Ahimsa

Ahimsa (Sanskrit: अहिंसा, IAST: ahiṃsā, lit. 'nonviolence'[1]) is

the ancient Indian principle of nonviolence which applies to
actions towards all living beings. It is a key virtue in Indian
religions like Jainism, Buddhism, Hinduism, and Sikhism.[2][3][4]

Ahimsa (also spelled Ahinsa) is one of the cardinal virtues[2] of

Jainism, where it is the first of the Pancha Mahavrata. It is also
one of the central precepts of Hinduism and is the first of the five
precepts of Buddhism. Ahimsa is[5] inspired by the premise that all
living beings have the spark of the divine spiritual energy;
therefore, to hurt another being is to hurt oneself. Ahimsa is also
related to the notion that all acts of violence have karmic
consequences. While ancient scholars of Brahmanism had already
investigated and refined the principles of ahimsa, the concept
Lord Mahavira, the torch-bearer of
reached an extraordinary development in the ethical philosophy of ahimsa
Jainism.[2][6] Mahavira, the twenty-fourth and the last tirthankara
of Jainism, further strengthened the idea in the 6th century BCE.[7]
About the 5th century CE, Valluvar emphasized ahimsa and moral vegetarianism as virtues for an
individual, which formed the core of his teachings in the Kural.[8] Perhaps the most popular advocate of
the principle of ahimsa in modern times was Mahatma Gandhi.[9]

Ahimsa's precept that humans should 'cause no injury' to another living being includes one's deeds, words,
and thoughts.[10][11] Classical Hindu texts like the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, as well as modern
scholars,[12] disagree about what the principle of Ahimsa dictates when one is faced with war and other
situations that require self-defence. In this way, historical Indian literature has contributed to modern
theories of just war and self-defence.[13]

Etymology
The word Ahimsa—sometimes spelled Ahinsa[14][15]—is derived from the Sanskrit root hiṃs, meaning
to strike; hiṃsā is injury or harm, while a-hiṃsā (prefixed with the alpha privative), its opposite, is non-
harming or nonviolence.[14][16]

Origins
Reverence for ahimsa can be found in Jain, Hindu, and Buddhist canonical texts. Lord Parshvanatha (the
23rd of 24 Tirthankaras of Jainism) is said to have preached ahimsa as one of the four vows.[3][5][17][18]
No other Indian religion has developed the non-violence doctrine and its implications on everyday life as
much as has Jainism.[19][20][21]

Hinduism

Ancient Vedic texts

Ahimsa as an ethical concept evolved in the Vedic texts.[6][22] The oldest scriptures indirectly mention
Ahimsa. Over time, the Hindu scripts revised ritual practices, and the concept of Ahimsa was increasingly
refined and emphasized until Ahimsa became the highest virtue by the late Vedic era (about 1000-
600 BCE). For example, hymn 10.22.25 in the Rig Veda uses the words Satya (truthfulness) and Ahimsa
in a prayer to deity Indra;[23] later, the Yajur Veda dated to be between 2500 BCE and 1500 BCE, states,
"may all beings look at me with a friendly eye, may I do likewise, and may we look at each other with the
eyes of a friend".[6][24][25][26]

The term Ahimsa appears in the text Taittiriya Shakha of the Yajurveda (TS 5.2.8.7), where it refers to
non-injury to the sacrificer himself.[27] It occurs several times in the Shatapatha Brahmana in the sense
of "non-injury".[28] The Ahimsa doctrine is a late Vedic era development in Brahmanical culture.[29] The
earliest reference to the idea of non-violence to animals (pashu-Ahimsa), apparently in a moral sense, is
in the Kapisthala Katha Samhita of the Yajurveda (KapS 31.11), which may have been written in about
1500-1200 BCE.[30][25][26]

John Bowker states the word appears but is uncommon in the principal Upanishads.[31] Kaneda gives
examples of the word pashu-Ahimsa in these Upanishads.[11] Other scholars[5][18] suggest Ahimsa as an
ethical concept started evolving in the Vedas, becoming an increasingly central concept in Upanishads.

The Chāndogya Upaniṣad, dated to 800 to 600 BCE, one of the oldest Upanishads, has the earliest
evidence for the Vedic era use of the word Ahimsa in the sense familiar in Hinduism (a code of conduct).
It bars violence against "all creatures" (sarvabhuta), and the practitioner of Ahimsa is said to escape from
the cycle of rebirths (CU 8.15.1).[32][33] Some scholars state that this mention may have been an
influence of Jainism on Vedic Hinduism.[34] Others scholar state that this relationship is speculative, and
though Jainism is an ancient tradition the oldest traceable texts of Jainism tradition are from many
centuries after the Vedic era ended.[35][36]

Chāndogya Upaniṣad also names Ahimsa, along with Satyavacanam (truthfulness), Ārjavam (sincerity),
Dānam (charity), and Tapo (penance/meditation), as one of five essential virtues (CU 3.17.4).[5][37]

The Sandilya Upanishad lists ten forbearances: Ahimsa, Satya, Asteya, Brahmacharya, Daya, Arjava,
Kshama, Dhriti, Mitahara, and Saucha.[38] According to Kaneda,[11] the term Ahimsa is an important
spiritual doctrine shared by Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. It means 'non-injury' and 'non-killing'. It
implies the total avoidance of harming any living creature by deeds, words, and thoughts.

The Epics
The Mahabharata, one of the epics of Hinduism, has multiple mentions of the phrase Ahimsa Paramo
Dharma (अहिंसा परमॊ धर्मः), which literally means: non-violence is the highest moral virtue. For example,
Anushasana Parva has the verse:[39]

अहिंसा परमॊ धर्मः तथाहिंसा परॊ दमः।

अहिंसा परमं दानम् अहिंसा परमस तपः।
अहिंसा परमॊ यज्ञः तथाहिस्मा परं बलम्।
अहिंसा परमं मित्रम् अहिंसा परमं सुखम्।
अहिंसा परमं सत्यम् अहिंसा परमं श्रुतम्॥

The above passage from Mahabharata emphasises the cardinal importance of Ahimsa in Hinduism, and
literally means:

Ahimsa is the highest Dharma, Ahimsa is the highest self-control,

Ahimsa is the greatest gift, Ahimsa is the best practice,
Ahimsa is the highest sacrifice, Ahimsa is the finest strength,
Ahimsa is the greatest friend, Ahimsa is the greatest happiness,
Ahimsa is the highest truth, and Ahimsa is the greatest teaching.[40][41]

Some other examples where the phrase Ahimsa Paramo Dharma are discussed include Adi Parva, Vana
Parva, and Anushasana Parva. The Bhagavad Gita, among other things, discusses the doubts and
questions about appropriate response when one faces systematic violence or war. These verses develop
the concepts of lawful violence in self-defence and the theories of just war. However, there is no
consensus on this interpretation. Gandhi, for example, considers this debate about non-violence and
lawful violence as a mere metaphor for the internal war within each human being, when he or she faces
moral questions.[42]

Self-defence, criminal law, and war

The classical texts of Hinduism devote numerous chapters to discussing what people who practice the
virtue of ahimsa can and must do when faced with war, violent threat, or the need to sentence someone
convicted of a crime. These discussions have led to theories of just war, ideas of reasonable self-defense,
and views of proportionate punishment.[13][43] Arthashastra discusses, among other things, what
constitutes proportionate response and punishment.[44][45]

War

The precepts of ahimsa in Hinduism require that war must be avoided, with sincere and truthful dialogue.
Force must be the last resort. If war becomes necessary, its cause must be just, its purpose virtuous, its
objective to restrain the wicked, its aim peace, and its method lawful.[13][44] War can only be started and
stopped by a legitimate authority. Weapons must be proportionate to the opponent and the aim of war, not
indiscriminate tools of destruction.[46] All strategies and weapons used in the war must be to defeat the
opponent, not to cause misery to the opponent; for example, the use of arrows is allowed, but the use of
arrows smeared with painful poison is not allowed. Warriors must use judgment in the battlefield. Cruelty
to the opponent during war is forbidden. Wounded, unarmed opponent warriors must not be attacked or
killed; they must be brought to your realm and given medical treatment.[44] Children, women, and
civilians must not be injured. While the war is in progress, sincere dialogue for peace must
continue.[13][43]

Self-defence

Different interpretations of ancient Hindu texts have been offered in matters of self-defense. For example,
Tähtinen suggests self-defense is appropriate, criminals are not protected by the rule of ahimsa, and
Hindu scriptures support violence against an armed attacker.[47][48] ahimsa is not meant to imply
pacifism.[49]

Alternative theories of self-defense, inspired by ahimsa, build principles similar to ideas of just war.
Aikido, pioneered in Japan, illustrates one such set of principles for self-defense. Morihei Ueshiba, the
founder of Aikido, described his inspiration as Ahimsa.[50] According to this interpretation of ahimsa in
self-defense, one must not assume that the world is free of aggression. One must presume that some
people will, out of ignorance, error, or fear, attack others or intrude into their space, physically or
verbally. The aim of self-defense, suggested Ueshiba, must be to neutralize the attacker's aggression and
avoid conflict. The best defense is one with which the victim is protected and the attacker is respected
and not injured if possible. Under ahimsa and Aikido, there are no enemies, and appropriate self-defense
focuses on neutralizing the immaturity, assumptions, and aggressive strivings of the attacker.[51]

Criminal law

Tähtinen concludes that Hindus have no misgivings about the death penalty; their position is that evil-
doers who deserve death should be killed and that a king, in particular, is obliged to punish criminals and
should not hesitate to kill them, even if they happen to be his brothers and sons.[52]

Other scholars[43][44] conclude that Hindu scriptures suggest that sentences for any crime must be fair,
proportional, and not cruel.

Non-human life
The Hindu precept of "cause no injury" applies to animals and all life forms. This precept is not found in
the oldest verses of Vedas (1500–1000 BCE), but increasingly becomes one of the central ideas in post-
Vedic period.[53][54] In the oldest layer of the Vedas, such as the Rigveda, ritual sacrifices of animals and
cooking of meat to feed guests are mentioned. This included goat, ox, horse, and others.[55] However, the
text is not uniform in its prescriptions. Some verses praise meat as food, while other verses in the Vedas
recommend "abstention from meat", in particular, "beef".[55][56] According to Marvin Harris, the Vedic
literature is inconsistent, with some verses suggesting ritual slaughter and meat consumption, while
others suggesting a taboo on meat-eating.[57]

Hindu texts dated to 1st millennium BCE initially mention meat as food, then evolve to suggest that only
meat obtained through ritual sacrifice can be eaten, thereafter evolving to the stance that one should eat
no meat because it hurts animals, with verses describing the noble life as one that lives on flowers, roots,
and fruits alone.[53][58] The late Vedic-era literature (pre-500 BCE) condemns all killings of men, cattle,
birds, and horses, and prays to god Agni to punish those who kill.[59]
Later texts of Hinduism declare ahimsa as one of the primary virtues,
declare any killing or harming any life as against dharma (moral life).
Finally, the discussion in the Upanishads and Hindu Epics[60] shifts to
whether a human being can ever live his or her life without harming
animal and plant life in some way, which and when plants or animal
meat may be eaten, whether violence against animals causes human
beings to become less compassionate, and if and how one may exert
least harm to non-human life consistent with ahimsa, given the
constraints of life and human needs.[61] The Mahabharata permits
hunting by warriors, but opposes it in the case of hermits who must be
strictly non-violent. Sushruta Samhita, a Hindu text written in the 3rd or
4th century BCE, in Chapter XLVI suggests proper diet as a means of
treating certain illnesses, and recommends various fishes and meats for
different ailments and for pregnant women,[62][63] and the Charaka
Samhita describes meat as superior to all other kinds of food for
convalescents.[64]
The 5th-century CE Tamil
Across the texts of Hinduism, there is a profusion of ideas about the scholar Valluvar, in his
virtue of ahimsa when applied to non-human life, but without a universal Tirukkural, taught ahimsa and
consensus.[65] Alsdorf claims the debate and disagreements between moral vegetarianism as
personal virtues. The plaque
supporters of vegetarian lifestyle and meat eaters was significant. Even
in this statue of Valluvar at an
suggested exceptions – ritual slaughter and hunting – were challenged by
animal sanctuary at Tiruvallur
advocates of ahimsa.[66][67][68] In the Mahabharata both sides present describes the Kural's
various arguments to substantiate their viewpoints. Moreover, a hunter teachings on ahimsa and
defends his profession in a long discourse.[69] non-killing, summing them up
with the definition of
Many of the arguments proposed in favor of non-violence to animals veganism.
refer to the bliss one feels, the rewards it entails before or after death, the
danger and harm it prevents, as well as to the karmic consequences of
violence.[70][71][72]

The ancient Hindu texts discuss ahimsa and non-animal life. They discourage wanton destruction of
nature including of wild and cultivated plants. Hermits (sannyasins) were urged to live on a fruitarian diet
so as to avoid the destruction of plants.[73][74][75] Scholars[40][76] claim the principles of ecological
nonviolence are innate in the Hindu tradition, and its conceptual fountain has been ahimsa as its cardinal
virtue.

The classical literature of the Indian religions, such as Hinduism and Jainism, exists in many Indian
languages. For example, the Tirukkural, written in three volumes, likely between 450 and 500 CE,
dedicates verses 251–260 and 321–333 of its first volume to the virtue of ahimsa, emphasizing on moral
vegetarianism and non-killing (kollamai).[77][78] However, the Tirukkural also glorifies soldiers and their
valour during war, and states that it is king's duty to punish criminals and implement "death sentence for
the wicked".[79][80]
In 1960, H. Jay Dinshah founded the American Vegan Society (AVS), linking veganism to the concept of
ahimsa.[81][82][83]

Modern times
In the 19th and 20th centuries, prominent figures of Indian spirituality
such as Shrimad Rajchandra[84] and Swami Vivekananda[85] emphasised
the importance of Ahimsa.

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi successfully promoted the principle of

ahimsa to all spheres of life, in particular to politics (Swaraj).[86] His
non-violent resistance movement satyagraha had an immense impact on
India, impressed public opinion in Western countries, and influenced the
leaders of various civil and political rights movements such as the
American civil rights movement's Martin Luther King Jr. and James
Bevel. In Gandhi's thought, ahimsa precludes not only the act of
inflicting a physical injury but also mental states like evil thoughts and
hatred, and unkind behavior such as harsh words, dishonesty, and lying,
all of which he saw as manifestations of violence incompatible with Gandhi promoted the
ahimsa.[87] Gandhi believed ahimsa to be a creative energy force, principle of ahimsa by
encompassing all interactions leading one's self to find satya, "Divine applying it to politics.
Truth".[88] Sri Aurobindo criticized the Gandhian concept of ahimsa as
unrealistic and not universally applicable; he adopted a pragmatic non-
pacifist position, saying that the justification of violence depends on the specific circumstances of the
given situation.[89]

Gandhi took the religious principle of ahimsa, and turned it into a non-violent tool for mass action. He
used it to fight not only colonial rule, but social evils such as racial discrimination and untouchability as
well.[90]

Gandhi stated his belief that "[a]himsa is in Hinduism, it is in Christianity as well as in Islam."[91] He
added, "Nonviolence is common to all religions, but it has found the highest expression and application in
Hinduism (I do not regard Jainism or Buddhism as separate from Hinduism)."[91] When questioned
whether violence and nonviolence are taught in Quran, he stated, "I have heard from many Muslim
friends that the Koran teaches the use of nonviolence. (... The) argument about nonviolence in the Holy
Koran is an interpolation, not necessary for my thesis."[91][92]

Studying ahimsa's history and philosophy influenced Albert Schweitzer's principle of "reverence for life".
He commended Indian traditions for their ethics of ahimsa, considering the prohibition against killing and
harming "one of the greatest events in the spiritual history of humankind". However, he noted that "not-
killing" and "not-harming" might be unfeasible in certain situations, like self-defense, or ethically
complex, as in cases of prolonged famine.[93]

Yoga
Ahimsa is imperative for practitioners of Patañjali's eight limb Raja yoga system. It is included in the first
limb and is the first of five Yamas (self restraints) which, together with the second limb, make up the code
of ethical conduct in Yoga philosophy.[94][95] Commentators on the Yoga Sutras II.30 emphasize that
ahimsa is the most important and foundational yama of the five yamas. Vijnanabhiksu uses the analogy of
an elephant to convey its importance, while Vyasa defines it as refraining from harming any living being
at any time, emphasizing that all other yamas support and purify ahimsa.[96]

Ahimsa is also one of the ten Yamas in Hatha Yoga according to verse 1.1.17 of its classic manual Hatha
Yoga Pradipika.[97] The significance of ahimsa as the first restraint in the first limb of Yoga (Yamas), is
that it defines the necessary foundation for progress through Yoga. It is a precursor to Asana, implying
that success in Yogasana can be had only if the self is purified in thought, word, and deed through the
self-restraint of ahimsa.

Jainism
In Jainism, the understanding and implementation of ahimsa is
more radical, scrupulous, and comprehensive than in any other
religion.[98] Killing any living being out of passions like
attachment is considered hiṃsā (to injure) and abstaining from
such an act is ahimsā (noninjury).[99] The vow of ahimsā is
considered the foremost among the "five vows of Jainism". Other
vows like truth (satya) are meant for safeguarding the vow of
ahimsā.[100]

In the practice of ahimsa, the requirements are less strict for the
lay persons (sravakas) who have undertaken anuvrata (Smaller
Vows) than for the Jain monastics who are bound by the
Mahavrata "Great Vows".[101][102]

The statement ahimsā paramo dharmaḥ (or, "Non-

injury/nonviolence/harmlessness is the
supreme/ultimate/paramount/highest/absolute
duty/virtue/attribute/religion"[103]) is often found inscribed on the
walls of the Jain temples.[104] As in Hinduism, the aim is to
prevent the accumulation of harmful karma.[105]

When Mahavira revived and reorganised the Jain faith in the 6th
or 5th century BCE,[106] ahimsa was already an established,
strictly observed rule.[107] Rishabhanatha (Ādinātha), the first Jain The hand with a wheel on the palm
Tirthankara, whom modern Western historians consider to be a symbolises the Jain Vow of Ahimsa.
historical figure, followed by Parshvanatha (Pārśvanātha) [108] the The word in the middle is Ahimsa.
twenty-third Tirthankara lived in about the 9th century BCE. [109] The wheel represents the
dharmacakra which stands for the
He founded the community to which Mahavira's parents
resolve to halt the cycle of
belonged.[110] Ahimsa was already part of the "Fourfold Restraint" reincarnation through relentless
(Caujjama), the vows taken by Parshva's followers.[111] In the pursuit of truth and non-violence.
times of Mahavira and in the following centuries, Jains were at
odds with both Buddhists and followers of the Vedic religion or
Hindus, whom they accused of negligence and inconsistency in the implementation of ahimsa.[112][113]
According to the Jain tradition either lacto vegetarianism or veganism is prescribed.[114]
The Jain concept of ahimsa is characterised by several aspects. Killing of animals for food is absolutely
ruled out.[115] Jains also make considerable efforts not to injure plants in everyday life as far as possible.
Though they admit that plants must be destroyed for the sake of food, they accept such violence only
inasmuch as it is indispensable for human survival, and there are special instructions for preventing
unnecessary violence against plants.[116][117] Jain monks and nuns go out of their way so as not to hurt
even small insects and other minuscule animals.[118] Both the renouncers and the laypeople of Jain faith
reject meat, fish, alcohol, and honey as these are believed to harm large or minuscule life forms.[119]

Jain scholars have debated the potential injury to other life forms during one's occupation. Certain Jain
texts (according to Padmannabh Jaini, a Jainism scholar) forbid people of its faith from husbandry,
agriculture, and trade in animal-derived products.[120] Some Jains abstain from farming because it
inevitably entails unintentional killing or injuring of many small animals, such as worms and insects.[121]
These teachings, in part, have led the Jain community to focus on trade, merchant, clerical, and
administrative occupations to minimize arambhaja-himsa (occupational violence against all life
forms).[120] For the layperson, the teaching has been of ahimsa with pramada – that is, reducing violence
through proper intention and being careful in every action on a daily basis to minimize violence to all life
forms.[122]

The Jain texts, unlike most Hindu and Buddhist texts on just war, have been inconsistent. For its monastic
community – sadhu and sadhvi – the historically accepted practice has been to "willingly sacrifice one's
own life" to the attacker, to not retaliate, so that the mendicant may keep the First Great Vow of "total
nonviolence".[120] Jain literature of the 10th century CE, for example, describes a king ready for war and
being given lessons about non-violence by the Jain acharya (spiritual teacher).[123] In the 12th century CE
and thereafter, in an era of violent raids, destruction of temples, the slaughter of agrarian communities
and ascetics by Islamic armies, Jain scholars reconsidered the First Great Vow of mendicants and its
parallel for the laypeople. The medieval texts of this era, such as by Jinadatta Suri, recommended both the
mendicants and the laypeople to fight and kill if that would prevent greater and continued violence on
humans and other life forms (virodhi-himsa).[124][125] Such exemptions to ahimsa is a relatively rare
teaching in Jain texts, states Dundas.[124]

Mahatma Gandhi stated, "No religion in the World has explained the principle of Ahiṃsā so deeply and
systematically as is discussed with its applicability in every human life in Jainism. As and when the
benevolent principle of Ahiṃsā or non-violence will be ascribed for practice by the people of the world
to achieve their end of life in this world and beyond, Jainism is sure to have the uppermost status and
Mahāvīra is sure to be respected as the greatest authority on Ahiṃsā".[126]

Buddhism
In Buddhist texts ahimsa (or its Pāli cognate avihiṃsā) is part of the Five Precepts (Pañcasīla), the first
of which has been to abstain from killing. This precept of ahimsa is applicable to both the Buddhist
layperson and the monastic community.[127][128][129]

The ahimsa precept is not a commandment, and transgressions did not invite religious sanctions for
laypersons, but their power has been in the Buddhist belief in karmic consequences and their impact in
afterlife during rebirth.[130] Killing, in Buddhist belief, could lead to rebirth in the hellish realm, and for a
longer time in more severe conditions if the murder victim was a monk.[130] Saving animals from
slaughter for meat is believed to be a way to acquire merit for
better rebirth. These moral precepts have been voluntarily self-
enforced in lay Buddhist culture through the associated belief in
karma and rebirth.[131] Buddhist texts not only recommend
ahimsa, but suggest avoiding trading goods that contribute to or
are a result of violence:
Buddhist monk peace walk
These five trades, O monks, should not be taken up by a
lay follower: trading with weapons, trading in living
beings, trading in meat, trading in intoxicants, trading in
poisons.

—Anguttara Nikaya V.177, Translated by Martine

Batchelor[132]

Unlike with lay Buddhists, transgressions by monks do invite sanctions.[133] Full expulsion of a monk
from sangha follows instances of killing, just like any other serious offense against the monastic nikaya
code of conduct.[133]

War
Violent ways of punishing criminals and prisoners of war were not explicitly condemned in
Buddhism,[134] but peaceful ways of conflict resolution and punishment with the least amount of injury
were encouraged.[135][136] The early texts condemn the mental states that lead to violent behavior.[137]

Nonviolence is an overarching theme within the Pāli Canon.[138] While the early texts condemn killing in
the strongest terms, and portray the ideal monarch as a pacifist, such a monarch is nonetheless flanked by
an army.[139] It seems that the Buddha's teaching on nonviolence was not interpreted or put into practice
in an uncompromisingly pacifist or anti-military service way by early Buddhists.[139] The early texts
assume war to be a fact of life, and well-skilled soldiers are viewed as necessary for defensive
warfare.[140] In Pali texts, injunctions to abstain from violence and involvement with military affairs are
directed at members of the sangha; later Mahayana texts, which often generalise monastic norms to laity,
require this of lay people as well.[141]

The early texts do not contain just-war ideology as such.[142] Some argue that a sutta in the Gamani
Samyuttam rules out all military service. In this passage, a soldier asks the Buddha if it is true that, as he
has been told, soldiers slain in battle are reborn in a heavenly realm. The Buddha reluctantly replies that if
he is killed in battle while his mind is seized with the intention to kill, he will undergo an unpleasant
rebirth.[143] In the early texts, a person's mental state at the time of death is generally viewed as having a
great impact on the next birth.[144]

Some Buddhists point to other early texts as justifying defensive war.[145] One example is the Kosala
Samyutta, in which King Pasenadi of Kosala, a righteous king favored by the Buddha, learns of an
impending attack on his kingdom. He arms himself in defence, and leads his army into battle to protect
his kingdom from attack. He lost this battle but won the war. King Pasenadi eventually defeated Emperor
Ajātasattu and captured him alive. He thought that, although this King of Magadha has transgressed
against his kingdom, he had not transgressed against him personally, and Ajātasattu was still his nephew.
He released Ajātasattu and did not harm him.[146] Upon his return, the Buddha said (among other things)
that Pasenadi "is a friend of virtue, acquainted with virtue, intimate with virtue", while the opposite is
said of the aggressor, King Ajātasattu.[147]

According to Theravada commentaries, there are five requisite factors that must all be fulfilled for an act
to be both an act of killing and to be karmically negative. These are: (1) the presence of a living being,
human or animal; (2) the knowledge that the being is a living being; (3) the intent to kill; (4) the act of
killing by some means; and (5) the resulting death.[148] Some Buddhists have argued on this basis that the
act of killing is complicated, and its ethicality is predicated upon intent.[149] Some have argued that in
defensive postures, for example, the primary intention of a soldier is not to kill, but to defend against
aggression, and the act of killing in that situation would have minimal negative karmic repercussions.[150]

According to Babasaheb Ambedkar, there is circumstantial evidence encouraging ahimsa from the
Buddha's doctrine, "Love all, so that you may not wish to kill any." Gautama Buddha distinguished
between a principle and a rule. He did not make ahimsa a matter of rule, but suggested it as a matter of
principle. This gives Buddhists freedom to act.[151]

Laws
Maurya Emperor Ashoka banned animal sacrifice, hunting, slaughter of "all four-footed creatures that are
neither useful nor edible" and specific animal species, female goats, sheep and pigs nursing their young
as well as their young up to the age of six months. Fishing was banned during Chaturmasya and
Uposatha.[152][153] Slave trade in the Maurya Empire was also banned by Ashoka.[154]

The emperors of the Sui dynasty, Tang dynasty, and early Song dynasty banned killing in the Lunar
calendar's 1st, 5th, and 9th months.[155] Empress Wu Tse-Tien banned killing for more than half a year in
692.[156] Some rulers banned fishing for a period of time each year.[157]

There were also bans after the death of emperors,[158] after Buddhist and Taoist prayers,[159] and after
natural disasters such as Shanghai's 1926 summer drought, as well as an eight-day ban beginning August
12, 1959, after the August 7 flood (Chinese: 八七水災; pinyin: Bāqī shuǐzāi), the last big flood before the
88 Taiwan Flood.[160]

People avoid killing during some festivals, like the Taoist Ghost Festival, the Nine Emperor Gods
Festival, and the Vegetarian Festival, as well as during others.[161][162]

See also
Anekantavada – Jain doctrine of many-sidedness
Animal rights – Rights belonging to animals
Civil resistance – Political action that relies on the use of non-violent methods by civil groups
Consistent life ethic – Ideology opposing abortion, capital punishment, assisted suicide,
euthanasia, and some or all wars
Ethics – Philosophical study of morality
Gandhism – Body of ideas inspired by Mahatma Gandhi
Golden Rule – Principle of treating others as one wants to be treated
History of vegetarianism
 Human rights – Fundamental rights belonging to all humans
Karuṇā – Sanskrit term translated as compassion or mercy
Non-aggression Principle – Core concept in libertarianism
Nonkilling – Approach to nonviolence
Nonresistance – Nonviolent philosophy
Nonviolence – Principle or practice of not causing harm to others
Pacifism – Philosophy opposing war or violence
Satyagraha – Form of nonviolent resistance practised during British colonial rule in India
Veganism – Practice of abstaining from the use of animals
Vegetarianism and religion – Religious practices involving not eating meat
Yamas – Ethical rules in Hinduism and Yoga

References

Citations
1. Rune E. A. Johansson (2012). Pali Buddhist Texts: An Introductory Reader and Grammar (ht
tps://books.google.com/books?id=CXBmlQvw7PwC). Routledge. p. 143 (https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=CXBmlQvw7PwC&pg=PT143). ISBN 978-1-136-11106-8.
2. Phillips, Stephen H.; et al. (collaboration) (2008). Kurtz, Lester (ed.). Encyclopedia of
Violence, Peace, & Conflict (Second ed.). Elsevier Science. pp. 1347–1356, 701–849, 1867.
ISBN 978-0-12-373985-8.
3. Dundas 2002, p. 160.
4. Bajpai, Shiva (2011). The History of India – From Ancient to Modern Times (http://www.hima
layanacademy.com/media/books/the-history-of-hindu-india/the-history-of-hindu-india.pdf)
(PDF). Hawaii, USA: Himalayan Academy Publications. pp. 8, 98. ISBN 978-1-934145-38-8.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20190624073654/https://www.himalayanacademy.co
m/media/books/the-history-of-hindu-india/the-history-of-hindu-india.pdf) (PDF) from the
original on 24 June 2019.
5. Arapura, John G. (1997). "The Spirituality rof Ahiṃsā (Nonviolence): Traditional and
Gandhian". In Sundararajan, K.R.; Mukerji, Bithika (eds.). Hindu Spirituality: Postclassical
and Modern. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. pp. 392–417. ISBN 978-81-208-1937-5.
6. Chapple, Christopher Key (1993). "Origins and Traditional Articulations of Ahiṃsā".
Nonviolence to Animals, Earth, and Self in Asian Traditions. State University of New York
Press.
7. "Mahavira" (https://www.britannica.com/biography/Mahavira-Jaina-teacher), britannica.com,
archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20190621231354/https://www.britannica.com/biograp
hy/Mahavira-Jaina-teacher) from the original on 21 June 2019, retrieved 2 May 2018
Patel, Haresh (2009). Thoughts from the Cosmic Field in the Life of a Thinking Insect [A
Latter-Day Saint] (https://books.google.com/books?id=SXgEfiNY46sC&pg=PA271).
Strategic Book Publishing. p. 271. ISBN 978-1-60693-846-1.
8. Das, G. N. (1997). Readings from Thirukkural (https://books.google.com/books?id=pDZilIim
NRIC&pg=PA11). Abhinav Publications. pp. 11–12. ISBN 8-1701-7342-6.
9. Gandhi, Mohandas K. (2002). The Essential Gandhi: an anthology of his writings on his life,
work, and ideas. Random House Digital, Inc.
10. Kirkwood, W.G. (1989). "Truthfulness as a standard for speech in ancient India". Southern
Communication Journal. 54 (3): 213–234. doi:10.1080/10417948909372758 (https://doi.org/
10.1080%2F10417948909372758).
11. Kaneda, T. (2008). "Shanti, the peacefulness of mind". In Eppert, Claudia; Wang, Hongyu
(eds.). Cross-cultural Studies in Curriculum: Eastern thought, educational insights.
Routledge. pp. 171–192. ISBN 978-0-8058-5673-6.
12. Struckmeyer, F.R. (1971). "The 'Just War' and the Right of Self-defense". Ethics. 82 (1): 48–
55. doi:10.1086/291828 (https://doi.org/10.1086%2F291828). S2CID 144638778 (https://api.
semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144638778).
13. Balkaran, R.; Dorn, A.W. (2012). "Violence in the Vālmı̄ ki Rāmāyaṇa: Just War Criteria in an
Ancient Indian Epic" (https://web.archive.org/web/20190412060315/http://www.sareligionuof
t.ca/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/JAAR-Article-Violence-in-the-Valmiki-Ramayana-Just-War-
Criteria-in-an-Ancient-Indian-Epic-.pdf) (PDF). Journal of the American Academy of Religion.
80 (3): 659–690. doi:10.1093/jaarel/lfs036 (https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjaarel%2Flfs036).
Archived from the original (http://www.sareligionuoft.ca/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/JAAR-A
rticle-Violence-in-the-Valmiki-Ramayana-Just-War-Criteria-in-an-Ancient-Indian-Epic-.pdf)
(PDF) on 12 April 2019.
14. "Sanskrit Dictionary Reference" (https://web.archive.org/web/20090225155257/https://www.
sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/cgi-bin/monier/serveimg.pl?file=%2Fscans%2FMWScan%2FM
WScanjpg%2Fmw0125-ahalyA.jpg). www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de. Archived from the
original (https://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/cgi-bin/monier/serveimg.pl?file=/scans/M
WScan/MWScanjpg/mw0125-ahalyA.jpg) on 25 February 2009. Retrieved 29 December
2020.
15. Standing, E.M. (1924). "The Super-Vegetarians". New Blackfriars. 5 (50): 103–108.
doi:10.1111/j.1741-2005.1924.tb03567.x (https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1741-2005.1924.tb03
567.x).
16. Dasa, Shukavak N. "A Hindu Primer" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110408135457/http://w
ww.sanskrit.org/www/Hindu%20Primer/nonharming_ahimsa.html). Archived from the original
(http://www.sanskrit.org/www/Hindu%20Primer/nonharming_ahimsa.html) on 8 April 2011.
17. Hoiberg, Dale (2000). Students' Britannica India (https://books.google.com/books?id=ISFBJ
arYX7YC&q=Parshvanatha+four+vows&pg=PA158). Popular Prakashan. ISBN 978-0-
85229-760-5.
18. Izawa, A. (2008). "Empathy for Pain in Vedic Ritual". Journal of the International College for
Advanced Buddhist Studies (Kokusai Bukkyōgaku Daigakuin Daigaku). 12: 78–81.
19. Sethia 2004, p. 2.
20. Dundas 2002, pp. 176–177.
21. Winternitz 1993, pp. 408–409.
22. Walli, Koshelya (1974). The Conception Of Ahimsa In Indian Thought (https://archive.org/det
ails/in.ernet.dli.2015.546899/page/n1/mode/2up). Varanasi, India: Bharat Manisha. pp. 113–
145.
23. "Rigveda 10.22" (https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_१०.२२). "अस्मे ता त इन्द्र सन्तु
सत्याहिंसन्तीरुपस्पृशः । विद्याम यासां भुजो धेनूनां न वज्रिवः ॥१३॥"
Tähtinen 1964
For another occurrence of Ahimsa in Rigveda, see "Rigveda 5.64.3" (https://sa.wikisource.or
g/wiki/ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_५.६४). and "Rigveda 1.141.5" (https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_१.
१४१).
24. "Himsa na Kartavya: To do no harm" (https://web.archive.org/web/20131017133837/http://eb
ooks.gutenberg.us/himalayanacademy/sacredhinduliterature/lws/lws_ch-39.html).
Vishayasuchi -see the translation for Yajurveda 36.18 VE. Archived from the original (http://e
books.gutenberg.us/himalayanacademy/sacredhinduliterature/lws/lws_ch-39.html) on 17
October 2013.
For other occurrences of Ahimsa in Vedic literature, see Bloomfield, Maurice (1906). A Vedic
Concordance. Harvard Oriental Series. Vol. 10. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University
Press. p. 151 (https://archive.org/details/vedicconcordance00bloouoft/page/151/mode/1up?
view=theater).
25. Talageri 2000.
26. Talageri 2010.
27. Tähtinen 1964, p. 2.
28. Shatapatha Brahmana 2.3.4.30; 2.5.1.14; 6.3.1.26; 6.3.1.39.
29. Bodewitz, Henk M. (1999). Houben, Jan E. M.; Kooij, Karel Rijk van (eds.). Violence Denied:
violence, non-violence and the rationalization of violence in "South Asian" cultural history.
BRILL. p. 30. ISBN 978-90-04-11344-2.
30. Tähtinen 1964, pp. 2–3.
31. Bowker, John (10 April 1975). Problems of Suffering in Religions of the World. Cambridge
University Press. p. 233. ISBN 978-0-521-09903-5.
32. Tähtinen 1964, pp. 2–5.
33. English translation: Schmidt 1968, p. 631
34. Sridhar, M.K; Bilimoria, Puruṣottama (2007). Bilimoria, Purusottama; Prabhu, Joseph;
Sharma, Renuka M. (eds.). Indian Ethics: Classical traditions and contemporary challenges.
Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 315. ISBN 978-0-7546-3301-3.
35. Long, Jeffery D. (2009). Jainism: An Introduction (https://books.google.com/books?id=JmRl
AgAAQBAJ). I. B. Tauris. pp. 31–33. ISBN 978-1-84511-625-5.
36. Dundas 2002, pp. 22–24, 73–83.
37. Ravindra Kumar (2008), Non-violence and Its Philosophy, ISBN 978-81-7933-159-0, see
pages 11–14
38. Swami, P. (2000). Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Upaniṣads. Vol. 3 (S–Z). Sarup & Sons.
pp. 630–631.
Ballantyne, J.R.; Yogīndra, S. (1850). A Lecture on the Vedánta: Embracing the Text of the
Vedánta-sára. Presbyterian mission press.
39. "Mahabharata 13.117.37–38" (http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/mbs/mbs13117.htm).
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20131013100312/http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/mb
s/mbs13117.htm) from the original on 13 October 2013. Retrieved 7 August 2013.
40. Chapple, Christopher (1990). "Ecological Nonviolence and the Hindu Tradition". In Kool,
V.K. (ed.). Perspectives on Nonviolence. Recent Research in Psychology. New York:
Springer. pp. 168–177.
41. Satguru Sivaya Subramuniyaswami (January 2007). "Ahimsa: To Do No Harm". What is
Hinduism (https://www.hinduismtoday.com/magazine/january-february-march-2007/2007-01-
what-is-hinduism-6/). pp. 359–361.
42. Fischer, Louis (1954). Gandhi: His Life and Message to the World (https://archive.org/detail
s/gandhihislifemes00fisc). New York: Mentor. p. 17 (https://archive.org/details/gandhihislifem
es00fisc/page/17/mode/1up). ISBN 978-0-451-62014-9.
43. Klostermaier, Klaus K. (1996). "Himsa and Ahimsa Traditions in Hinduism". In Dyck, Harvey
Leonard; Brock, Peter (eds.). The Pacifist Impulse in Historical Perspective. University of
Toronto Press. pp. 230–234. ISBN 978-0-8020-0777-3.
44. Robinson, Paul F.; Robinson, Paul (2003). Just War in Comparative Perspective. Routledge.
pp. 114–125. ISBN 0-7546-3587-2.
45. Coates, B.E. (2008). "Modern India's Strategic Advantage to the United States: Her Twin
Strengths in Himsa and Ahimsa". Comparative Strategy. 27 (2): 133–147.
doi:10.1080/01495930801944669 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01495930801944669).
S2CID 153672869 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:153672869).
46. Subedi, S.P. (2003). "The Concept in Hinduism of 'Just War' ". Journal of Conflict and
Security Law. 8 (2): 339–361. doi:10.1093/jcsl/8.2.339 (https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjcsl%2F
8.2.339).
47. Tähtinen 1964, pp. 96, 98–101.
48. Mahabharata 12.15.55; Manu Smriti 8.349–350; Matsya Purana 226.116.
49. Tähtinen 1964, pp. 91–93.
50. Vasic, Nebojša (2011). "The Role of Teachers in Martial Arts; see page 48, 2nd column" (htt
ps://web.archive.org/web/20190412060316/http://www.sportspa.com.ba/images/dec2011/ful
l/rad8.pdf) (PDF). Sport SPA. 8 (2): 47–51. Archived from the original (http://www.sportspa.c
om.ba/images/dec2011/full/rad8.pdf) (PDF) on 12 April 2019.
51. Levine, Donald (2004). "Social Conflict, Aggression, and the Body in Euro-American and
Asian Social Thought" (https://web.archive.org/web/20060116174614/http://www.aiki-extensi
ons.org/pubs/conflict-body_text.pdf) (PDF). International Journal of Group Tensions. 24 (3):
205–217. Archived from the original (http://aiki-extensions.org/pubs/conflict-body_text.pdf)
(PDF) on 16 January 2006.
Ueshiba, Kisshōmaru (2004). The Art of Aikido: Principles and Essential Techniques.
Kodansha International. ISBN 4-7700-2945-4.
52. Tähtinen 1964, pp. 96, 98–99.
53. Chapple, Christopher Key (1993). Nonviolence to Animals, Earth, and Self in Asian
Traditions. State University of New York Press. pp. 16–17. ISBN 0-7914-1498-1.
54. Brown 1964.
55. Brown 1964, pp. 246–247.
56. Rosen, Steven (2004). Holy Cow: The Hare Krishna Contribution to Vegetarianism and
Animal Rights. Lantern Books. pp. 19–39. ISBN 1-59056-066-3.
57. Harris, Marvin (1990). "India's sacred cow". In Whitten, Phillip; Hunter, David E. (eds.).
Anthropology: contemporary perspectives (https://web.archive.org/web/20170329091317/htt
p://academic.regis.edu/rlumpp/PDF) (6th ed.). Addison-Wesley Longman. pp. 201–204.
ISBN 0-673-52074-9. Archived from the original (http://academic.regis.edu/rlumpp/PDF%20f
iles/RT%20201%20India%27s%20Sacred%20Cow.pdf) (PDF) on 29 March 2017.
58. Baudhayana Dharmasutra 2.4.7; 2.6.2; 2.11.15; 2.12.8; 3.1.13; 3.3.6; Apastamba
Dharmasutra 1.17.15; 1.17.19; 2.17.26–2.18.3; Vasistha Dharmasutra 14.12.
59. Krishna, Nanditha (2010), Sacred Animals of India (https://books.google.com/books?id=DF_
af8_547EC&pg=PT107), Penguin Books, pp. 15, 33, ISBN 978-81-8475-182-6
60. Manu Smriti 5.30, 5.32, 5.39 and 5.44; Mahabharata 3.199 (3.207), 3.199.5 (3.207.5),
3.199.19–29 (3.207.19), 3.199.23–24 (3.207.23–24), 13.116.15–18, 14.28; Ramayana 1-2-
8:19
61. Alsdorf pp. 592–593; Mahabharata 13.115.59–60, 13.116.15–18.
62. Kaviraj Kunja Lal Bhishagratna (1907). An English Translation of the Sushruta Samhita; see
Chapter starting on page 469; for discussion on meats and fishes, see page 480 and
onwards. Vol. I.2.
63. Sutrasthana 46.89; Sharirasthana 3.25.
64. Sutrasthana 27.87.
65. Mahabharata 3.199.11–12 (3.199 is 3.207 elsewhere); 13.115; 13.116.26; 13.148.17;
Bhagavata Purana (11.5.13–14), and the Chandogya Upanishad (8.15.1).
66. Alsdorf pp. 572–577 (for the Manusmṛti) and pp. 585–597 (for the Mahabharata); Tähtinen
1976, pp. 34–36
67. The Mahabharata and the Manusmṛti (5.27–55) contain lengthy discussions about the
legitimacy of ritual slaughter.
68. "Mahabharata 12.260—(12.260 is 12.268 according to another count)" (https://www.sacred-t
exts.com/hin/m12/m12b095.htm). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20070910073935/h
ttp://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m12/m12b095.htm) from the original on 10 September
2007.; 13.115–116; 14.28.
69. "Mahabharata 3.199 —(3.199 is 3.207 according to another count)" (https://www.sacred-text
s.com/hin/m03/m03207.htm). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20070929130620/http://
www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m03/m03207.htm) from the original on 29 September 2007.
70. Tähtinen 1964, pp. 39–43.
71. Alsdorf p. 589–590
72. Schmidt 1968, pp. 634–635, 640–643.
73. Schmidt 1968, pp. 637–639.
74. Manusmriti 10.63, 11.145
75. Preece, Rod (2005). Animals and Nature: Cultural Myths, Cultural Realities. University of
British Columbia Press. pp. 212–217. ISBN 978-0-7748-0725-8.
76. Horn, Gavin Van (2006). "Hindu Traditions and Nature: Survey Article". Worldviews: Global
Religions, Culture, and Ecology. 10 (1). Brill: 5–39. doi:10.1163/156853506776114474 (http
s://doi.org/10.1163%2F156853506776114474). JSTOR 43809321 (https://www.jstor.org/sta
ble/43809321).
77. Kamil Zvelebil (1973). The Smile of Murugan: On Tamil Literature of South India (https://boo
ks.google.com/books?id=degUAAAAIAAJ). BRILL Academic. pp. 156–157. ISBN 90-04-
03591-5.
78. Krishna, Nanditha (2017). Hinduism and Nature (https://books.google.com/books?id=gp1ID
wAAQBAJ&dq=ahimsa+and+Tirukkural&pg=PT131). New Delhi: Penguin Random House.
p. 264. ISBN 978-93-8732-654-5.
79. A.K. Ananthanathan (1994). "Theory and Functions of the State The Concept of aṟam
(virtue) in Tirukkural". East and West. 44 (2/4): 315–326. JSTOR 29757156 (https://www.jsto
r.org/stable/29757156).
80. Paul Robinson (2017). Just War in Comparative Perspective (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=I2lBDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT169). Taylor & Francis. pp. 169–170. ISBN 978-1-351-92452-
8.
81. Dinshah, Freya (2010). "American Vegan Society: 50 Years" (https://web.archive.org/web/20
110722213651/http://www.americanvegan.org/AV1001.pdf) (PDF). American Vegan. 2.
Vol. 10, no. 1 (Summer 2010). Vineland, NJ: American Vegan Society. p. 31. ISSN 1536-
3767 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1536-3767). Archived from the original (http://www.am
ericanvegan.org/AV1001.pdf) (PDF) on 22 July 2011. Retrieved 14 March 2018.
82. Stepaniak 2000, 6–7 (https://books.google.com/books?id=6Ia5eZIlgLUC&pg=PA6); Preece
2008, 323 (https://books.google.com/books?id=uMnubkF5HjAC&pg=PA323).
83. "History" (https://web.archive.org/web/20140827105211/http://www.americanvegan.org/histo
ry.htm). American Vegan Society. Archived from the original (http://www.americanvegan.org/
history.htm) on 27 August 2014. Retrieved 14 March 2018.
84. Pyarelal (1965). Mahatma Gandhi-the Early Phase (https://books.google.com/books?id=8P0
KAQAAIAAJ). Navajivan Publishing House.
85. Walters, Kerry S.; Portmess, Lisa, eds. (2001). Religious Vegetarianism. Albany. pp. 50–52.
86. Tähtinen 1964, pp. 116–124.
 87. Walli, pp. XXII–XLVII; Borman, William (1986). Gandhi and Nonviolence. Albany. pp. 11–12.
88. Jackson (2008), Religion East & West, pp. 39–54
89. Tähtinen 1964, pp. 115–116.
90. "BBC - Ethics - War: Non-violence" (https://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/war/against/nonviolence.s
html#:~:text=Gandhi%20took%20the%20religious%20principle,discrimination%20and%20u
ntouchability%20as%20well.). www.bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 18 July 2024.
91. Gandhi, Mohandas K. (1966). Prabhu, R.K.; Rao, U.R. (eds.). The Mind of Mahatma Gandhi
(http://gandhiashramsevagram.org/pdf-books/mind-of-mahatma-gandhi.pdf) (PDF).
Encyclopedia of Gandhi's Thoughts. pp. 120–121. Archived (https://ghostarchive.org/archiv
e/20221009/http://gandhiashramsevagram.org/pdf-books/mind-of-mahatma-gandhi.pdf)
(PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.
92. Gandhi, Mohandas K. (1962). All Religions are True. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. p. 128.
Banshlal Ramnauth, Dev (1989). Mahatma Gandhi: Insight and Impact. Indira Gandhi
Centre for Indian Culture & Mahatma Gandhi Institute. p. 48.

93. Schweitzer, Albert (1956). Indian Thought and its Development (https://archive.org/stream/in
dianthoughtsan027860mbp#page/n95/mode/2up). London: The Beacon Press. pp. 82–83.
94. Sanskrit Original with Translation 1: The Yoga Philosophy, with Bhojaraja commentary (http
s://archive.org/stream/yogaphilosophyb00tatygoog#page/n6/mode/2up). Translated by
Tatya, Tookaram. Bombay: The Theosophical Society's Publications. 1885.
Translation 2: The Yoga-darsana: The sutras of Patanjali with the Bhasya of Vyasa,
with notes (https://archive.org/stream/yogadaranasutra00patagoog#page/n4/mode/2up).
Translated by Jhâ, Gangânâtha. Bombay Theosophical Publication Fund. 1907.
Translation 3: The Yogasutras of Patanjali (https://archive.org/stream/yogasutrasofpata
00pata#page/n5/mode/2up). Translated by Johnston, Charles. New York. 1912.
95. Lochtefeld, James G. (2002). "Yama (2)". The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism. Vol. 2
(N–Z). Rosen Publishing Group. p. 777. ISBN 978-0-8239-3179-8.
96. Bryant, Edwin F. (2009). The Yoga sūtras of Patañjali: a new edition, translation and
commentary with insights from the traditional commentators. New York: North Point Press.
pp. 243–248. ISBN 978-0-86547-736-0.
97. Sanskrit: [अथ यम-नियमाः अहिंसा सत्यमस्तेयं बरह्मछर्यं कष्हमा धॄतिः ] Error: {{Lang}}: invalid parameter:
|3= (help)
English Translation: "1. On Âsanas" (http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/hyp/hyp03.htm).
Hatha Yoga Pradipika. Translated by Sinh, Pancham. 1914. 1.1.17. Archived (https://web.ar
chive.org/web/20100405092859/http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/hyp/hyp03.htm) from the
original on 5 April 2010.
98. Laidlaw 1995, pp. 154–160; Jindal 1988, pp. 74–90; Tähtinen 1976.
99. Jain 2012, p. 34-36.
100. Jain 2012, p. 33.
101. Dundas 2002, pp. 158–159, 189–192; Laidlaw 1995, pp. 173–175, 179.
102. Religious Vegetarianism, ed. Kerry S. Walters and Lisa Portmess, Albany 2001, p. 43–46
(translation of the First Great Vow).
103. slashes are used here to present alternative denotations
104. Dundas 2002, p. 160; Wiley 2006, p. 438; Laidlaw 1995, pp. 153–154.
105. Laidlaw 1995, pp. 26–30, 191–195.
106. Dundas 2002, p. 24 suggests the 5th century; the traditional dating of Mahavira's death is
527 BCE.
107. Goyal, S.R. (1987). A History of Indian Buddhism. Meerut. pp. 83–85.
108. Dundas 2002, pp. 19, 30; Tähtinen 1964, p. 132.
109. Dundas 2002, p. 30 suggests the 8th or 7th century; the traditional chronology places him in
the late 9th or early 8th century.
110. Acaranga Sutra 2.15.
111. Sthananga Sutra 266; Tähtinen 1976, p. 132; Goyal p. 83–84, 103.
112. Dundas 2002, pp. 160, 234, 241; Wiley 2006, p. 448; Tähtinen 1976, pp. 8–9.
113. Granoff, Phyllis (1992). "The Violence of Non-Violence: A Study of Some Jain Responses to
Non-Jain Religious Practices". Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies.
15: 1–43.
114. Laidlaw 1995, p. 169.
115. Laidlaw 1995, pp. 166–167; Tähtinen 1976, p. 37.
116. Lodha, R.M. (1990). "Conservation of Vegetation and Jain Philosophy". Medieval Jainism:
Culture and Environment. New Delhi. pp. 137–141.
117. Tähtinen 1964, p. 105.
118. Jindal 1988, p. 89; Laidlaw 1995, pp. 54, 154–155, 180.
119. Laidlaw 1995, pp. 166–167.
120. Padmannabh Jaini (2004). Tara Sethia (ed.). Ahimsā, Anekānta, and Jaininsm (https://book
s.google.com/books?id=QYdlKv8wBiYC). Motilal Banarsidass Publ. pp. 51–53. ISBN 978-
81-208-2036-4.
121. Laidlaw 1995, p. 180.
122. Dundas 2002, pp. 161–162.
123. Laidlaw 1995, p. 155.
124. Dundas 2002, pp. 162–163.
125. Padmannabh Jaini (2004). Tara Sethia (ed.). Ahimsā, Anekānta, and Jaininsm (https://book
s.google.com/books?id=QYdlKv8wBiYC). Motilal Banarsidass Publ. pp. 52–54. ISBN 978-
81-208-2036-4.
126. Pandey, Janardan (1998). Gandhi and 21st Century (https://books.google.com/books?id=lm
JnWrjnfjMC&pg=PA50). Concept Publishing Company. p. 50. ISBN 978-81-7022-672-7.
127. Paul Williams (2005). Buddhism: Critical Concepts in Religious Studies (https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=pgrZnmKUKtgC). Routledge. p. 398. ISBN 978-0-415-33226-2. Archived (h
ttps://web.archive.org/web/20230111060834/https://books.google.com/books?id=pgrZnmKU
KtgC) from the original on 11 January 2023. Retrieved 29 October 2016.
128. Bodhi Bhikkhu (1997). Great Disciples of the Buddha: Their Lives, Their Works, Their
Legacy (https://books.google.com/books?id=teUGAAAAYAAJ). Wisdom Publications.
pp. 387 with footnote 12. ISBN 978-0-86171-128-4.;
Sarao, p. 49
Goyal p. 143
129. Tähtinen 1976, p. 37; Lamotte 1988, pp. 54–55.
130. McFarlane 2001, p. 187.
131. McFarlane 2001, pp. 187–191.
132. Martine Batchelor (2014). The Spirit of the Buddha (https://books.google.com/books?id=fL3
mykqlOJcC&pg=PT59). Yale University Press. p. 59. ISBN 978-0-300-17500-4. Archived (htt
ps://web.archive.org/web/20230111055838/https://books.google.com/books?id=fL3mykqlOJ
cC&pg=PT59) from the original on 11 January 2023. Retrieved 29 October 2016.
133. McFarlane 2001, p. 192.
134. Sarao p. 53; Tähtinen 1976, pp. 95, 102
135. Tähtinen 1976, pp. 95, 102–103.
136. Raaflaub, Kurt A. (18 December 2006). War and Peace in the Ancient World (https://books.g
oogle.com/books?id=FMxgef2VJEwC&pg=PA61). Wiley. p. 61. ISBN 978-1-4051-4525-1.
137. Bartholomeusz 2005, p. 52.
138. Bartholomeusz 2005, p. 111.
139. Bartholomeusz 2005, p. 41.
140. Bartholomeusz 2005, p. 50.
141. McFarlane 2001, pp. 195–196.
142. Bartholomeusz 2005, p. 40.
143. Bartholomeusz 2005, pp. 125–126. Full texts of the sutta: "Yodhajiva Sutta: To Yodhajiva
(The Warrior)" (http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn42/sn42.003.than.html).
Translated by Thanissaro Bhikkhu. 1998. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/200906091
10531/http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn42/sn42.003.than.html) from the original
on 9 June 2009..
144. Johansson, Rune E.A. (1979). The Dynamic Psychology of Early Buddhism. Curzon Press.
p. 33.
145. Bartholomeusz 2005, pp. 40–53. Some examples are the Cakkavati Sihanada Sutta, the
Kosala Samyutta, the Ratthapala Sutta, and the Sinha Sutta. See also page 125. See also
Trevor Ling, Buddhism, Imperialism, and War. George Allen & Unwin Ltd, 1979, pages 136–
137.
146. The Connected Discourses of the Buddha: A New Translation of the Samyutta Nikaya (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=HJCvh8aWI_wC). Translated by Bhikkhu Bodhi. Boston:
Wisdom Publications. 2000. p. 177. ISBN 0-86171-331-1.
147. Bartholomeusz 2005, pp. 49, 52–53.
148. Hammalawa Saddhatissa (1997). Buddhist Ethics. Wisdom Publications. pp. 60, 159., see
also Bartholomeusz 2005, p. 121.
149. Bartholomeusz 2005, p. 121.
150. Bartholomeusz 2005, pp. 44, 121–122, 124.
151. "The Buddha and His Dhamma" (https://web.archive.org/web/20200222081349/http://www.c
olumbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00ambedkar/ambedkar_buddha/04_02.html#03_02).
Archived from the original (http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00ambedkar/ambed
kar_buddha/04_02.html#03_02) on 22 February 2020. Retrieved 15 June 2011.
152. Fitzgerald 2004, p. 120.
153. Simoons, Frederick J. (1994). Eat Not This Flesh: Food Avoidances from Prehistory to the
Present (https://books.google.com/books?id=JwGZTQunH00C&pg=PA108) (2nd ed.).
Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. p. 108. ISBN 978-0-299-14254-4. Archived (https://
web.archive.org/web/20170214171640/https://books.google.com/books?id=JwGZTQunH00
C&pg=PA108) from the original on 14 February 2017. Retrieved 13 February 2016..
154. "Conf10-ClarenceSmith" (https://www.lse.ac.uk/Economic-History/Assets/Documents/Resea
rch/GEHN/GEHNConferences/conf10/Conf10-ClarenceSmith.pdf) (PDF). www.lse.ac.uk/.
155. "卷糺 佛教的慈悲觀" (http://www.bya.org.hk/life/hokfu/new_page_3.htm#34). Archived (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20090908061659/http://www.bya.org.hk/life/hokfu/new_page_3.htm
#34) from the original on 8 September 2009. Retrieved 15 June 2011.

"試探《護生畫集》的護生觀 高明芳" (https://www.drnh.gov.tw/var/file/3/1003/img/10/879650

656.pdf) (PDF). Archived (https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.drnh.gov.t
w/var/file/3/1003/img/10/879650656.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.

156. "「護生」精神的實踐舉隅]" (http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-AN/an2414.htm). Archived

(https://web.archive.org/web/20110628222345/http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-AN/an2
414.htm) from the original on 28 June 2011. Retrieved 15 June 2011.
157. "答妙贞十问" (http://www.cclw.net/gospel/asking/dmz10w/htm/02.htm). Archived (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20081203141238/http://cclw.net/gospel/asking/dmz10w/htm/02.htm) from
the original on 3 December 2008. Retrieved 15 June 2011.
158. "第一二八期 佛法自由談" (http://www.bya.org.hk/life/Q&A_2006/Q&A_bya/128_Q.htm).
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20210225211331/http://www.bya.org.hk/life/Q%26A_
2006/Q%26A_bya/128_Q.htm) from the original on 25 February 2021. Retrieved 15 June
2011.
159. "虛雲和尚法彙—書問" (http://www.bfnn.org/book/books2/1187.htm). Archived (https://web.ar
chive.org/web/20110724031215/http://www.bfnn.org/book/books2/1187.htm) from the
original on 24 July 2011. Retrieved 15 June 2011.
160. "道安長老年譜" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110727180504/http://www.plela.org/Cmapwo
rk/link/crona1.htm). Archived from the original (http://www.plela.org/Cmapwork/link/crona1.ht
m) on 27 July 2011. Retrieved 15 June 2011.
161. "明溪县"禁屠日"习俗的由来" (http://www.mxzxw.cn/zwhgz/wszl_16_23.htm).
162. "建构的节日：政策过程视角下的唐玄宗诞节" (https://www.chinesefolklore.org.cn/web/index.
php?Page=2&NewsID=3016). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20110707050614/htt
p://www.chinesefolklore.org.cn/web/index.php?Page=2&NewsID=3016) from the original on
7 July 2011. Retrieved 15 June 2011.

Sources
Bartholomeusz, Tessa J. (26 July 2005). In Defense of Dharma: Just-War Ideology in
Buddhist Sri Lanka (https://books.google.com/books?id=ZdKPAgAAQBAJ). Routledge.
ISBN 978-1-135-78857-5.
Brown, W. Norman (February 1964). "The sanctity of the cow in Hinduism" (http://www.epw.i
n/system/files/pdf/1964_16/5-6-7/the_sanctity_of_the_cow_in_hinduism.pdf) (PDF). The
Economic Weekly: 245–255. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20200930225053/http
s://www.epw.in/system/files/pdf/1964_16/5-6-7/the_sanctity_of_the_cow_in_hinduism.pdf)
(PDF) from the original on 30 September 2020.
Dundas, Paul (2002) [1992]. The Jains (https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBA
J) (Second ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-26605-5.
Fitzgerald, James L., ed. (2004). The Mahabharata (https://books.google.com/books?id=p9
SzCuLIlQ0C). Vol. 7. The University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-25250-7.
Jindal, K. B. (1988). An Epitome of Jainism. South Asia Books. ISBN 81-215-0058-3.
Laidlaw, James (1995). Riches and Renunciation: Religion, economy, and society among
the Jains. Oxford University Press, USA. ISBN 0-19-828031-9.
Lamotte, Etienne (1988). History of Indian Buddhism from the Origins to the Śaka Era.
Peeters. ISBN 90-6831-100-X.
McFarlane, Stewart (2001). Peter Harvey (ed.). Buddhism (https://books.google.com/books?
id=oZCvAwAAQBAJ). Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4411-4726-4.
"Mahatma Gandhi" (https://southasia.ucla.edu/history-politics/gandhi/). Manas: History and
Politics.
O'Sullivan, Trish (2014). "Ahimsa". In Leeming, David A. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Psychology
and Religion (2nd ed.). Boston: Springer. pp. 31–32. doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-6086-2_16 (htt
ps://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4614-6086-2_16). ISBN 978-1-4614-6087-9.
S2CID 242659739 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:242659739).
Sarao, Karam Tej S. (1989). The Origin and Nature of Ancient Indian Buddhism. New Delhi:
Eastern Book Linkers.
 Schmidt, Hanns Peter (1968). "The Origin of Ahimsa". Mélanges d'Indianisme à la mémoire
de Louis Renou. Paris: Boccard.
Sethia, Tara (2004). Ahiṃsā, Anekānta and Jainism (https://books.google.com/books?id=Q
YdlKv8wBiYC). Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-2036-4.
Tähtinen, Unto (1964). Non-violence as an ethical principle: with particular reference to the
views of Mahatma Gandhi. Turku: Turun Yliopisto. OCLC 4288274 (https://search.worldcat.o
rg/oclc/4288274).
Tähtinen, Unto (1976). Ahiṃsā: non-violence in Indian tradition. London: Rider. ISBN 0-09-
123340-2.
Talageri, Shrikant (2000). The Rigveda: A Historical Analysis. India: AdityaPrakashan.
ISBN 81-7742-010-0.
Talageri (2010). Rigveda and the Avesta: The Final Evidence. India.
Wiley, Kristi L. (2006). "Ahimsa and Compassion in Jainism". In Peter Flügel (ed.). Studies
in Jaina History and Culture. London.
Winternitz, Moriz (1993). History of Indian Literature: Buddhist & Jain Literature (https://book
s.google.com/books?id=Lgz1eMhu0JsC). Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-0265-0.
Attribution:

This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain: Jain, Vijay K.
(2012). Acharya Amritchandra's Purushartha Siddhyupaya: Realization of the Pure Self,
With Hindi and English Translation (https://books.google.com/books?id=4iyUu4Fc2-YC).
Vikalp Printers. ISBN 978-81-903639-4-5. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/202302160
95825/https://books.google.com/books?id=4iyUu4Fc2-YC) from the original on 16 February
2023. Retrieved 28 June 2016.

External links
"Sanskrit: Ahimsa quotations from Puranic scripture" (https://web.archive.org/web/20070225
222717/http://vedabase.net/a/ahimsa). vedabase.net. 25 February 2007. Archived from the
original (http://vedabase.net/a/ahimsa) on 25 February 2007. Retrieved 25 August 2019.
"AHIMSA Center" (https://web.archive.org/web/20151224052843/http://www.cpp.edu/~ahim
sacenter/ahimsa_programs.shtml). Cal Poly Pomona. Archived from the original (http://www.
cpp.edu/~ahimsacenter/ahimsa_programs.shtml) on 24 December 2015. Retrieved
23 December 2015. Series of Lectures on Ahimsa

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ahimsa&oldid=1260048221"