The Supercooling of Water

Abstract
It is shown that suspension of drops at the interface of two insoluble liquids represents a
satisfactory method of studying the supercooling of water. The temperatures of
supercooling thus found depend on the volume of the sample and the rate of cooling. The
inter-relation between temperature, volume and time is derived theoretically from simple
probability considerations and is shown to be consistent with experiment.

1 Introduction
Domestic water supplies are one of the fundamental requirements for human life. Without
water, life cannot be sustained beyond a few days and the lack of access to adequate water
supplies leads to the spread of disease. Children bear the greatest health burden associated
with poor water and sanitation. Diarrhoeal diseases attributed to poor water supply,
sanitation and hygiene account for 1.73 million deaths each year and contribute over 54
million Disability Adjusted Life Years, a total equivalent to 3.7% of the global burden of
disease (WHO, 2002). This places diarrhoeal disease due to unsafe water, sanitation and
hygiene as the 6th highest burden of disease on a global scale, a health burden that is
largely preventable (WHO, 2002). Other diseases are related to poor water, sanitation and
hygiene such as trachoma, schistosomiasis, ascariasis, trichuriasis, hookworm disease,
malaria and Japanese encephalitis and contribute to an additional burden of disease.

As of 2000 it was estimated that one-sixth of humanity (1.1 billion people) lacked access
to any form of improved water supply within 1 kilometre of their home (WHO and
UNICEF, 2000). Lack of access to safe and adequate water supplies contributes to
ongoing poverty both through the economic costs of poor health and in the high
proportion of household expenditure on water supplies in many poor communities,
arising from the need to purchase water and/or time and energy expended in collection.
Access to water services forms a key component in the UNDP Human Poverty Index for
developing countries (UNDP, 1999).

The importance of adequate water quantity for human health has been recognised for
many years and there has been an extensive debate about the relative importance of water
quantity, water quality, sanitation and hygiene in protecting and improving health
(Cairncross, 1990; Esrey et al., 1985; Esrey et al., 1991). Despite this debate, international
guidelines or norms for minimum water quantities that domestic water supplies should
provide remain largely lacking. For instance, whilst the Millennium Declaration Goals
include a target to 'halve the proportion of people who are unable to reach or to afford
safe drinking water by 2015' (UN, 2000) it does not specify in what quantity such water
should be supplied. The WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme, which produces
the Global Assessment of Water Supply and Sanitation data, describe reasonable access
as being 'the availability of at least 20 litres per person per day from a source within one
kilometre of the users dwelling' (WHO and UNICEF, 2000). However, it should be noted
that this definition relates to primarily to access and should not necessarily be taken as
evidence that 20 litres per capita per day is a recommended quantity of water for domestic
use.

Norms for quantities of water to be supplied have been proposed for certain specific
conditions. For instance the SPHERE project sets out 15 litres of water used per capita
per day as being a key indicator in meeting minimum standards for disaster relief
(SPHERE, 1998). In their guidance manual prepared for the Department for International
Development (UK), WELL (1998) suggested that a minimum criterion for water supply
should be 20 litres per capita per day, whilst noting the importance of reducing distance
and encouraging household connection. A similar figure has been suggested by other
researchers (Carter et al., 1997). Gleick (1996) suggested that the international
community adopt a figure of 50 litres per capita per day as a basic water requirement for
domestic water supply.

Many uses of water occur largely at the household (for instance drinking, eating and hand
washing); others may occur away from the home (laundry and in some cases bathing).
This therefore needs to be borne in mind when ensuring that adequate quantities of
domestic supply are available for these purposes and in interpreting and applying
minimum values.

Despite common claims of WHO standards relating to water quantity, WHO has not
previously published specific guidance on the quantities of water as targets for the health
protection and promotion. This is in contrast to the concerted effort made, for example,
in relation to establishing international standards and later guidelines for drinking-water
quality (WHO, 1985; 1993), wastewater use (Mara and Cairncross, 1989) and
recreational water quality(WHO, in finalisation).

It is important to distinguish quantities of water required for domestic purposes (which

primarily influence health and productivity), and quantities of water required for other
purposes (such as agriculture, industry, commerce, transport, energy and recreation).
Overall, the requirements for domestic supply typically constitute a very minor
component of total water withdrawals (Gleick, 1993; 1996).

The purpose of this paper is to review the evidence of the relationships between water
quantity, access and health and to provide a basis for the establishment of minimum
quantity and/or access targets for domestic water supplies. It does not address the
requirement of waters for specific groups (e.g. athletes), specific settings (e.g. hydration
needs during air travel or particular occupational settings) or health impacts related to
hydration derived from alcohol consumption.

The paper draws on an extensive literature review based primarily on the published
literature, but in some cases also drawing on ‘grey’ literature where the data was believed
to be of good quality and where this provided clearer information. Key word searches in
Cambridge Scientific Abstracts (including Aqualine, Water Resource Abstracts and
Bacteriology Abstracts) and Medline were employed. In addition, a review was
undertaken of available materials (papers, books, theses, conference proceedings) at
WEDC and WHO resource centres. A representative literature was captured through this
process, although as noted within the text in some areas available literature and evidence
is sparse.
 2 Defining domestic water supply
In its Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality, WHO defines domestic water as being
'water used for all usual domestic purposes including consumption, bathing and food
preparation' (WHO, 1993; 2002). This implies that the requirements with regard to the
adequacy of water apply across all these uses and not solely in relation to consumption
of water. The Guidelines exclude some specific uses (for instance dialysis and contact
lens cleaning) and elevated requirements for some particularly sensitive sub-populations
(for instance the severely immuno-compromised). Although this broad definition
provides an overall framework for domestic water usage in the context of quality
requirements, it is less useful when considering quantities required for domestic supply.

Sub-dividing uses of domestic water is useful in understanding minimum quantities of

domestic water required and to inform management options. In the 'Drawers of Water'
study on water use patterns in East Africa, White et al. (1972) suggested that three types
of use could be defined in relation to normal domestic supply:

• Consumption (drinking and cooking)

• Hygiene (including basic needs for personal and domestic cleanliness) • Amenity use
(for instance car washing, lawn watering).

In updating the Drawers of Water study, Thompson et al. (2001) suggest a fourth category
can be included of 'productive use' which was of particular relevance to poor households
in developing countries. Productive use of water includes uses such as brewing, animal
watering, construction and small-scale horticulture.

The first two categories identified by White et al. (1972): ‘consumption’ and ‘hygiene’,
have direct consequences for health both in relation to physiological needs and in the
control of diverse infectious and non-infectious water-related disease. The third
category: ‘amenity’ may not directly affect health in many circumstances. Productive
water may be critical among the urban poor in sustaining livelihoods and avoiding
poverty and therefore has considerable indirect influence on human health (Fass, 1993;
Thompson et al., 2001).

The different primary uses of water are discussed in the following sections and the
quantity requirement of each and its implication for health are reviewed.
3 Consumption
Water is a basic nutrient of the human body and is critical to human life. It supports the
digestion of food, adsorption, transportation and use of nutrients and the elimination of
toxins and wastes from the body (Kleiner, 1999). Water is also essential for the preparation
of foodstuffs and requirements for food preparation are included in the discussion of
consumption requirements.

3.1 Basic hydration requirements

The human body requires a minimum intake of water in order to be able to sustain life
before mild and then severe dehydration occurs. Adverse health effects have been noted
from both mild and severe dehydration and the latter can be fatal.
The US National Institutes of Health (2002) provide a definition of mild dehydration as
being a loss of 3-5% of body weight, moderate dehydration as being 6-10% loss of body
weight and severe dehydration (classed as a medical emergency) 9-15% loss of body
weight. In a recent review Kleiner (1999) defined mild dehydration as being the equivalent
of 1-2% loss of body weight through fluid losses and over 2% loss as severe dehydration,
whilst noting that there is no universally applied index of hydration status. Mild
dehydration can be reversed by increased fluid intake and this may be enhanced through
the use of salt replacement solutions. Severe dehydration will require rehydration strategies
involving more than simple fluid replacement, and often food or other osmolar intake is
needed; the process may take up to 24 hours (Kleiner, 1999).
Dehydration may be a short-term effect, for instance resulting from loss of body fluids in
severe diarrhoea, which can be fatal. Short-term dehydration may also result from excess
alcohol intake or increased water loss due to increased temperature and altitude or
decreased relative humidity combined with inadequate fluid replacement. Dehydration may
also be long-term (often mild) which may result in adverse health effects (Chan et al.,
2002; Kleiner,
3
1999). Long-term dehydration may result from inadequate fluid replacement, often as a
consequence of depressed thirst mechanisms and perceptions of poor beverage taste.
Mild dehydration has been associated with a number of adverse health effects, including
increased risks in susceptible groups to urinary stone formation, increased risks of urinary
tract cancer and poor oral health. Urinary stone formation is significantly increased when
the urine volume excreted is below 1 litre per day; urinary volumes exceeding 2 to 2.5
litres per day can prevent recurrence of stones in previously affected patients (Kleiner,
1999). White et al (1972) suggest that in order to reduce the risk of kidney stones, a
minimum of 1.5 litres should be passed as urine each day.
A recent study in the Adventist community in California noted a strong negative
association with intake of water and the risk of fatal coronary heart disease for both men
and women (Chan et al., 2002). Relative risks for men reduced to 0.46 for high volume
water intake (5 or more glasses) and 0.54 for women who had medium intake (3-4 glasses)
compared to low water intake (2 or less glasses). If it is assumed that each glass contained
0.25 litres (a reasonable estimate of size of glass) an estimate of a minimum of 1.25 litres
per capita per day for men and 0.75 litres per capita per day for women is required to
reduce risks of fatal coronary heart disease. Taking an average of these figures provides 1.0
litre per capita per day for a population-based estimate of the volume of water that reduces
the risk of fatal coronary disease. Some studies have also indicated decreased risks of
colonic and breast cancer with increasing fluid intake (Kleiner, 1999).
Kleiner (1999) notes that in general there is less available information regarding adverse
effects on cognitive performance by dehydration, but highlights three studies suggesting
that this would occur. A further review of literature indicated limited available studies in
this area and somewhat contradictory evidence. In a study using volunteers, Neave et al.,
(2001) found no significant main effects of hydration status on cognitive performance,
whilst noting greater mood alertness after successive drinks. By contrast, Rogers et al.
(2001) suggested that there was an immediate (although not sustained) improvement in
cognitive performance on ingestion of water. This suggests that this area requires further
investigation.
It is pertinent to note that the majority of health effects derived from dehydration are
derived primarily from developed countries and there is very little available data from
developing countries. However, although these impacts may represent an overall lower
proportion of the burden is disease in developing countries, the effects from dehydration
would not be expected to be different in developing counties.
3.2 Published Reference Values
In their review, White et al. (1972) suggested that 2.6 litres of water per day is lost through
respiratory loss, insensible perspiration, urination and defecation. In addition, a significant
quantity of water is lost through sensible perspiration if hard work is performed. These
figures led them to suggest that a daily minimum of water required in tropical climates
would be around 3 litres per person, although the volume of water loss suggests that this
should be at the upper end of this scale. They note, however, that under extreme conditions
of hard work at high temperatures in the sun this figure could rise to as much as 25 litres
per day. However, they also point out that the proportion of the fluid intake achieved via
food would be expected to vary significantly and could provide 100% of the fluid
requirement in some rare cases, notably pastoralists where milk was the primary food.
4
Kleiner (1999) suggests that, based on US National Research Council guidelines in relation
to hydration needs resulting from average energy expenditure and environmental exposure
in the USA, the average male should consume a minimum 2.9 litres per day and the
average female 2.2 litres. Approximately one-third of this fluid was considered likely to be
derived from food.
In the WHO Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality, Guideline Values for chemical
contaminants are based on the assumption of a 60 kg adult consuming 2 litres per day from
drinking water, which would be equivalent to 3 litres per capita per day including food
consumption (if the ratio cited by Kleiner were applied). Where specific guidance is
needed for vulnerable populations, a figure of 1 litre per day for a 10kg child or 0.75 litre
per day for a 5kg child are used (WHO, 1993; p31). The WHO-UNEP-ILO International
Programme on Chemical Safety use reference values for volume of fluid intake in deriving
its guidance, using reference body weights of 70kg for adult males, 58kg for adult females
and an average of 64kg. The reference fluid intake values for these different reference body
weights under different climatic and activity conditions are shown in table 1 below.

METHODS FOR DETERMINATION OF

INORGANIC SUBSTANCES
dissolved and the total concentrations of the constituent.
Total recoverable.-Pertains to the consti- tuents in solution after a representative water-
suspended sediment sample is digested (usually by using a dilute acid solution). Complete
dis- solution of all particulate matter is often not achieved by the digestion treatment, and
thus the determination may represent less than the "total" amount (that is, less than 95
percent) of the constituent in the dissolved and sus- pended phases of the sample. To
achieve com- parability of analytical data, equivalent digestion procedures would be
required of all laboratories performing such analyses, because different digestion
procedures are likely to pro- doce different analytical results.
Total.-Pertains to the constituents in a repre- sentative water-suspended sediment sample,
regardless of the constituent's physical or chem- ical form. This term is used only when the
ana- lytical procedure assures measurement of at least 95 percent of the constituent in both
the dissolved and the suspended phases of the sam- ple. A knowledge of the expected form
of the constituent in the sample, as well as of the ana- lytical methodology used, is required
to judge when the results should be reported as "total." (Note that the word "total" indicates
both that the sample consists of a water-suspended sedi ment mixture and that the
analytical method determines all of the constituent in the sample). Recoverable from
bottom material.-Pertains to the constituents in solution after a represent- ative sample of
bottom material is digested (usually using an acid or mixture of acids). Com- plete
dissolution of all bottom material is often not achieved by the digestion treatment, and thus
the determination may represent less than the total amount (that is,
less than 95 percent) of the constituent in the sample. To achieve comparability of
analytical data, equivalent digestion procedures would be required of all laboratories
performing such analyses, because different digestion procedures are likely to pro- duce
different analytical results.
Total in bottom material.-Pertains to the con- stituents in a representative sample of bottom
material. This term is used only when the ana- lytical procedure assures measurement of at
5
A knowledge of the expected form of the con- stituents in the sample, as well as of the ana-
lytical methodology used, is required to judge when the results should be reported as "total
in bottom material."
A description of an analytical method must compare the result obtained by the method with
the value that is sought, which is usually the true concentration of the chemical substance
in the sample. Definitions of terms that are used for this purpose are given below.
Accuracy.-A measure of the degree of confor- mity of the values generated by a specific
method or procedure with the true value. The concept of accuracy includes both bias
(syste- matic error) and precision (random error). Bias.-A persistent positive or negative
devia- tion of the values generated by a specific method or procedure from the true value,
ex- pressed as the difference between the true value and the mean value obtained by
repetitive testing of the homogeneous sample. Limit of detection.-The minimum concentra-
tion of a substance that can be identified, meas- ured, reported with 99-percent confidence
that the analyte concentration is greater than zero, and determined from analysis of a
sample in a given matrix containing analyte. Precision. The degree of agreement of re-
peated measurements by a specific method or procedure, expressed in terms of dispersion
of the values generated about the mean value ob- tained by repetitive testing of a
homogeneous sample.
Significant figures
The significant figures used by the U.S. Geological Survey in reporting the results of
analysis in milligrams or micrograms per liter represent a compromise between the desire
to achieve both precision of measurement and a degree of uniformity in tabulations of
analytical data. A common method used to express the precision of a determination is to
include all digits known with certainty and the first (and only the first) doubtful digit. This
method has one obvious disadvantage: published data so reported may not be interpreted to
mean the
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Concentrations in Relation to Drinking-Water Quality
Criteria
The concentrations at which the seven herbicides were detected in ground water from 1993 to
1995 during the NAWQA study are shown in Fig. 1 For each herbicide, these results are
presented for four sampling components; shallow ground water sampled in agricultural areas
(agricultural LUSs), urban areas (urban LUSs), and areas of mixed land use (SUSs sampling
shallow ground water), and deeper ground water sampled in areas of mixed land use (deeper
SUSs). An SUS was considered to have sampled shallow ground water “if the wells sampled
showed evidence of being influenced by recent recharge and were of generally comparable
depth to LUS wells in the same area” (Gilliom et al., 1998, p. 8).

Concentrations of herbicides measured in ground water at individual sites during the

NAWQA investigation, in relation to drinking-water quality criteria (USEPA, 2000).
Lifetime health advisory level (HAL) shown for herbicides for which no maximum
contaminant level (MCL) has been established. (Neither criterion has yet been established for
acetochlor.) Overall percentage of sites with no detections given above the not
detected symbols for each herbicide. Number of sites sampled for each study component
given in Fig. 2 LUSs, land-use studies; SUSs, subunit surveys.

Consistent with observations reported by previous large-scale studies of pesticide

concentrations in ground water (Barbash, 1995), 98% of the detections of the seven
herbicides were at concentrations <1 μg L−1 Consequently, water-quality criteria for the
protection of drinking water (USEPA, 2000) were rarely exceeded (Fig. 1). Among the seven
herbicides, exceedances of maximum contaminant levels (MCLs) or lifetime health advisory
levels (HALs) during the NAWQA study occurred at two of the 2227 sites of interest, and
only for atrazine. Both sites were shallow (LUS) wells; one was located in an agricultural
area and the other was used for drinking water in an urban area. However, simple
assessments of risk based solely on comparisons of contaminant concentrations with
drinking-water quality criteria should be viewed with caution because, for a variety of
reasons described elsewhere (e.g., Kolpin et al., 1998a; Barbash et al., 1999; Gilliom et al.,
1999), use of these criteria may underestimate the health risks to humans or aquatic
organisms.

Frequencies of Detection
Of the seven herbicides of interest, all but acetochlor were among the 10 pesticides or
pesticide transformation products detected most often in ground water during the 1993–1995
NAWQA sampling (Kolpin et al., 1998a; Barbash et al., 1999; USGS, 1999). Frequencies
of detection at or above 0.01 μg L−1 in ground water are shown in Fig. 2 These results are
displayed for the same four study components examined in Fig. 1 Variations in the
frequencies of detection among the different herbicides and study components provide clues
regarding the effects of a variety of natural and anthropogenic factors on the likelihood of
detecting these compounds in ground water. The influences of several of these factors are
examined below.
Water discussion:
Water is involved in many food processing methods and unit operations, e.g., soaking,
washing, rinsing, fluming, blanching, scalding, heating, pasteurising, chilling, cooling, steam
production, as an ingredient, and for general cleaning, sanitation and disinfection purposes.
The food industry is characterised by high water consumption per ton of food product as
exemplified by some figures from Germany, e.g., 30 m3 wastewater per ton of frozen carrot
produced, 1.2 m3 for apple juice, 4.15 m3 for

Current water reuse practices within the food industry

Use of food industry wastewaters for irrigation reuse is often reported (Hrudey, 1981;
Hamoda and Al-Awadi, 1996). However, it will often be more optimal and effective to reuse
these effluents within the same industry. Due to the wide variety of process steps and food
products, food process water may contain a complex mixture of constituents, and this should
be taken into account when considering recycling, reuse, reconditioning for recycling or
reuse, wastewater treatment or discharge. The

Challenges associated with water reuse in the food industry

Some of the problems that may arise or stop the implementation of greater water reuse
practices in the food industry together with some suggested solutions are commented in the
following. A list of the most relevant drivers, barriers, and challenges associated with water
reuse in the food industry is found in Table 4.

Conclusions

Facing the numerous challenges to implementation of water reuse practices in food industries
is unavoidable due to increasing demands on declining freshwater supplies, environmental
and economical incentives resulting from reuse, and the great potential for water reuse at
food industries. Current legislation acknowledges the use of alternative qualities when the
product safety and the safety of the working environment are not compromised. Elaborating
and implementing HACCP plans for water

Acknowledgments
The authors would like to acknowledge the Danish Research Council for providing funding
for this investigation (project number 9800943). This study is part of the activities carried out
by CEVI (Danish Centre for Industrial Water Management).

Conclusion: forests, water and people in the humid tropics:

an emerging view.
Author(s) : Bruijnzeel, L. A. ; Bonell, M. ; Gilmour, D. A. ; Lamb, D.
Author Affiliation : Faculty of Earth and Life Sciences, Vrije Universiteit, De Boelelaan
1085, 1081 HV Amsterdam, Netherlands.
Editors : Bonell, M.; Bruijnzeel, L. A.
Book chapter; Conference paper : Forests, water and people in the humid tropics: past,
present and future hydrological research for integrated land and water management 2004
pp.906-925 ref.39
Conference Title : The joint UNESCO International Hydrological Programme (IHP) -
International Union of Forestry Research Organizations (IUFRO) symposium and workshop,
Forest - water - people in the humid tropics: past, present and future hydrological research for
integrated land and water management, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 30 July-4 August
2000.

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