The Rise of Nationalism in Europe

1. Explain Frederic Sorrieu dream in the context of democratic and social republic in France during
1848.

In 1848, Frederic Sorrieu, a French artist, prepared a series of four prints visualizing his
dream of a world made up of „democratic and social Republics‟.
The first print of the series shows the peoples of Europe and America – men and women
of all ages and social classes – marching in a long train, and offering homage to the
statue of Liberty as they pass by it.
French Revolution personified Liberty as a female figure – the torch of Enlightenment she
bears in one hand and the Charter of the Rights of Man in the other.
On the earth in the foreground of the image lie the shattered remains of the symbols of
absolutist institutions. In Sorrieu‟s utopian vision, the peoples of the world are grouped as
distinct nations, identified through their flags and national costume.
United States and Switzerland, which by this time were already nation-states. France,
identifiable by the revolutionary tricolor.
When Sorrieu created this image, the German peoples did not yet exist as a united nation
– the flag they carry is an expression of liberal hopes in 1848 to unify the numerous
German-speaking principalities into a nation-state under a democratic constitution.
The German peoples are the peoples of Austria, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies,
Lombardy, Poland, England, Ireland, Hungary and Russia.
From the heavens above, Christ, saints and angels gaze symbolize fraternity among the
nations of the world.

2. How did the French revolution play an important role in creating the idea of the nation in Europe?
(Or)
Describe any three measures that were introduced by the French revolution to create a sense of
collective identity among the French people.

The French revolutionaries introduced various measures and practices that could create a
sense of collective identity amongst the French people.
The ideas of la patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen) emphasized the idea of a
united community enjoying equal rights under a constitution.
A new French flag, the tricolour, was chosen to replace the former royal standard. The
Estates General was elected by the body of active citizens and renamed the National
Assembly.

New hymns were composed, oaths taken and martyrs commemorated, all in the name of the
nation. A centralized administrative system was put in place and it formulated uniform laws for
all citizens within its territory.
Internal customs duties and dues were abolished and a uniform system of weights and
measures was adopted. Regional dialects were discouraged and French, as it was spoken
and written in Paris, became the common language of the nation.

3. Explain the events of the French revolution which had influenced the people belonging to the other
parts of Europe.

When the news of the events in France reached the different cities of Europe, students and
other members of educated middle classes began setting up Jacobin clubs. Their activities
and campaigns prepared the way for the French armies which moved into Holland, Belgium,
Switzerland and much of Italy in the 1790s. With the outbreak of the revolutionary wars, the
French armies began to carry the idea of nationalism abroad.

4. How does the Napoleonic code exported to the regions under French control?
 (Or)
Explain any three features of Napoleonic code (civil code of 1804).
(Or)
“Napoleon had destroyed democracy in France but in the administration field, he had incorporated
revolutionary principles in order to make the whole system more” Explain

The Civil Code of 1804 –Napoleonic Code – did away with all privileges based on birth,
established equality before the law and secured the right to property.
This Code was exported to the regions under French control. In the Dutch Republic, in
Switzerland, in Italy and Germany.
Napoleon simplified administrative divisions, abolished the feudal system and freed peasants
from serfdom and manorial dues.
In the towns too, guild restrictions were removed. Transport and communication systems
were improved.
Peasants, artisans, workers and new businessmen enjoyed a new-found freedom.
Businessmen and small-scale producers of goods, in particular, began to realize that uniform
laws, standardized weights and measures, and a common national currency would facilitate
the movement and exchange of goods and capital from one region to another.

5. Examine the ideas of liberal nationalism in Europe during nineteenth century.

(Or)
Ideas of national unity in early nineteenth century Europe were closely allied to the ideology of
liberalism.

Political ideas of Liberals:

The term „liberalism‟ derives from the Latin root liber, meaning free.
Liberalism stood for freedom for the individual and equality of all before the law.
Politically, it emphasized the concept of government by consent. Liberalism had stood for the
end of autocracy and clerical privileges, a constitution and representative government through
parliament.
Nineteenth-century liberals also stressed the inviolability of private property.

Social ideas of Liberals:

The liberals are not supporting universal suffrage.

According to them voting rights are given only to men with property.
Men without property and women are not eligible to suffrage.

Economic idea of Liberals:

In the economic sphere, liberalism stood for the freedom of markets and the abolition of state-
imposed restrictions on the movement of goods and capital.
During the nineteenth century this was a strong demand of the emerging middle classes.
Napoleon‟s administrative measures had created out of countless small principalities a
confederation of 39 states. Each of these possessed its own currency, and weights and
measures.
A merchant travelling in 1833 from Hamburg to Nuremberg had to pass through 11 customs
barriers and pay a customs duty of about 5 per cent at each one of them.
Such conditions were viewed as obstacles to economic exchange and growth.
New commercial classes, who argued for the creation of a unified economic territory allowing
the free movement of goods, people and capital.
In 1834, a customs union or zollverein was formed at the initiative of Prussia and joined by
most of the German states. The union abolished tariff barriers and reduced the number of
currencies from over thirty to two.
The creation of a network of railways further stimulated mobility, harnessing economic
interests to national unification.
6. “A wave of economic nationalism strengthened the widen nationalist sentiments growing at the
time.” Examine the statement.

In the economic sphere, liberalism stood for the freedom of markets and the abolition of state-
imposed restrictions on the movement of goods and capital.
During the nineteenth century this was a strong demand of the emerging middle classes.
Napoleon‟s administrative measures had created out of countless small principalities a
confederation of 39 states. Each of these possessed its own currency, and weights and
measures.
A merchant travelling in 1833 from Hamburg to Nuremberg had to pass through 11 customs
barriers and pay a customs duty of about 5 per cent at each one of them.
Such conditions were viewed as obstacles to economic exchange and growth.
New commercial classes, who argued for the creation of a unified economic territory allowing
the free movement of goods, people and capital.
In 1834, a customs union or zollverein was formed at the initiative of Prussia and joined by
most of the German states. The union abolished tariff barriers and reduced the number of
currencies from over thirty to two.
The creation of a network of railways further stimulated mobility, harnessing economic
interests to national unification.

7. “In 1815 European governments were driven by a spirit of Conservation”, Justify.

Conservatives believed that established, traditional institutions of state and society – like the
monarchy, the Church, social hierarchies, property and the family – should be preserved.
Most conservatives did not propose a return to the society of pre-revolutionary days. Rather,
they realized, from the changes initiated by Napoleon, that modernization could in fact
strengthen traditional institutions like the monarchy.
It could make state power more effective and strong. A modern army, an efficient
bureaucracy, a dynamic economy, the abolition of feudalism and serfdom could strengthen
the autocratic monarchies of Europe.
Conservative regimes set up in 1815 were autocratic. They did not tolerate criticism and
different opinion, and sought to control activities that questioned the legitimacy of autocratic
governments.
Most of them imposed censorship laws to control what was said in newspapers, books, plays
and songs and reflected the ideas of liberty and freedom.

8. Who hosted the Vietnam congress? Explain the major provisions of treaty of Vietnam.

The Congress was hosted by the Austrian Chancellor Duke Metternich.

The leaders drew up the Treaty of Vienna of 1815 with the object of undoing most of the
changes that had come about in Europe during the Napoleonic wars.
The Bourbon dynasty, which had been deposed during the French Revolution, was restored
to power, and France lost the territories it had annexed under Napoleon.
A series of states were set up on the boundaries of France to prevent French expansion in
future. Thus the kingdom of the Netherlands, which included Belgium, was set up in the north
and Genoa was added to Piedmont in the south.
Prussia was given important new territories on its western frontiers, while Austria was given
control of northern Italy. But the German confederation of 39 states that had been set up by
Napoleon was left untouched.
In the east, Russia was given part of Poland while Prussia was given a portion of Saxony.
The main intention was to restore the monarchies that had been overthrown by Napoleon,
and create a new conservative order in Europe.

9. How did the Treaty of Constantinople of 1832 recognize Greece as an independent nation?
Explain?
(Or)
How does the Greek war of independence does mobilized nationalist feelings among Greeks? Explain
 An event that mobilized nationalist feelings among the educated elite across Europe was the
Greek war of independence. Greece had been part of the Ottoman Empire since the fifteenth
century. The growth of revolutionary nationalism in Europe sparked off a struggle for
independence amongst the Greeks which began in 1821. Nationalists in Greece got support
from other Greeks living in exile and also from many West Europeans who had sympathies
for ancient Greek culture. Poets and artists lauded Greece as the cradle of European
civilization and mobilized public opinion to support its struggle against a Muslim empire. The
English poet Lord Byron organized funds and later went to fight in the war, where he died of
fever in 1824. Finally, the Treaty of Constantinople of 1832 recognized Greece as an
independent nation.

10. “Culture played an important role in creating the Idea of the nation”, Explain the statement.
(Or)
Explain romanticism as a cultural movement.

Culture played an important role in creating the idea of the nation: art and poetry, stories and
music helped express and shape nationalist feelings. Let us look at
Romanticism, a cultural movement which tried to develop a particular form of nationalist
sentiment. Romantic artists and poets generally criticized reason and science and focused
instead on emotions, intuition and mystical feelings.
Their effort was to create a sense of a shared collective heritage, a common cultural past, as
the basis of a nation. Other Romantics such as the German philosopher
Johann Gottfried Herder (1744-1803) claimed that true German culture was to be discovered
among the common people – das volk.
So collecting and recording forms of folk culture was essential to the project of nation-
building.
The emphasis on vernacular language and the collection of local folklore was not just to
recover an ancient national spirit, but also to carry the modern nationalist message to large
audience, mostly illiterate.
Karol Kurpinski used operas, music and folk dances like Mazurka and polonaise to create a
nationalist sentiment feeling among the Poland people, when Poland was divided by great
powers.
Language too played an important role in developing nationalist sentiments.
After Russian occupation, the Polish language was forced out of schools and the Russian
language was imposed everywhere.
Many members of the clergy in Poland began to use language as a weapon of national
resistance. Polish was used for Church gatherings and all religious instruction.
As a result, a large number of priests and bishops were put in jail or sent to Siberia by the
Russian authorities as punishment for their refusal to use in Russian.

11. “Language too played an important role in developing nationalist sentiments.”, Explain

After Russian occupation, the Polish language was forced out of schools and the Russian
language was imposed everywhere.
Many members of the clergy in Poland began to use language as a weapon of national
resistance. Polish was used for Church gatherings and all religious instruction.
As a result, a large number of priests and bishops were put in jail or sent to Siberia by the
Russian authorities as punishment for their refusal to use in Russian.

12. How did the year of 1830 an economic hardship for Europe?

The first half of the nineteenth century saw an enormous increase in population all over
Europe.
In most countries there were more seekers of jobs than employment.
Population from rural areas migrated to the cities to live in overcrowded slums.
Small producers in towns were often faced with stiff competition from imports of cheap
machine-made goods from England.
In those regions of Europe where the aristocracy still enjoyed power, peasants struggled
under the burden of feudal dues and obligations.
 The rise of food prices or a year of bad harvest led to widespread pauperism in town and
country.

13. Explain the effects of revolution of liberals in 1848.

In 1848 the different parts of the Europe revolutions were led by poor unemployed and
educated middle class.
In 1848, France monarch was abdicated and France became a republic nation. They have
given voting rights to all men.
The effects of this change reflected in other parts at the Europe.
The liberal middle class of Germany, Italy Poland demanded constitutionalism with national
unification.
Their other demands were the creation of a national state based on parliamentary principals,
constitution freedom of press and association.
The members of the large political associations in German region were businessman‟s,
professionals and prosperous artisans came together in the city of Franck fort and decided to
vote for all German national assembly.
It was converted in the church of son Paul with 831 elected representatives.
They drafted a constitution for the German nation under the leadership of monarchy
controlled by the parliament.
Due to the disputes on the ground of offering crown to Friedrich Wilhelm IV he rejected the
offer.
Other monarch and aristocracy and military were opposed the elected assembly.
The parliament was dominated by middle class who resisted the demands of workers and
artisans and finally last their supports.
The army was called to disperse the assembly
During this time women were denied suffrage writes to the election of the assembly from the
Frankfurt parliament convened. Women were only admitted as absolvers.
In 1848 conservatives forces realizes that they can't restore the old order.
Monarchs were realized that the revolution and repression could only be ended by granting
concessions to be liberal national revolutionaries. Serfdom and bonded labor were abolished
in Hamburg Dom initiation and in Russia the Hapsburg rulers granted move anatomy to the
Hungarian rulers.

14. Explain the process of unification of Germany.

Nationalist feelings were widespread among middle-class Germans, who in 1848 tried to unite
the different regions of the German confederation into a nation-state governed by an elected
parliament.
This liberal initiative to nation-building was, repressed by the combined forces of the
monarchy and the military, supported by the large landowners (called Junkers) of Prussia.
Prussia took on the leadership of the movement for national unification. Its chief minister, Otto
von Bismarck, was the architect of this process carried out with the help of the Prussian army
and bureaucracy.
Three wars over seven years – with Austria, Denmark and France – ended in Prussian victory
and completed the process of unification.
In January 1871, the Prussian king, William I, was proclaimed German Emperor in a
ceremony held at Versailles.
On the bitterly cold morning of 18 January 1871, an assembly comprising the princes of the
German states, representatives of the army, important Prussian ministers including the chief
minister Otto von Bismarck gathered in the unheated Hall of Mirrors in the Palace of
Versailles to proclaim the new German Empire headed by Kaiser William I of Prussia.

15. Explain the role of Ottovon Bismarck in the unification of Germany.

 Prussia took on the leadership of the movement for national unification. Its chief minister, Otto
von Bismarck, was the architect of this process carried out with the help of the Prussian army
and bureaucracy.
Three wars over seven years – with Austria, Denmark and France – ended in Prussian victory
and completed the process of unification.
In January 1871, the Prussian king, William I, was proclaimed German Emperor in a
ceremony held at Versailles.

16. Explain the process of unification of Italy.

During the middle of the nineteenth century, Italy was divided into seven states, of which only
one, Sardinia-Piedmont, was ruled by an Italian princely house.
The north was under Austrian Habsburgs, the center was ruled by the Pope and the southern
regions were under the domination of the Bourbon kings of Spain.
During the 1830s, Giuseppe Mazzini had put together a program for a unitary Italian Republic.
He had also formed a secret society called Young Italy for achieving his goals. The
revolutionary upraising was failed.
Now Sardinia-Piedmont under its ruler King Victor Emmanuel II unifies the Italian states
through war.
In the eyes of the ruling elites of this region, a unified Italy offered them the possibility of
economic development and political dominance.
Chief Minister Cavour who led the movement to unify the regions of Italy was neither a
revolutionary nor a democrat. Through a tactful diplomatic alliance with France by Cavour,
Sardinia-Piedmont succeeded in defeating the Austrian forces in 1859.
Apart from regular troops, a large number of armed volunteers under the leadership of
Giuseppe Garibaldi joined the fray.
In 1860, they marched into South Italy and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and succeeded in
winning the support of the local peasants in order to drive out the Spanish rulers.
In 1861 Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of united Italy.

17. Explain the role of Giuseppe Mazzini in Italian unification.

During the 1830s, Giuseppe Mazzini had put together a program for a unitary Italian Republic.
He had also formed a secret society called Young Italy for achieving his goals. The
revolutionary upraising was failed.

18. Analyze the role of Chief Minister Cavour who led the movement to unify the regions of Italy.

Chief Minister Cavour who led the movement to unify the regions of Italy was neither a
revolutionary nor a democrat.
He spoke French much better than he did Italian.
Through a tactful diplomatic alliance with France engineered by Cavour, Sardinia-Piedmont
succeeded in defeating the Austrian forces in 1859.

19. How did the new “British nation” form through the propagation of a dominant English culture?
(Or)
Explain the formation of British National State.

In Britain the formation of the nation-state was not the result of a sudden upheaval or
revolution. It was the result of a long-drawn-out process.
There was no British nation prior to the eighteenth century. The primary identities of the
people who inhabited the British Isles were ethnic ones – such as English, Welsh, Scot or
Irish.
All of these ethnic groups had their own cultural and political traditions.
English nation steadily grew in wealth, importance and power, it was able to extend its
influence over the other nations of the islands.
The English parliament had seized power from the monarchy in 1688 and made England as a
center.
 The Act of Union (1707) between England and Scotland that resulted in the formation of the
„United Kingdom of Great Britain‟
England was able to impose its influence on Scotland. The British parliament was dominated
by its English members.
The growth of a British identity, Scotland‟s distinctive culture and political institutions were
systematically suppressed.
Ireland suffered a similar fate.
It was a country deeply divided between Catholics and Protestants.
The English helped the Protestants of Ireland to establish their dominance over a largely
Catholic country. Catholic revolts against British dominance were suppressed.
After a failed revolt led by Wolfe Tone and his United Irishmen (1798), Ireland was forcibly
incorporated into the United Kingdom in 1801.
A new „British nation‟ was propagated the new of a dominant English culture.

20. How did the female figures became the allegories of the nation?

Artists in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries found a way out by personifying a nation.
Nations were then portrayed as female figures.
The female form did not stand for any particular woman in real life; rather it sought to give the
abstract idea of the nation a concrete form. That is, the female figure became an allegory of
the nation.
During the French Revolution artists used the female allegory to portray ideas such as
Liberty, Justice and the Republic.
Female allegories were invented by artists in the nineteenth century to represent the nation.
In France she was christened Marianne, a popular Christian name, which underlined the idea
of a people‟s nation.
Her characteristics were drawn from those of Liberty and the Republic – the red cap, the
tricolour, the cockade.
Statues of Marianne were erected in public squares to remind the public of the national
symbol of unity and to persuade them to identify with it. Marianne images were marked on
coins and stamps.
Germania became the allegory of the German nation.
Germania wears a crown of oak leaves, as the German oak stands for heroism.

21. “By the last quarter of the nineteenth century nationalism no longer retained its idealistic liberal-
democratic sentiment of the first half of the century, but became a narrow creed with limited ends”
(Or)
How did nationalism align with imperialism became the cause of the First World War? Explain?
(Or)
Describe the explosive conditions that prevailed in the Balkans after 1871 in Europe

Balkans becomes the source of nationalist tension in Europe after 1871.

This region consists of the modern status of Bulgaria, Greece and Romania etc, ethnical and
geographical variation.
It was in habited by slaves and was under the control of Ottoman Empire.
The spread of romantic nationalism made the situation of Balkan region move worse.
Ottoman earpiece introduced modernization and interval reforms in order to control the
situation. But it was little successful.
One by one different nationality declared their independence based on their political writes,
nationality end history. According to that Balkan state were independent in the past now they
were under foreign power.
Each state developed joylessly and hoped to expend at the cost of others.
The European powers like Russia, Germany, England and Australia and Hungary extended
their power over Balkan area.
The region was important for train, colonies, Naval and military power.
It later became one of the courses for the First World War.