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Assignment No. 01

Models of Psychology and Psychopathology

Submitted By:

Iqra Masood Chohan 1999-FSS/BSPSY/F22

and Qurat-ul-Ain 2003-FSS/BSPSY/F22

Department of Psychology, Internation Islamic University, Islamabad

PSY 505 : Mental Health and Psychopathology-I

Submitted To:

Ma’am Kainaat

October 29, 2024

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Models of Psychology and Psychopathology

Humanistic Model and Psychopathology: A Focus on Personal Growth and Self-

Actualization:
Humanistic psychology emerged in the 1950s, that focuses on personal growth, self-
actualization, and subjective experience. Humanistic psychology views psychopathology as a
result of blocked or distorted personal growth, rather than a symptom of underlying
psychological or biological mechanisms.

Principles of Humanistic Psychology:

The core principles of this model emphasize the importance of subjective experience,
self-actualization, personal growth, and unconditional positive regard. This involves
focusing on the individual's unique perspective and experiences, promoting their potential to
become the best version of themselves, and fostering autonomy and self-directed change.
Additionally, it entails accepting and empathizing with individuals without judgment, providing
a supportive and non-judgmental environment for growth and development.

Understanding Psychopathology from a Humanistic Perspective:

Mental health issues arise when individuals experience blocked personal growth,
preventing self-actualization. Incongruence between one's ideal and actual self can cause
anxiety, guilt, or shame. Furthermore, a lack of meaning and purpose in life can lead to
feelings of emptiness or despair, highlighting the importance of addressing these underlying
factors to promote mental well-being.

Examples of Humanistic Approaches to Psychopathology:

Person-Centered Therapy (Rogers, 1951):

Focuses on creating a non-judgmental, empathetic environment to promote self-

actualization and personal growth. For Example: A person with depression may work with a
therapist to identify and challenge negative self-perceptions, fostering a more compassionate and
accepting self-image.

Gestalt Therapy (Perls, 1969):

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Emphasizes awareness of the present moment and personal responsibility for change. For
Example: An individual with anxiety may engage in Gestalt exercises to increase awareness of
their thoughts, feelings, and bodily sensations, promoting greater self-regulation.

Logo-therapy (Frankl, 1963):

Focuses on finding meaning and purpose in life, even in the face of adversity. For
Example: A person struggling with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) may work with a
logo-therapist to identify and reconnect with their values and life goals.

Conclusion:
Humanistic psychology offers a unique perspective on psychopathology, emphasizing
personal growth, self-actualization, and subjective experience. While limitations and criticisms
exist, humanistic approaches can provide valuable insights and therapeutic strategies for
promoting mental health and well-being.

Sociocultural Model and Psychopathology:

This perspective recognizes that psychological disorders are influenced by the
individual's cultural background, social context, and interpersonal relationships.

Cultural Influences on Psychopathology:

Research has shown that cultural factors can affect the presentation, diagnosis, and
treatment of mental health disorders (Kleinman, 1988). For instance: The expression of
depression varies across cultures, with some cultures emphasizing somatic symptoms (e.g.,
physical pain) over emotional symptoms (e.g., sadness). In contrast, others may emphasize
spiritual or supernatural causes of mental illness.

Social Factors and Mental Health:

Social factors, such as socioeconomic status, social support, and discrimination, also play
a significant role in psychopathology. For example: Individuals from lower socioeconomic
backgrounds are more likely to experience anxiety and depression due to financial stress and
limited access to resources (Hudson, 2005). Similarly, social isolation and lack of social support
can exacerbate symptoms of schizophrenia.

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The Impact of Cultural Norms and Values:

Cultural norms and values can influence what is considered "normal" or "abnormal"
behavior. For example: In some cultures, hearing voices (a symptom of schizophrenia) is
considered a spiritual experience rather than a pathological phenomenon (Luhrmann, 2012).
Conversely, cultural norms around emotional expression can affect the likelihood of seeking
mental health treatment.

Case Examples:
Anorexia Nervosa:

Sociocultural factors, such as the cultural idealization of thinness, contribute to the

development and maintenance of anorexia nervosa, particularly among young women in Western
societies.

Taijin Kyofusho:

This Japanese culture-bound syndrome involves excessive fear of social interactions due
to concerns about body odor, appearance, or embarrassing others.

Conclusion:
The sociocultural approach emphasizes considering cultural and social contexts to
understand mental health issues which enables professionals to create more effective and
culturally sensitive treatments..

Behavioral Model and Psychopathology:

Behavioral psychology and psychopathology have a profound relationship, as behavioral
principles are fundamental to understand the development, maintenance, and treatment of
various psychological disorders.

Behavioral Perspectives on Psychopathology:

Behavioral psychologists view psychopathology as maladaptive behaviors learned
through faulty learning processes, reinforcement contingencies, or environmental factors.

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Classical Conditioning and Psychopathology:

Ivan Pavlov's classical conditioning theory explains how neutral stimuli become
associated with naturally occurring stimuli, leading to maladaptive responses (Pavlov, 1927).
For example:

Phobias. Irrational fears result from associative learning between neutral stimuli and
aversive stimuli.

Anxiety disorders. Classical conditioning contributes to excessive anxiety through

stimulus generalization.

Operant Conditioning and Psychopathology:

B.F. Skinner's operant conditioning theory highlights the role of reinforcement and
punishment in shaping behavior (Skinner, 1953). For Example: Substance use disorders(Drugs
or alcohol serve as reinforcers, maintaining addictive behavior) and Impulse control
disorders(Immediate rewards reinforce impulsive actions).

Social Learning Theory and Psychopathology:

Albert Bandura's social learning theory emphasizes observational learning and imitation
(Bandura, 1977). For Example:

- Aggressive behavior. Observing aggressive models contributes to aggressive behavior.

- Eating disorders. Sociocultural pressures and observing others' behaviors influence

body image disturbances.

Behavioral Assessment and Treatment of Psychopathology:

Behavioral psychologists employ various assessment methods, such as behavioral
observation and self-report measures, to understand the frequency, duration, and antecedents of
mal-adaptive behaviors. Examples of behavioral treatments include:

- Exposure therapy for anxiety disorders.

- Token economy for substance use disorders.

- Behavioral activation for depression.

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Conclusion:

Behavioral psychology provides a comprehensive framework for understanding

psychopathology, highlighting the role of learning processes, environmental factors, and
reinforcement contingencies.

The Psycho-dynamic Model and Psychopathology:

The psycho-dynamic approach, developed by Sigmund Freud, is a theoretical framework

that understands psychopathology as a manifestation of unconscious conflicts, repressed
memories, and unresolved childhood experiences (Freud, 1915). This approach emphasizes the
role of the unconscious mind in shaping behavior, emotions, and thoughts.

Principles of Psycho-dynamic Model:

According to psycho-dynamic theory, the unconscious mind plays a vital role in

psychopathology, as proposed by Freud (1915). Unconscious thoughts, feelings, and memories,
inaccessible to conscious awareness, significantly influence behavior and emotions. To cope
with stress and anxiety, individuals employ defense mechanisms such as repression, denial,
and projection, which can lead to maladaptive behaviors.

Early childhood experiences, particularly parental relationships, profoundly shape

personality development and contribute to psychopathology, as emphasized by Kernberg (1984).
Unresolved conflicts between conscious and unconscious forces lead to repression, resulting in
symptoms and behaviors characteristic of psychopathology. This repression prevents individuals
from confronting and resolving underlying conflicts, ultimately leading to psychological
distress.

Psycho-dynamic Understanding of Psychopathology:

Psycho-dynamic theory attributes psychopathology to two key factors: intra-psychic

conflict between conscious and unconscious forces, causing anxiety and guilt, and unresolved
childhood trauma (McWilliams, 2011). Maladaptive defense mechanisms also contribute to
symptom formation, hindering effective coping and exacerbating psychological distress.

Common Psychodynamic Themes in Psychopathology:

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Mental health issues have distinct psychological roots. Anxiety Disorders stem from
inner conflicts and hidden fears, triggering excessive worry. Mood Disorders, such as
depression, arise from unresolved grief, loss, or inner struggles, disrupting emotional stability.
Personality Disorders develop from unhealthy coping mechanisms and troubled childhoods
(Kernberg, 1984), forming inflexible and harmful patterns. Psychotic Disorders may result from
severe childhood trauma or intense emotional distress, distorting reality.

Understanding these underlying factors is crucial for effective treatment. By addressing

the psychological roots, individuals can work towards recovery and improved mental well-being,
leading to a more balanced and fulfilling life.

Therapeutic Techniques:

Psychodynamic therapy focuses on:

Exploration of Unconscious Conflicts: Helping patients become aware of unconscious thoughts

and feelings.

Identifying Defense Mechanisms: Recognizing and working through maladaptive coping

strategies.

Working Through Childhood Experiences: Processing unresolved trauma and conflicts.

Conclusion:

The psychodynamic approach provides a comprehensive understanding of

psychopathology, emphasizing the role of unconscious conflicts, childhood experiences, and
defense mechanisms.

The Biological Approach to Psychopathology:

The biological approach to psychopathology suggests that mental disorders are caused by
abnormalities in brain structure, function, or biochemistry(Comer, 2020). This perspective
emphasizes the role of genetics, neuro-chemistry, and brain imaging in understanding mental
health issues.

Biological Factors Contributing to Psychopathology:

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Several biological factors contribute to psychopathology, including:

Genetics: Genetic studies have identified links between specific genes and mental disorders,
such as schizophrenia and bipolar disorder(Durand & Barlow, 2017).

Neurotransmitter imbalance: Imbalances in neurotransmitters, such as serotonin and dopamine,

have been linked to depression, anxiety, and schizophrenia (Sadock, 2017).

Brain imaging: Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and positron emission
tomography (PET) scans have identified differences in brain activity and structure between
individuals with mental disorders and healthy controls(Comer, 2020).

Hormonal imbalances: Hormonal changes, such as those experienced during puberty or

menopause, can contribute to mental health issues(Durand & Barlow, 2017).

Infectious diseases: Certain infections, such as meningitis or encephalitis, can increase the risk
of developing mental disorders (Sadock, 2017).

Biological Treatments for Psychopathology:

Biological treatments for psychopathology include:

Medications: Antidepressants, anti-psychotics, and mood stabilizers can help alleviate symptoms
of mental disorders (Comer, 2020).

Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT): ECT can be effective for treatment-resistant

depression(Durand & Barlow, 2017).

Neurosurgery: In rare cases, neurosurgery may be used to treat severe mental disorders(Sadock,
2017).

Conclusion:

The biological approach provides a valuable framework for understanding

psychopathology, highlighting the role of genetic, neurochemical, and brain structure factors.
While it has limitations, this perspective has led to the development of effective treatments and
continues to inform research in the field.

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References:
Bandura, A. (1977). Social Learning Theory. Prentice Hall.
Bateman, A. W., & Fonagy, P. (2016). Mentalization-based treatment for borderline personality
disorder. Oxford University Press.
Comer, R. J. (2020). Abnormal psychology. Worth Publishers.
Durand, V. M., & Barlow, D. H. (2017). Essentials of abnormal psychology. Cengage Learning.

Frankl, V. E. (1963). Man's search for meaning: An introduction to logotherapy. Washington

Square Press.

Freud, S. (1915). The unconscious. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 6(2), 131-154.

Hudson, C. G. (2005). Socioeconomic status and mental illness: Tests of the social causation and
selection hypotheses. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 75(1).

Kernberg, O. F. (1984). Severe personality disorders: Psychotherapeutic strategies. Yale

University Press.

Kleinman, A. (1988). Rethinking psychiatry: From cultural category to personal experience. Free
Press.

McWilliams, N. (2011). Psychoanalytic diagnosis: Understanding personality structure in the

clinical process. Guilford Press.
Pavlov, I. P. (1927). Conditioned Reflexes. Oxford University Press.

Perls, F. S. (1969). Gestalt therapy verbatim. Real People Press.

Rogers, C. R. (1951). Client-centered therapy: Its current practice, implications, and theory.
Houghton Mifflin.

Sadock, B. J., & Sadock, V. A. (2017). Kaplan & Sadock's concise textbook of clinical
psychiatry. Wolters Kluwer.

Schneider, K. J., & Krug, O. T. (2017). Existential-humanistic therapy. American Psychological

Association.

Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and Human Behavior. Macmillan.

Models of Psychology and Psychopathology