv) gravel (v) a sieve.
The contestants were asked to fill the empty
bucket with the given water, sand and gravel.
They should use up the entire material. The
participant who filled the bucket without the water
overflowing was declared the winner.
Some of them first poured water into the empty
bucket and then added the gravel. Immediately
the water overflowed.
Some put the sand in the bucket first and then poured the water on it. The
bucket became full and the gravel could not be added.
Are you eager to know what Ibrahim did?
First, he put the gravel in the empty bucket. Then he put the sand gently
over it and poured the water slowly over it. The bucket became full but did
not overflow. He used his knowledge of science to fill the bucket with the
materials given .
Then, Ibrahim was asked to separate the mixture. How did he do that?
First he drained out the water slowly from the bucket. Then he spread the
wet sand and gravel mixture on a newspaper and dried it. Next he poured the
mixture of gravel and sand in the sieve. The sand fell through and the gravel
remained on the mesh. Thus he separated all the three components.
Discuss and give reasons why the others lost to Ibrahim

In the above competition, Ibrahim What do we understand from this?
used methods of separation like
decantation and filtration. We need to use various methods
of separation:
We drink water after it is boiled
and filtered. We know that before ff to remove unwanted substances
cooking, rice is rinsed in water. While ff to remove substances which are
preparing tea, we separate tea leaves harmful to our body
by filtration. We purify rava and wheat ff to obtain the substances which are
flour by sieving. We clean rice and useful to us in a pure state.
pulses by winnowing.
SCIENCE 59
Chapter - 2
Let us learn about the different
methods of separation we adopt in
our daily life.
Methods used to separate mixture
of solids:
Solid mixtures can be separated
using methods like hand picking,
winnowing, sieving and magnetic
separation.
Hand picking ________________________________
________________________________
________________________________
Hand picking method can be

applied, when the quantity is small
and are of reasonable size.
Winnowing
Farmers allow the mixture of grain
How do we separate vegetables and husk to fall from a height. Grains,
at home? We separate them into being heavier fall down and form a
their kinds like tomatoes, chillies etc. heap. Husk, being lighter is carried
by using our hands. Separation is away by wind and forms a separate
easy as they differ in size, colour and heap.
shape. The method of separating lighter
The method of separating the particles from heavier particles with
substances based on size, colour the help of wind is called winnowing.
and shape using hands is called
hand picking.
1. W
hich method does the woman
in the picture follow to separate
the substances?
2. M
ention some substances
that can be separated by this
method.
Lighter particles present in a
mixture can be separated by
winnowing.
60 CHEMISTRY
Separation of Substances
Sieving: Magnetic separation :
We can separate the impurities Insert a magnet into a heap of
like bran, husk, stone, worms, stalk sand and take it out. If iron particles
and tiny insects from flour by sieving. are present in the heap of sand, we
It allows the fine particles to pass can see them clinging to the ends of
through the pores, while the coarser the magnet.
particles remain in the sieve. Magnetic separation is used
to separate mixtures containing
components, which are attracted by a
magnet.
Can we separate iron substances
from water, using a magnet?
Components of a mixture can be

separated by the method of sieving Activity 1 I Do
only when they differ in their size.
I need : Beaker, water, bell pins and
At construction sites, you would
a magnet
have seen the separation process of
pebbles and stones from sand. It is I take a beaker and fill half of it
done by sieving using a sieve. with water.
I drop some pins into it.
I hold a magnet over the surface
of water or by the side of the beaker.
My inference:
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
SCIENCE 61
Chapter - 2
Shall we complete the table?
Physical state of the

Method of
Mixture components
separation
(Solid, Liquid, Gas)
Paddy and chaff
Ragi and pulses
Sand and stones
Rava and iron particles
Methods of separation of solid subtances are allowed to settle

insoluble solids from liquids down as sediments. This is known as
sedimentation. The clear liquid above
Can we separate a mixture of the sediment is called super natant
sand and water by using methods liquid.
like hand picking, sieving, winnowing
or by magnetic separation? No, we e.g. a mixture of sand and water
cannot separate them. Why? It is Decantation
because water is in liquid state and
Transferring the clear liquid
the methods used to separate solid
(super natant liquid) into another
mixtures cannot be used here. The
container using a glass rod is called
method of separation depends on
decantation.
the nature of the substances to be
separated.
Hence, we can separate insoluble
solids from liquids by using the glass rod
method of sedimentation, decantation
and filtration.
Sedimentation beaker
The mixture of insoluble solids
and liquid is taken in a beaker and the Decantation
Filtration
Observe the liquid obtained by
decantation and see whether it
water contains suspended impurities. Try
(super natant to filter the impurities using a clean
liquid) cotton cloth. As there are tiny pores in
sand the cloth(like the pores in a sieve), the
(sediment) clear water passes through the pores
Sedimentation and the suspended impurities like sand
62 CHEMISTRY
remain on the cloth. In the laboratory, Methods of separation of solid
we use a filter paper instead of a cloth substances dissolved in liquids
to purify water. There are tiny pores in
Evaporation and condensation
the filter paper also.
processes are used to separate solid
Let us filter the mixture in the substances dissolved in liquids.
laboratory using a filter paper.
Activity 2 We Observe
Take a filter paper and fold it like
a cone. Fix it inside a glass funnel. Take a small amount of salt
Fix the funnel on a stand and place a solution in a beaker and place it over
beaker below it. Pour the impure liquid a wire gauze on a tripod stand. Heat
containing suspended impurities into the solution well. After complete
the funnel. The liquid drains through evaporation of water, see what is left
pores of the filter paper. The clear in the beaker.
liquid that is collected in the beaker Our observation and
is known as filtrate. The dust particles inference:
that remain on the filter paper is called
"residue". ______________________________
_____________________________
Evaporation
We have separated salt from water
filter first second
by evaporation method.
paper fold fold
Evaporation is a process in which
a liquid changes into vapour on
heating. Evaporation method is used
to separate dissolved solids from
liquids.
cone filter paper cone in Salt pan

the funnel
Do you know?
One litre of sea water contains about
stand 3.5 grams of salt. Sea water not only
contains common salt but also more
filtrate than 50 other mineral salts. These
salts are industrially important.
SCIENCE 63
Chapter - 2
Condensation
Take a mixture of sand and salt in a
beaker. Add water to this mixture and
stir. The salt gets dissolved. How can
we separate the components from
this mixture? salt water
ice cubes
Filter this solution using a filter
paper. The sand can be separated
from the salt solution by filtration.
I should get both salt

and water back. What
shall I do for this? Condensation water
Need for applying more than one
Set up the apparatus as shown in method of separation
the picture. Take the salt solution in
The various substances that we use
a conical flask and heat it strongly.
in our daily life, reach our hands only
The water vapours pass through the
after undergoing different methods of
delivery tube and get collected in a test
separation and purification.
tube. The test tube is placed inside a
pack of ice cubes. The water vapours For example, in the preparation
get cooled and condense into water. of sugar from sugarcane juice, the
The salt remains as residue in the methods of separation like filtration,
conical flask, once all the water gets evaporation and crystallization are
evaporated. When the vapours of a used. More than one method of
substance get cooled, they condense separation are used to extract metals
into liquid. This process is known as like iron, gold, aluminium and copper
condensation. in pure state, from their ores.
Shall we complete the table?
Physical state of the
Mixture Method of separation components
(Solid, Liquid, Gas)
sand and water
rava and water
salt and water
Do you know?
Evaporation and Condensation are the basic processes involved
in the water cycle. Formation of rain involves these two reverse
processes.
64 CHEMISTRY
Activity 3 We Do
We are going to separate iron filings, salt and chalk powder from the
given mixture.
We need: bar magnet, beaker, water, filter paper, funnel, tripod stand, glass
rod, watch glass, matchbox, wire gauze, bunsen burner.
1. We take the mixture in a watch glass and stir it using a bar magnet.
Our observation Substance separated
2. We take the remaining portion of the mixture containing salt and chalk
powder in a beaker. Then we add water and stir it well using a glass
rod. We allow the liquid to remain undisturbed.
Our observation :
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
3. We fold the filter paper into a cone and keep it inside a funnel.
4. We keep the funnel on a tripod stand and place a beaker below it.
5. We transfer the liquid mixture slowly into the funnel using a glass rod.
6. We take the beaker containing salt water and place it over a wire
gauze on a tripod stand. We heat the solution strongly using
a bunsen burner.
SCIENCE 65
Chapter - 2
Our inference:
S.No. Separated substance Method used for separation
Facts at a glance:
1. Crude oil is a mixture from which nearly eighty six substances like
petrol, kerosene and naphtha are obtained.
2. Air is a mixture of gases.
Evaluation
I. Choose the correct answer:
1. A suitable method to separate lighter impurities from a mixture is _____.
a) winnowing b) hand picking
c) evaporation d) magnetic separation
2. In a mixture, solids of different sizes can be separated by _____.
a) magnetic separation b) winnowing
c) sieving d) evaporation
3. The method used to separate seeds from fruit juice is _____.
a) filtration b) sieving
c) crystallization d) winnowing
4.Separation of common salt from the sea water is done by _____.
a) sieving b) evaporation
c) magnetic separation d) winnowing
5. The method used to separate substances that differ in colour, size and
shape from a solid mixture is _____.
a) magnetic separation b) decantation
c) hand picking d) sieving
II. Encircle the odd one and give reason:
1. hand picking, evaporation, winnowing, sieving
2. filtration, sedimentation, decantation, condensation
66 CHEMISTRY
3. evaporation, magnetic separation, condensation, crystallization
4. filter paper, sieve, funnel, glass rod
III. R
eplace the underlined in the following statements with suitable methods
of separation:
a) We can segregate different kinds of vegetables by winnowing.

b) Lighter particles present in a mixture can be separated by magnetic
separation.
c) The method of converting liquid into vapour by heating is known as
condensation.
d) S
ieving method is used to remove a magnetic substance from
a mixture.
IV. D
raw and label the apparatus used in the laboratory for the
process of filtration.
V. Explore and answer:

1. Amudha’s family gets water from the nearby pond which is turbid in
nature. Suggest certain methods to purify and convert this water into
safe drinking water.
2. We do not apply the same method of separation to separate a mixture of
chalk powder and water, a mixture of green peas and groundnuts, and
iron objects from garbage. Why?
3. Why is separation of substances necessary in our daily life?
4. You are given a sample of salt solution. You are asked to separate the
salt from it. Filtration method cannot be applied here. Why? Mention the
correct method of separation.
5. Differentiate the following:
a. filtrate and residue
b. winnowing and sieving
6. While preparing lemonade, how will you remove the seeds of the fruit
from the juice? We add ice cubes to get chilled juice. When will you add
sugar to the juice, before or after adding ice cubes? Why? When can you
dissolve more amount of sugar?
7. A mixture contains saw dust and some iron nails. Which method will the
carpenter use to collect the iron nails from the saw dust?
8. During winter season, we see dew drops on grass and plants. Can you
give reason for this?
SCIENCE 67
Chapter - 2
9. Can we separate tiny white stones from 100kg of rice by the method of
hand picking? Give reason for your answer.
VI. Fill in the empty boxes and bubbles with suitable answers:
Crystallization Filtration
Separation Separation
of dissolved Separation of of insoluble
solids from solids from
substances
liquids liquids
Separation of
Sieving
solid mixture
VII. Find the terms that denote different methods of separation hidden in this
word puzzle:
P W X N C B A T I M C F I L T I Q F O
Q R A C O N D O L I N I A I E X Y I E
L T C R N Y S N I X Y L O Q U I D L V
T O L Z D E C A N T A T I O N A C T A
S J S I E V S O L U T H Y X O U V E P
M I X E N W A T E R V A P O U R T R O
T L R E S I D U E E X T L M O S Q P R
I S E V A P T I O S I E V I N G O A A
C R Y S T A L L I S A T I O N N G P T
L I Q U I D V A P T N I O I A Q R E I
I L T S O L U T I O N L E O T X Y R O
Q M A G N E T I C S E P A R A T I O N
68 CHEMISTRY
VIII. O
bserve the pictures given and arrange them in proper order based on
the activities they indicate. Encircle the methods of separation found in
them.
Sowing Ploughing Winnowing Hand picking
Cooking Thrashing Eating Harvesting

1. _____________________________ 2. _____________________________
3. _____________________________ 4. _____________________________
5. _____________________________ 6. _____________________________
7. _____________________________ 8. _____________________________
Projects:
1. L
ist the various methods of separation used in our day-to-day life. Describe
each process and mention the places they are used in. Explain their
significance.
2. Discuss in groups on how salt is obtained from sea water. Collect relevant
pictures and stick them in your scrapbook. Find out the places of salt pans
in Tamilnadu.
. FURTHER REFERENCE
Webliography:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/separation_process
http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761574279_2/evaporation.html.
SCIENCE 69
Types of Energy 3
A students' Science Conference (( A few students rode a bicycle to

was held on the terrace of a multi- reach the spot.
storeyed building. Many high school ((
Some took a bus to reach the
students took part in this conference. place.
They used different modes of transport
to reach the venue. Some students used the lift to reach
the terrace, while others climbed the
(( One student flew by a mini
stairs.
helicopter and landed on the
terrace. In each case, a different type of
energy has been used. Before we
(( A few students travelled by a motor
discuss various types of energy, let us
boat to reach the destination as
learn what energy is.
the building was located close to
a river.
70 PHYSICS
Types of Energy
We need energy to perform both mental and physical activities like thinking,
reading, analysing, running, walking, cycling, climbing, playing and jumping.
How do we perform these activities? Don't we need energy to do these activities?
Where does this energy come from? We obtain energy from the food we eat.
When we are tired and hungry, we lack energy to do our work.
The bus, the boat and the helicopter get the energy to run from fuel. Have
you seen ants and bees working busily? They need energy to do work and they
get that energy from the food they eat.
Energy in day-to-day activities
Activity
Activity1
1(Teacher) We Observe
Take a pinch of baking soda in a small bottle and add a few drops of lime
juice or vinegar to it. Close the bottle lightly with a cork. What do you see?
What happens to the cork after sometime?
We see bubbles form inside the bottle and the cork is soon ejected from
the mouth of the bottle. Why does this happen? It is because of the formation
of bubbles, which indicate that a gas has evolved. The gas pushes the
cork out.
SCIENCE 71
Chapter - 3
Activity 2 I Do
List out a few sources from which we get energy to carry out our daily
activities:
My list
Sl.No Activity Required energy
1 To dry clothes heat energy from the sun.
2 To run a bus energy from diesel or petrol.

3
4
I have inferred
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
Based on the above activity, we

can define energy as the capacity or stretched
ability to do work. The unit of energy rubberband
is joule.
There are many different types of
energy.
Some of them are: compressed
spring
Mechanical energy, chemical
energy, light energy, sound energy,
electrical energy, heat energy, wind
energy. Let us learn more... Similarly, things like a compressed
spring or a stretched rubberband
1. Mechanical energy: have potential energy due to its
Mechanical energy is the energy configuration.
possessed by an object due to its Hence, the energy possessed
movement or position. There are by an object by virtue of its position
two types of mechanical energy. or configuration is called potential
i) Potential energy ii) Kinetic energy. energy.
i) P
otential energy: Water stored in ii) K
inetic energy: A flowing river,
a dam, a rock on top of a mountain a moving bus, a galloping horse
and water stored in a tank possess or a freely falling stone possess
potential energy due to its position. mechanical energy due to their
motion.
72 PHYSICS
Types of Energy
The energy possessed by a body Mechanical energy
by virtue of its motion is called kinetic
energy.
Potential energy and kinetic energy
are interconvertible. This property
is used to generate electricity in
hydro-electric power stations.
When water is stored in a dam, Uses:
the stored water contains potential
i)
Mechanical energy can bring
energy. When this water is allowed
a moving body to rest or can make
to flow down, it changes into kinetic
a body at rest to move.
energy.This kinetic energy of water
is used to rotate the turbines and ii) Using wind energy, we can generate
generate electricity. electricity through windmills.
We also observe that the 2. Chemical energy
mechanical energy of the rotation of Energy that is stored in the bonds
turbines is converted into electrical of chemical compounds is called
energy in a generator. chemical energy. Chemical energy is
released during a chemical reaction,
often in the form of heat and light.
A type of energy is released, when
wood, charcoal, petrol etc., are burnt.
This is because of a chemical reaction
that takes place when they burn.
The food we eat undergoes
chemical reaction and releases
energy to enable us to work.
Chemical
energy
"Heat is a form of
In Mettur and Bhavani-
energy" - James Joule.
sagar, electricity is
The unit of energy (joule)
generated using
is named after him.
hydroelectric power.
SCIENCE 73
Chapter - 3
Uses:
1. The chemical energy stored in the
food of plants and animals is used
for their growth and function.
2. A battery or an electric cell converts
chemical energy into electrical
energy.
3.While using fuels, chemical energy
is converted into heat energy and Wind mill- (Electric power generation)
light energy. at Kayathar (Thirunelveli),
3. Electrical energy Aralvoimozhi (Kanyakumari) and also
in Coimbatore, Tirupur Districts.
Do you know how a fan rotates or
an electric bulb glows, when we switch
them on? In an electric bulb, electrical kerosene or LPG for cooking? What
energy is converted into light energy energy is released when you burn
and in an electric fan, electrical energy wood, kerosene or LPG?
is converted into mechanical energy. The chemical energy stored in
In a windmill, the wind energy (kinetic wood, kerosene and LPG is converted
energy) is converted into electrical into heat energy. Rub your hands
energy. together and feel your palm. They feel
Uses: warm because friction causes heat.
Due to friction and chemical reaction,
1. In industries, electrical energy is
heat energy is produced. Discuss with
used to operate machines and is
your friends and find out the various
also used in telecommunication.
other sources of heat energy.
2. In cities, electrical energy is used
to run electric trains.
Electrical energy
Heat energy
4. Heat energy
Activity 3 We Observe
Can you guess what the primary
source of heat energy is? It is the Sun. Hold a magnesium ribbon with
What fuel do you use for cooking tongs and burn it. Observe the
in your houses? Do you use wood, energy changes that occur in it.
74 PHYSICS
Types of Energy
Uses:
1. W
e get rain due to evaporation
of water from water bodies. It is
because of the heat energy from
the sun.
2.
In a thermal power station, of
electricity is generated from the heat
energy obtained by burning coal.
3.
In an electric stove, electric iron
etc., electrical energy is converted
into heat energy.
5. Solar energy
The energy obtained from the sun
is called solar energy. What are the
types of energy obtained directly from
the sun? Can you list them?
Uses: Different ways of using
1. Solar energy is directly used in solar solar energy
heater, solar cooker etc., Do you know?
2. Solar cells are used in artificial ln 212 BC, the Greek scientist,
satellites, watches, calculators and Archimedes used magnifying
is used to operate solar vehicles. glasses to burn Roman warships
Can we convert one type of energy with solar energy.
Activity 4 We Do
Let us know how energy is obtained directly from the sun.
We need :
Magnifying lens and bits of paper.
1. Using the magnifying lens, focus the sunlight
on the bits of paper.
2. Observe what happens to the bits of paper,
after sometime.
We observed and inferred
_____________________________________
_____________________________________
Share what you have observed in this activity with your friends.
SCIENCE 75
Chapter - 3
into another? 5. D
uring photosynthesis, plants
Look at the pictures given below. convert light energy from the sun
What do we understand from them? into chemical energy and store it.
We know that most forms of energy 6. In electric doorbells and horns of
are obtained from the sun. automobiles, electrical energy is
converted into sound energy.
1. In Tamilnadu, at Neyveli and
Ennore, thermal power stations, 7. In a torch light, the chemical energy
coal is burnt to generate electricity. of the cell is first converted into
Here the chemical energy of coal is electrical energy and then into light
first converted into heat energy and energy.
then into electrical energy. From the above examples, we
2. The loudspeaker converts electrical have learnt that one type of energy
energy into sound energy. can be converted into another type
of energy. When one type of energy
3.
When water stored at a height
is used, an equal amount of another
flows down, its potential energy is
type of energy is released.Therefore
converted into kinetic energy, which
in any conversion of energy, the total
rotates the turbine of a generator
amount of energy will not change.
and generates electrical energy.
Hence, we say that energy can
4. W
hen wood, charcoal, petrol,
neither be created nor be destroyed,
diesel and other fuels are burnt,
but can be transformed from one form
chemical energy is converted into
into another. This is called the Law of
heat energy.
Conservation of Energy.
76 PHYSICS
Types of Energy
Moreover
Activity in any conversion of energy the total amount of energy
5 Wewill
Do not be
changed.
We shall form small groups and discuss the various uses of solar energy
in our daily life to list them hereunder.
My list
1. To get salt from sea water 2. For rain
3. ____________________ 4 . ___________________
5 . ____________________ 6. ___________________
Activity
Activity6
6 We Do
Discuss in small groups how diesel and petrol can be consumed

economically . Present a report.
For example, let us see how energy conversion takes place, when an electric
motor pumps water.
To operate the electric motor, electrical energy is used. This electrical energy
is converted into kinetic energy, sound energy and heat energy.
Electrical energy → Kinetic energy + Sound energy + Heat energy

(To operate the (to lift water) (released when electric motor works)
electric motor)
Activity 7 We Do
A man carried a heavy load on his head to his house located
on top of a hill slope. He left the load by the side of his house and
took rest for sometime.When he came back, he noticed that the
load had rolled down to the bottom of the hill.
1. From where did the man get the energy to lift the load?
2. What energy did the load possess when it was placed on the mountain?
3. From where was the energy obtained for the load to roll down the slope?
4. What energy did the load possess while rolling?
5. What energy did the load possess on reaching the ground?
6. W
rite down the energy changes that occurred in the above activity,in
sequential order.
SCIENCE 77
Chapter - 3
We answer
Shall we discuss and answer the above questions related to this event?
Our answers
1 . ___________________________________________________
2 . ___________________________________________________
3 . ___________________________________________________
4 . ___________________________________________________
5 . ___________________________________________________
6 . ___________________________________________________
We have learnt
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
Evaluation
I. Choose the correct answer :

1. Energy required to dry clothes quickly is ______.
a) solar energy b) sound energy
c) kinetic energy d) potential energy
2. "Heat is a form of energy". This was discovered by _______.
a) Volta b) James Joule
c) Thomas Alva Edison d) Galileo
3. Which of the following requires electrical energy?
a) windmill b) industry
c) bicycle d) parachute
4. The _______energy cannot be used to run vehicles.
a) solar b) chemical
c) electrical d) sound
78 PHYSICS
Types of Energy
5. When charcoal is burnt, chemical energy is converted into______energy.
a) heat b) sound
c) mechanical d) solar
II. Tick the correct answer:

1. Energy obtained by wind energy in wind farms
(Chemical energy / Electrical energy)
2. Energy possessed by a rustling leaf
(Kinetic energy / Chemical energy)
3. Energy possessed by a person landing from a parachute
(Kinetic energy of wind / Chemical energy in food)
4. Energy produced by rubbing the two palms of your hands
(Heat energy / Electrical energy)
III. Match the following:

1. Electric bell : Electrical energy
Solar cooker : ______________
2. The sailing of yacht : ______________
Air filled in a balloon : potential energy
3. For the growth of living things : Chemical energy in food
To run vehicles : Chemical energy in__________
IV. Say true or false:

1. Energy is the capacity or the ability to do work.
2. Potential energy and kinetic energy are types of mechanical energy.
3. Electrical energy is released during chemical reaction.
4. Heat energy can be produced by friction.
5. One type of energy cannot be converted into another type of energy.
V. What type of energy do the following possess?

1. sun 2. charcoal 3. water in a lake
4. solar cell 5. waterfalls 6. compressed spring
7. fuel 8. moving cloud 9. firewood
SCIENCE 79
Chapter - 3
VI. Find out the energy conversion that takes place in the following:
1. Torchlight _________ _________
2. Radio _________ _________
3. Iron (box) _________ _________
4. Generator _________ _________
VII. Explore and answer:

1. We know that we need energy to ride a bicycle, to play cricket or to do any
kind of work. How do we define the energy used in these activities and
what is the unit of measurement?
2.
The coconut in the picture possesses
three types of energy. Can you find out
what they are?
1. ______________
2. ______________
3. ______________
3. What type of energy is stored in each of the objects shown in the pictures
given below? In which way is this energy useful to us?
Diesel can Gas cylinder Plant

(1) (2) (3)
1.__________________________________________________
2.__________________________________________________
3.__________________________________________________
4. We know that the water stored in Mettur dam and Bhavanisagar dam is
used to generate electricity. List the conversion of energy that occurs in
the hydroelectric power stations.
80 PHYSICS
Types of Energy
5. Observe the pictures given below and write down the energy possessed
by the stone at each level.
a stone is thrown upwards.... ....when the stone falls down
energy stored
in the muscles the stone at
a particular when the stone
height falls down
stone moves
up
when the stone
hits the ground
Chemical energy
_________ _________ _________ Heat energy
VIII. Answer the following:

1. Differentiate potential energy from kinetic energy.
2. Explain the Law of Conservation of Energy with an example.
IX. Project work

Write down the names of the gadgets used in your house, the changes in
energy that happens and their uses in the tabular column given below.
Name of the
S.No Change in energy Use
gadget
Electric energy into light
1. Electric bulb to get light
energy
2.
3.
4.
5.
FURTHER REFERENCE
Webliography:
http://www.tutorvista.com
http://www.arvindguptatoys.com
http://www.wikipedia.org
SCIENCE 81
‘I can, I did’
Student’s Activity Record
Subject:
Sl. Lesson Topic of the

Date Activities Remarks
No No. Lesson
82
STANDARD SIX
TERM II
83
HISTORY
84 HISTORY
The Vedic Period
a
s
a called
SOCIAL SCIENCE 85
Chapter - 1
During this period

Brahmanas, Upanishads and
Aranyakas were also written.
86 HISTORY
The Vedic Period
priests, rituals and sacrifices. It was

against these meaningless rituals and
costly sacrifices, Buddhism and
Jainism originated.
Thus Aryan civilization was one

of the ancient civilizations, which
flourished in India. But it varied from
the Dravidian civilization.
SOCIAL SCIENCE 87
Chapter - 1
88 HISTORY
The Vedic Period
State whether the following statements are True or False
Raja Griham
SOCIAL SCIENCE 89
90 HISTORY
Jainism and Buddhism
Epics -
Sillapathigaram,
being.
Vallayapathi and Soodamani.
Literature and Grammar works-
Yapperungalaviruthi,
Neminatham,
Nannool,
Agaporulvillakam,
Naladiar,
Nanmanikadikai,
Pazhamozhi,
Thinaimalai Noorthiyampathu and
Tamil Nigandu.
Sravanabelagola is at Karnataka.
SOCIAL SCIENCE 91
Chapter - 2
-
483 B.C. He was born at Lumbini Vanam
near Kapilavastu in Nepal. His father
Suddhodana belonged to the Sakya
Buddhism
92 HISTORY
Later Buddhism split into Hinayana and

Mahayana.
Buddhism
SOCIAL SCIENCE 93
Chapter - 2
Do you Know?
Properly
94 HISTORY
State whether the following statements are True or False
SOCIAL SCIENCE 95
Chapter - 2
Sravanabelagola
96 HISTORY
GEOGRAPHY
3.
was an
Indian astronomer. He explained
scientifically that the Earth rotates on its
own axis.
In olden days, Sunrise is marked

as the beginning of a day. At present a
day begins at 12 midnight.
SOCIAL SCIENCE 97
Chapter - 3
1/4
23½o vertical
23½o
the
98 GEOGRAPHY
Rotation and Revolution of the Earth
when we divide year 2000, the

remainder is zero.
A.D. . by the
SOCIAL SCIENCE 99
Chapter - 3
When we are asked where does

the Sun rise? immediately answer that
the Sun rises in the east.
that
On March 21st and Sep 23rd the

duration of day and night is equal
throughout the Earth - i.e. 12 hrs of
day and 12hrs of night. Hence they
are called equinoxes. March 21st is
referred to as Spring equinox and Sep
23rd as Autumnal equinox.
100 GEOGRAPHY
sunset,
SOCIAL SCIENCE 101

Chapter - 3
After reaching a
certain stage the temperature remains constant. It will take
102 GEOGRAPHY
Let us draw an outline of an ellipse
outcome
when
SOCIAL SCIENCE 103

Chapter - 3
Complete the following tabulation.
Summer
Rainy
Winter
104 GEOGRAPHY
CIVICS
4.
se
of the people are not improving.

Ghandhiji mentioned that “Villages are
the backbone of India”. factories
s
villages find it difficult to live in cities in

initial Stages.
activities are done by machines.
SOCIAL SCIENCE 105

Chapter - 4
, construction industries and

manufacturing industries.
Dindigul,Tanjore
106 CIVICS
Villages and Cities
The Government has introduced the scheme “Sarva

Shiksha Abhiyan” (SSA) to enable all children in the age
group of 6 to 14 years to attend school upto 8th standard. In
order to help these students to continue their Secondary
Education, the Government has also implemented the
“Rashtriya Madyamik Shiksha Abhiyan” (RMSA). As a result
of these programmes, the number of dropouts from schools
has been reduced.
Give
Give
highlight
in
picture of a
SOCIAL SCIENCE 107

5.
Indians wanted to have their

own rule.
and .
It is a system of modern
Government in which people rule
themselves through their elected
representatives. Indian adults above 18
years become eligible to vote. These
people have enacted a constitution for
them through their representatives.
Now people are governed by
constitutional law. Therefore India is
called Republic.
108 CIVICS
Republic
in
or District
Revenue conducts
m).
.
Maintaining law and order is the
duty of the District Collector while
prevention of crimes is the duty of
his
Departmental officers below the

collector provide requirements of the
people like drinking water electricity,
food supply and transport. The The executive head of the Indian
administrative officers are in various Government is the Prime Minister.
stages at Taluk, Block and Village level.
SOCIAL SCIENCE 109

Chapter - 5
function. Discuss with the officials there and

gather information. Explain and discuss in
classroom.
This is called _____.
110 CIVICS
Republic
mock
4. Which of the following departments do you like to serve?

i. Administration
ii. Judiciary
iii. Politics
iv. Police
v. Military
5. Write down the names of the persons who occupy the following positions.
i. President
ii. Vice President
iii. Prime Minister
iv. Chief Justice of Supreme Court
v. Governor
vi. Chief Minister
vii. Chief Justice of High Court
viii. District Collector
ix. Member of Parliament
x. Member of Legisative Assembly
SOCIAL SCIENCE 111

112

EM Mat Sci Soc Term 2

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

EM Mat Sci Soc Term 2

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

EM Mat Sci Soc Term 2

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

GOVERNMENT OF TAMILNADU

Untouchability is Inhuman and a Crime

Department of School Education

Textbook Prepared and Compiled by

This book has been printed on 80 G.S.M Maplitho Paper

Printed by Web Offset at :

1. Ratio, Proportion and Direct Variation 2

2. Constants, Variables and Expressions 16

5. Constructing and Measuring Angles 40

SCIENCE (45 - 82)

SOCIAL SCIENCE (83 - 112)

1. The Vedic Period 84

2. Jainism and Buddhism 90

3. Rotation and Revolution of the Earth 97

4. Villages and Cities 105

1. Ratio, Proportion and Direct Variation

S.No. Information Ishwarya krithika

1. Age 17 years 15 years

9) Length and breadth of a rectangular field are 50 m and 15 m respectively.

11 parts = 1,21,000 11 121000

6. The ratio of expenditure and savings in a family is 5:3. If the expenditure

ii) 25:45 25 = 5 5:9

1.6 Direct Variation

Here the ratios are 4 = 2 , 8 = 2 , 10 = 2 , 20 = 2

2) Choose the correct answer :

3) Verify whether the following represent direct variation or not.

4) Complete the table if they are in direct variation.

1.7 Proportion - Application.

Let the actual length of a rectangular garden be ‘a ‘metres. and let ‘ b ‘ be

1. A map is drawn in the scale 1cm to 1000km

2. A scale used in a map is 1cm to 500m.

3. Fill in the blanks .

• The comparison of two quantities of the same kind is called a ratio.

Let us have a small game on numbers and learn to identify patterns .

Step 4: then subtract 20 from the result

Step 5: divide the result by 10.

• Form the largest and smallest number with the digits

• Subtract the smaller number from the larger number.

• Repeat the steps with another 3 digit number.

• The constant number you get is called as Kaprekar constant.

(i) 20 (ii) 2 (iii) 22 (iv) 23

2) Choose the next three shapes from the pattern

(i) (ii) (iii)

What is the pattern obtained from the table?

2.2 Introduction of constants and variables through patterns

Number of matchsticks required = 3 x x which is written as 3x

Law obtained from the above table.

Number of match sticks used = 5 # (Number of E formation)

Number of E formation is denoted as the variable x.

Law obtained from the above table,

2. If a box contains 40 apples, the total number of apples depends on the

3. If there are 12 pencils in a bundle, the total number of pencils depends

4. From the following patterns given below, form an algebraic term.

Study of devices measuring time is called horology

1 minute = 60 seconds 60 seconds = 1 minute

2. Convert into seconds

3. Convert into minutes

4. Convert into hours

3.2 Railway time

Train Name of the Place of Departure Arrival

A students' Science Conference (( A few students rode a bicycle to