Electrochemistry:

Oxidation Number method:

Br2+NaOH==>NaBr+NaBrO3+H20
Write oxidation state on each element
Then separate both Br2 Br Br then check difference in Oxidation state and cross multiply both
oxidation no of Br
Then balance atoms
Thus it is balanced now

Ion-Electron method:
In Acidic medium;
Separate oxidation half and reduction half
Balance electrons
O-atoms by H20 molecules
H-atoms by H+ ions

In Basic medium;
Separate oxidation and reduction Half
Balance electrons
O-atoms by OH- ions
H atoms by H20 molecules

Electrode potential:
Electrode of any element in contact with solution of its own ions develops a potential called
Electrode potential

Standard Hydrogen Electrode:SHE,NHE

electrode potential of SHE/NHE is arbitrary taken as zero
SHE=>standard conditons:25°C, 1atm,1M HCl solution
Platinum,pt,foil coated with finely devided pt-Black
Hydrogen gas is bubbled and came in contact with its own ions

Eoxidation =0
Ereduction=0

Coupling of each element with SHE generates the potential of each element

Standard oxidation potential: Element release electron

Standard reduction potential:gain of electron

E°cell=E°anode+E°cathode
E°cell=E°oxidation+E°reduction
E°cell=E°oxidation-E°oxidation

E°oxidation=-E°reduction

Modern Batteries:

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Portable or Leclanche's cell
Spontaneous chemical change Produce current

Primary cell,batteries:cells not rechargeable

2ndary cell,batteries:cells are rechargeable

Fuel cells(Rechargeable):
Electrodes: porous compressed carbon and platinum impregnated
Platinum functions as a catalyst

Electrolyte:KOH
Fuel:H2,N2H4,CH3OH,NH3
Efficiency:60% efficiency
Convert 75% bind energy of fuel

Oxygen functiona as Cathode

Uses of fuel cells;

Used during space flight produce electricity and pure water
Are more efficient
Do not cause pollution
Fuel cell can supply electricity continuously
So long the fuel are filled in it

fuel⛽
Jab tak fuel khatam nahin hota kaam karta rahega fuel khatam hone ke baad dobara daal lena

No drop in potential or voltage with time

Disadvantage;
High cost of catalyst used in fuel(Pt)
Difficulty in handling the gaseous fuel
Highly corrosive nature of Electrolyte KOH

Thermochemistry 😇
♨️1joule=10-⁷ergs=0.239cal
1cal=4.18j

♨️♨️Pure water molarity:55.6M♨️♨️♨️

❤️Exothermic reactions:
∆H=-ve
Hr>Hp
After releasing heat from products they convert from unstable to stable compounds
C+O2==>CO2=>∆H=-393.7kj/mol

🟧 Endothermic reactions:
∆H=+ve

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Hr<Hp
After absorbing energy endothermic products become more energetic and energy is inversly
proportional to Stability thus product become less stable
2H20==>2H2+O2=>∆H=+285.5kj/mol

♨️System:Any matter under study

Surrounding: Environment other than system
Boundary:Real or imaginary surface separating system and surrounding
==>Like a flask is boundary

❤️State Function:
Macroscopic property, depends upon initial and final state and not the path followed
For closed path state Function value is zero

❗ Examples
UHSG
U=>internal energy
H=>enthalpy
S=>entropy

😋
G=>gibbs free energy
We don't calculate absolute value of state function we Calculate change of state
function,∆U,∆H,∆S,∆G

🤫 Path function:
Microscopic property deoends upon path followed and not by initial and final position
And in closed path value isn't zero
q=heat,workdone,...

🟧 Standard state in thermochemistry:

Concentration:1M
Pressure:1atm
Temperature:25°C, 298K

😍 If an exothermic reaction takes place rapidly in the air, the temperature of surrounding
increase and for endothermic vice versa

🥴 Enthalpy of reaction:∆Hr
Amount of heat energy absorbed or evolved
It may be +ve or -ve

😍 Enthalpy of formation:∆Hf
Amount of heat energy absorbed or evolved when 1 mole of compound formed from its
elements
It may be +Ve or -Ve

😍 Enthalpy of Atomisation:∆Ha
Amount of energy required to form atom from its element
It is always required(Always endothermic)

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Thus Always +Ve

🤫 Enthalpy of Neutrilization:∆Hn
Amount of heat energy evolved by reacton of acid and base and 1 mole of water is formed

🤔 Strong acid+Strong base=>∆Hn=-57.4kj per mole of water formed

For two moles of water ∆Hn=2x-57.4kj

😄 If any of weak +strong or weak partner

Reacts still they evolve heat but
Value of ∆Hn=is less than -57.4

😝 Enthalpy of combustion:∆Hc
Amount of energy evolved by burning hydrocarbons in excess supply of oxygen
Combustion is always exothermic
Always -ve

🤩 Enthalpy change of solution:∆Hs

Amount of energy absorbed or released
When one mole of solute is dissolved in solvent
It may be +Ve,-Ve

💟Ionisation energy is always endothermic always required always +ve

😬 Always endothermic reaction,∆H=+ve
Heat of Atomisation
Ionisation energy

😛 Always exothermic reaction,∆H=-ve

Enthalpy of Neutrilization
Enthalpy of Combustion

🔴
🔺 ∆H may be both +ve , -ve

🔺 Enthalpy of reaction

🔺Enthalpy of formation
Enthalpy of solution

🟫 Note these All enthalpies are for one mole

And standard conditons

🤫 Bond energy:lattice energy

Amount of Energy required to break all bonds present in one mole of of substance is Bond
energy

🟧 Lattice energy:
Amount of energy released when bonds in one mole of a substance of lattice formed

💟Bond energy=lattice energy

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🔴
🔴Bond energy ∞ to bond order(No of Bonds)
Bond energy=Ethyne>ethene>ethane

🟨 Bond energy ∞ 1/ Bond length

Bond Energy ∞ S character
B.E=sp>sp²>sp³

💟B.E ∞ lone pair

💟 Enthalpy:
:Total heat content of system:total energy
It is a state function
It is an extensive property
Which depends upon amount of material

🟫 Enthalpy of reaction depends upon:

Physical state of reactants and products
Process at constant pressure, or at constant volume
Quantities of reactants
Temperature

🟧 First Law of thermodynamics:

q=∆E±w

🟫
🟫Work done by the system=-ve
Workdone on the system=+ve

🥰 First law of thermodynamics is based on law of conservation of energy

Energy of universe remains constant

🟫 At constant volume:
qv=∆E±P∆V. As ∆v=0
qv=∆E+0
qv=∆E
At constant volume:∆H=∆E

🟧 At constant pressure:
qp=∆E±w. qp=∆H
qp>qv===>∆H>∆E

🤩 Hess law of Constant heat summation:

=>∆H° can be measured experimentally by calorimeter
=>And can be mathematically by Hess' law

🤪Glass calorimeter:used to measure the enthalpy of Neutrilization,∆Hn

🤓Bomb Calorimeter:used to measure the enthalpy of combustion.

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q=mc∆T

🤗=>Calorimeter used for single step Reaction

🤔 Hess' Law:🤩
Enthalpy change of a system depends only on its initial and final states , it is independent of
path
£∆H=in cycle =0
∆H=∆H1+∆H2+∆H3
Hess' law can be applied for one step Reaction or for more than one step Reaction

🤗
🤭 Born Haber's Cycle

🤩For
∆Hlattice=∆Hf-Hx🤩
ionic compounds,But same law of Hess'

💟 Lattic energy:
Amount of energy released when one mole of ionic crystal is formed from its gaseous ions
Na+cl=>-787kj/mol
NaF>Nacl>NaBr>NaI
===>Lattice energy useful points:<====
Structure of ionic compounds
Properties of ionic compounds
Strength of bonding of ionic compounds

Chemical Kinetics

🟧 Rate of reaction:∆C/∆t
Units=mol/dm³s

🟧As reaction proceeds rate of reaction decreases

🟧 At start:Rinstantaneous>Raverage
At T=0:R instantaneous =Raverage

🔴 Rate law: according to guldberg and wages rate of a balnced chemical reaction is directly
proportional to the products of their reactants
Rate ∞ Reactants
aA+bB=>cC+dD
Rate=K[A]*a[B]*b

🔴 Specific rate constant or Velocity constant:

When concentration of reactants is unity then rate of reaction is equals rate constant

🔴Note:specific rate constant only changes by changing temperature

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❤️Order of Reaction:
Rate=K[A]³[B]²
Then order of Reaction=3+2=5
Order of Reaction is an experimental value
Indicating by performing kknetic studies
May be fraction
May be zero
Maximum value is 3 i.e 3rd order reaction

❤️ Molecularity=total no of moles taking part in chemical reaction

It can be more than 3
It can't be in fraction just in whole numbers

♨️Zero order reaction:

Reaction whose rate is indpendent of concentration of reactants
2NH3=>(tungsten)N2+3H2=>>rate=K[A]⁰[B]⁰
2PH3=>(Mo)2P+3H2=
graph of first order raction is a straight line along concentration because independent of
concentration.

♨️[A]t=[A]°-Kt
K=[A]°-[A]t/t
A° initial concentration
At concentration at any time
K=rate constant
t=>time

🌺 Half life for Zero order reaction

T¹/²=[A]⁰/2K
[A] initial concentration of reactants

🌺 1st order reaction:

Rate ∞ [A]¹[B]⁰
N2O5=>2NO2+1/2O2

❤️LnAt=LnA°-Kt
K=1/2t lnA°/At
K=2.303/t logA°/At
At=A°e*-kt
T¹/²=0.693/K

🌺 2nd order reaction:

Rate∞[A]²[B]⁰,or [A]¹[B]¹
2HI=>H2+I2
Rate=[HI]²

❤️Pseudo 1st order reaction:

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C12H22O11+H20(excess)=>C6H12O6
Note H20 is in excess thus not included in reaction thus rate ∞[C12H22O11]¹

🟪Note: if any reactant is in excess then don't include that reactant in rate law...
😇 Half life:
Time required to convert half of reactants into product
1st order:T¹/²=0.693/Ka⁰
Half life of first order reaction doesn't depends upon initial concentration of reactants

🌺Zero,2nd, 3rd orders depends upon initial concentration

🌺 Rate Constant:K:
Units of rate constant depedns upkn order of reaction

🌺 Rate=K[A][B]
K=Rate/[A][B]
K=mol/dm)
For zero order reaction K uints=mol/dm³s
For first order reaction K units=s-¹
Fir 2nd order reaction k units=dm/mol s
3rd order raction uints=dm²/mol² s

🌺 Rate units Trick:

K=(M)¹-ⁿ/time
M=molarity or concentration
M=mole/dm³
n=>order of reaction

🤓 Energy of activation:
Minimum amount of energy required to convert reactants into products
Ea=>derived from collision theory of reaction rate
Both exo and endothermic reaction needs to cross activation energy

🌺 In endothermic reactions energy of reactant is less than products

Endotherm=Reactants+Energy=>Products
==>Products energy is more and energy is inversly proportional to Stability
∆H=+ve
∆H=∆Hproducts-∆Hreactants

♨️ Exothermic reactions energy of reactants is more than products

Endotherm=>Reactant-Energy=Products
∆H=-ve

😝 Arrhenius equation:
K=Ae*-Ea/RT

😄K ∞ -Ea=>>K ∞ 1/Ea

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😄K ∞ -1/T==>K ∞ T
😄 Note by increasing temperature activation energy doesn't change
Mean temperature doesn't effect the Activation Energy...

😌 Catalyst=
Increase rate of reaction
Lowers the activation energy
Can't start a reaction

😇
🤗 Homocatalyst: reactants+ Catalyst are in same phases

🤪 Heterocatalyst: reactants+catalyst are in different phases

Autocatalyst:,they produce at the time of reaction and function as catalyst
Characteristics of catalyst:
Specific in nature
Can't start but speeds up the reaction
Equilibrium position not effected by catalyst
Finess increase the reactivity of Catalyst

😬 Promoters:
Hydrogenation of oil(Ni,(Cu/Te)),=>veg ghee
Ni is catalyst while cuzTe are catalyst of catyst (promoter)

🤫 Enzymes biological catalyst;

Essentially proteins
More efficient then inorganic catalyst
Increase rate of reaction 10⁶-10¹² times
Highly specific in nature
Temperature and PH sensitive

Chemical equilibrium:

🟨 Reversible reactions:
Reactikn which takes place both direction
It never completes
Equilibrium is ultimate goal
Only carried out in closed container

💟
Macroscopic properties
We study dynamic equilibrium reactions
Can be initiated at either side

💟
Catalyst can't change the equilibrium position just lowers activation energy

🟫 Homogenous equilibrium=both product and reactants are in same phase

Heterogenous equilibrium: both reactants and products are in different phases

❤️❤️
But no of moles and concentration of products and reactants are equal isn't necessary❤️❤️
Note:At equilibrium only rate of forward reaction is equal to rate of backward reaction

🟪Equilibrium constant doesn't depend upon initial concentration of reactants but depends upon

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equilibrium concentration s

🥴 Irreversible reactions:
Reactions which takes place in one direction
It gets completed, no equilibrium state, can occur in both closed and open container

🔺
🔺Rr=kr[C][D]
Rf=kf[A][B]

🙃
🙃Kc=Kf/Kr[C][D]/[A][B]
Kc=>equilibrium constant

🤓 Equilibrium constant (Kc):

It may or may not have units

😬
Independent of initial concentration

😬 =>Kc values change only by changing temperature

😬=>Note Catalyst doesn't effect the equilibrium value and position just lowers activation energy
=>Kc position changes by changing temperature, pressure, volume , concentration

🤓 Equilibrium constant in other terms

Kc,Kp,Kx,Kn

😘 Kp=Kc(RT)*∆ⁿ
∆n=product - reactant

🤗
🤗 ∆n=0=>Kp=Kc

🤭∆n>0=>Kp>Kc
∆n<0=>Kp<Kc

😘 Le-Chatliers principle:
If we remove products the Reaction will proceed to forward direction..

🥴If we increase pressure the equilibrium shift towards the other side
♨️ If we decrease pressure the Pressure at any side equilibrium will shift at that side where we
decreasing the pressure

😇 Temperature:
Endothermic reactions:
In endothermic reaction temp is in reactants side thus if we are increasing temp mean we are
increasing reactants thus equilibrium ahift to product aide

😇 Exothermic reactions:
In exothermic reactions temp is in product side if we are increasing temp mean we are
increasing product thus equilibrium shift to reactant direction

❤️Haber's process:formation of ammonia

N2+3H2=2NH3===>-46.11kj/mol

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200-300atm pressure

🤫
400C
Fe=>catalyst
+Al203/MgO/SiO2=>promoter (catalyst of catalyst)

🙃 Note if question is asked that what if we increase temp in haber process

Ans:haber process is an exothermic reaction thus if we increase the temp upto 400c the
equilibrium will shift backward and less no of products will be formed

😱 If we want more product we need to decrease temp upto a limit, by removing products, by
increasing pressure at reactant sides,....

🥴 Contact process:formation of So3:

2SO2+O2=2SO3==>-979Kj/mol
1atm,400-500C
V2O5 but earlier we use platinized asbestos

😅 Bronsted lowry theory:

Acid=proton donor
Base:proton acceptor

😬 Acid+Base==>(acid will convert into conjugate base and Base will convert into conjugate
Acid)

🤓 Note:Strong acid and bases conjugate will be weak

While weak acid and bases conjugates will be strong

🤭 Ionic product of water:

H20==>H+ +OH-
Kc=[H+][OH-]/[H2O]

😁Kc[H2O]=[H+][OH-]
😄 1.8x10-¹⁶x55.5=1.01x10-¹⁴=[H+][OH-]=Kw
Kw=1x10-¹⁴
Kw=[H+][OH-]
Kw=1x10-¹⁴ at 25°C

😛Kw value increases 75 times by increasing temperature 0°C to 100°C

🥱
🤭For neutral soutions:[H+]=[OH-]

🤫For acidic solutions:[H+]>[OH-]

For Basic solutions:[H+]<[OH-]

😛
😝PH=less than 7 acidic
PH=greater than 7 basic

🥴PH=-log[H+]

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😛PoH=-log[OH-]
🥴
🥴 Pkw=PH+POH

😬Pkw=14
14=PH+POH

😘
😘Kb∝OH-∝Basic strength∝1/POH∝1/Pkb
Ka∝H+∝Acidic strength∝1/PH∝1/Pka

🥰 Buffer solution:
Acidic Buffer:weak acid+salt of that acid with strong base
Basic Buffer:weak base+salt of that base with strong acid

🤩
🤩PH=Pka+log[salt]/[Acid]
PH=PKa-log[Acid]/[salt]

😍
🤩POH=PKb-log[Base]/[salt]
POH=Pkb+log[salt]/[Base]

😌Then=PH+POH=14
🤪 A best buffer is than where concentration of the and their base or acid ratio is same
Thus by formula
PoH=pkb
Ph=pka

🤔
🤔 Solubility:Ksp constant

🤔 Ksp=Products/reactant
Ksp=[A+][B-][s][s]
We ignore reactant because of sparingly soluble

🤗
🤗 Ksp=ionic product=Saturated solution

🤗 Ksp>ionic product=unsaturated solution

🟦Ksp<ionic product=super saturated solution

Ionic product is the(ions) products of sparingly soluble salt

🤓 Solubility of CaF2 is 2x10-⁴ find Ksp

🤓
..
[Ca+]=2x10-⁴
[2F-]²=2x2x10-⁴x2x2x10-⁴
Ksp=[2x10-⁴][16x10-⁸]
Ksp=[32x10-¹²]
Ksp=3.2x10-¹¹

🤓🤓 Short cut🤓🤓🤓
[Ca]=>s
[2F]²=>4s²
[s][4s²]=4s³=4x2x2x2x10-⁴x10-⁴x10-⁴

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=32x10-¹²

♨️♨️♨️♨️Solubility==s³=Ksp/4♨️♨️♨️♨️
🤓🤓 Or🤓🤓🤓
CaF2===>Ca+ + 2F
Ksp= [s] [2s]²
Ksp=[s][2s]²=4s³

❤️❤️❤️❤️❤️❤️❤️❤️❤️❤️❤️❤️❤️❤️❤️❤️
♨️
🔴🔴🔴🔴🔴🔴🔴🔴🔴🔴🔴🔴🔴🔴🔴🔴
s³=Ksp/4=>you can also find Solubility "s"

🤓 Common ions effect:

It is application of Le Charlie's principle
It is always the reverse direction
In common ion effect the term electrolyte is used instead of acid base or salt
With the help of common ion effect we can supress ionisation of other electrolyte
It is study of increaing concentration of of product in term of common ions

Liquids:

🔴 Melting point is smaller than room temp

Boiling point is greater than room temp
Intermolecular forces are stronger than gases but weaker than solids
Evaporate and diffuse little than gases

💟 Evaporation:
Spontaneous coonversion of liquid into vapour ,gaseous, phase
Evaporation is a spontaneous and an endothermic process
Deoends upon surface area, temperature, intermolecular forces

🥴 Vapour Pressure: the pressure exerted by the vapours of same liquid in euqilibrium with the
liquid at a given temp

🤭 Vapour pressure ∞ 1/Boiling point

Vapour pressure depends upon:
Intermolecular forces
Nature of liquid
Size of molecule
Temperature

🔦 Vapour pressure doesn't depend upon:

Surface area
Volume of the container
Amount of the liquid in container

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🟦 Vapour pressure=P=Pa+∆H
Pa=>atmospheric pressure
∆H height difference in mercury level

🟨Vapour pressure is measured by Manometer

❤️Vapor Pressure:
H20=>100C°
C2H5OH(ethyl alcohol)=>78.5C°
Acetone=>56C°
HF=>19.5C°
Water has lowest vapour pressure as
Vapor pressure ∞1/B.P

😇 Boiling point:
Temperature point at which vapour pressure of liquid becomes equal to external atmospheric
pressure
B.P ∞ External pressure
B.P ∞ 1/Vqapour pressure

🟨 Cramming points:😝
B.P of water is 120C° at 1489 torr pressure
B.P of water is 29C° at 23.7 torr pressure
B.P of water is 98C° at 700 torr pressure at the top on murree
B.P of water is 69C° at 323 torr pressure

❤️ Hydrogen Bonding:
Electrostatic force of attraction b/w a highly E.N atom (F,O,N) of one polar molecule and partially
positive charged H-atom of another molecule
=>Strongest physical bond
=>HF has strongest H-Bond
=>H20 has strongest H-Bonding
One H20 molecule make 2 H bonds
=>It can effect only physical properties

♨️Hydrogen bonding is also present in Sugar molecules,Nucleic Acids,Paints and dyes

Gases:

🟦Space b/w gases molecules is 300times greater as compare to their diameter

🤣 Joule thomson effect: process of liquifying by sudden expansion after compression
All gases are compressed except Helium and Hydrogen because of low force of interaction and
small size

❤️ Gases expand by temperature

Intermolecular forces b/w gases are weak.

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♨️Boyle's Law:T,n constant (B-T)
V∞1/p
V∞K/p
Pv=k(constant)
P1v1=p2v2=p3v3=constant

🤫 P vs V geaph is rectangular hyperbola

But p vs 1/v graph is straight line
Pv vs=>straight at PV line becuase pv=constant...
These graphs are isotherm graphs

🟨 According to Boyle's pressure of gases is because of exerting force of gases molecules to

the wall of container

🤣 Charles law:P,n conatant (P-C)

V∞T,
V/T=K(constant)
V1/T1=V2/T2=Constant
Kelvin scale is introduced by Charles law....

🤢 Absolute zero of temperature:

-273.16C°=-459F=Zero Kelvin

🟦 K=°C+273🟦
🟦F=9/5°C+32🟦
🔴Vt=V°(1+T/273)
😝 Vt=volume at any temp
V°=Volume of gas at 0°C=546cm³
T=temperature on Centigrade scale
Convert that temp in Kelvin..

😉Note volume of gas at 0°C is 546cm³

😋Note:for 1°C rise or fall, the volume of gas change is 2cm³
🤗 General Gas equation:
PV=nRT

🟧 R is ideal gas constant:

R=0.0821dm³atmk-¹mol-¹
8.314Jmol-¹K-¹
≈2Calorie

😝V=T/P

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♨️Chemical Bonding♨️
😇 ∆E>1.7
Ionic bonds are Non directional bond that's why ionic compounds don't show the phenomenon
of isomerism

🥱 Ionic bond is formed favorably b/w low Ionization energy (metal) and High Electron affinity (of
non metal )
This is also called electrovalent bond

🤗 Properties of ionic compounds:

Solid state, soluble in polar solvents
Fast reactions,

🥳
High melting and Boiling point than covalent bond
Note: Covalent compounds have greater Boiling and melting point
But B.P and melting point is high for ionic as bond comparison
Conductors in molten and solution forms
Don't show isomerism

🤭 VESPR Theory:
Explains shapes of molecules
Electron pairs,lone pairs,bond pairs,
Shape of molecule is due to repulsion of electron pairs
Repulsion,L.P,L.P>L.P,B.P>B.P,B.P...
Note in VSEPR theory Double and triple bonds are shown by single line

😱Note:if lone pair is not calculated in shape still it is gonna effect the Shape
🥴 Shapes of molecules:
There must be at least two bond pairs
AB2 type: both are bond pairs
Linear geometry
180° bond angle

😲 AB3 type:three bond pairs

Trigonal planar, 120°bond angle
If two bond pairs 1 lone pair
Bent angular not V shaped
Less than 120° angle

🟨 AB4 type:
Four bond pairs, Tetrahedral
If 3 bond pairs 1 lone pair
Pyramidal, less than 109.5 angle
Example:PH3,NH3,H3O+
If 2 lone pair 2 bond pairs
Bent or V-shaped

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Less than 109.5°
Example H20,H2S

😛 Valence Bond theory(VBT):

Explain shapes of molecules, atomic orbitlas are half filled which combine to form a bond extent
of overlapping increase bond strength
Linear overlapping produce sigma bonds
Sideway overlapping produce pi bonds

🤣 VBT,VSEPR=tells about shapes of molecules

But MOT don't

😑 Hybridization:mixing of orbitals of same orbit having different shapes and energies to form
equal number of hybrid orbitals of same shapes and energies

🤭
🤭 Sp=>Linear

🤭
🤭
Sp²=>trigonal planar,
Sp³=>tetrahedral

🤭 dSp²=>square planar

🤭d²sp³=>octahedral
dsp³=>trigonal bipyramidal

😚 Hybridization calculation:
NH2-

😘 Calculate steric No=no of sigma bond+lone pair+(-ve charge) if positive charge then dont add
or subtract anything
In NH2-
Steric no=2 sigma +1 lone pair+1 -ve charge
Steric no=4=>sp³..

😁 If it is NH2+
Steric no=2 sigma bond+1 lone pair
Steric no=3=sp²

😉 S character is directly proportional to ionic character and directly proportional to Stability and
direcy proportional to E.N

😄 Note: sigma bond is stronger than pi bond because of extent of overlapping and
There are 3 orbitlas in p one make sigma bond px to px and py,pz will make pi bonds
Note:px to px sigma bond is more stronger than s to s sigma bind because of extent of
overlapping(more overlapping)

❤️❤️❤️❤️❤️❤️❤️❤️
1)Bond angle ∝ 1/No.of lone pairs
2)Bond angle ∝ %age of S-character
3)Bond angle ∝ 1/E‫۔‬N of side atom
4)Resonance energy ∝ Stability

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5)Resonance energy ∝ No.of Resonating structures
6)Resonance energy ∝ 1/unstability
7)Resonance Energy ∝ 1/reactivity
8)%age of S-Character ∝ Strength of bond
9)%age of S-character ∝ Electronegativity
10)Bond energy ∝ Strength of bond
11)Bond energy ∝ %age S-character
12)Bond energy ∝ Multiplicity
13)Bond energy ∝ E.N difference
14)Bond energy ∝ 1/size of atom
15)Bond energy ∝ 1/Bond length
16)Bond length ∝ 1/strength of bond
17)Bond length ∝ 1/polarity
18)Bond length ∝ 1/E.N difference
19)Bond length ∝ 1/ %age of S-character
20)Bond length ∝ 1/ Bond order
21)Bond length ∝ 1/ Multiplicity
22)Bond length ∝ Size of atom
23)Dipole moment ∝ polarity
24)Bond order ∝ Stability
25)Bond order ∝ Energy
26)Bond order ∝ strength of bond
27)Bond order ∝ 1/ Bond length

♨️ Bond energy∝No of bonds

Triple bonds>double bonds>single bond

♨️ Maximum bknd energy

H-H,N-N,F-F,O-O

♨️ H-H has max bond energy because of small radio and having less no of electron repulsion
H-H>N-N>O-O>F-F

♨️ Vander waals force:

1)Dipole-Dipole forces:b/w polar molecules
H-Cl,H-Br,CHCl3 etc

😛 2)Debye forces:b/w polar and non-polar molecules

H2O+Ne,H2O+Cl2

🔴 3)London dispersion forces:b/w two non- polar molecules, b/w Nobel gases, Halogens
Hydrocarbons

🟦 Hydrogen Bonding:
Strongest physical bknd
B/w lone pair+ Partial positive H atom
F,O,N
Because it's a physical bond thus not gonna effect chemical properties can effect physical

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properties...

💟 Note:Hydrogen bonding is max in H20 b

Because 3 Bonds by 1 moecule of H20

🥱 H-F vs H20 hydrogen bond

H-F>H20

😇 But H-F vs H20 bydrogen Bonding

Hydrogen Bonding is the phenomenom not a bond thus
H20>HF

Atomic strucutre ❤️
🔴 Electron(cathode rays)
Experiment by william crook
Glass=>green glow
Alumina=>Red glow
Sn (stone)=>Yellow
Glass discharge tube:
0.01torr
5000-10000volts
Negatively charhed

♨️Charge on e=1.6022x10-¹⁹C
e/m=1.7588x10¹¹CKg-¹
Mass of electron=9.1x10-³¹kg

🟦Note mass of electron is negligible

♨️Cathode rays are indpendent of nature of gas used because are electron..
🤭 Proton(Canal rays)
Eugen golstein 1886
Note protons are not the anode rays
Red glow on glass
Depend upon the nature of gas used because cations of atoms contain difderent no of protons
thus depends upon nature of gas

😬 Charge on p=1.6022x10-¹⁹C
Mass=1.6726x10-²⁷kg or 10-²⁴g

😇 Neutrons:
J.chadwick 1932
INeutron=1positron+1electrino+1neutrino
Positron and electrino has same charge and positron has 1 mass while electrino mass is
negligible... Neutrino is chargeless and massless particle

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😝 Fast neutron are not effective and slow ionizable because of high penetrating lower
Fast neutron energy=1.2Mev
Fast neutron produce alpha particles

🤗 Slow neutron=1ev
Are ionisable because of less penetrating power
Slow neutron produce beta and gamma rays

🤫 Shapes of orbitals:
Energy of subshells:,f>d>p>s
Penetration of subshells:s>p>d>f

😱 Quantum numbers
Principal Quantum number:n=1,2,3,4...
Distance and energy of electrons
Tells about Shells

😅 Azimuthal Quantum number(l):(l=n-1)

n=1,l=0=s subshell
n=2,l=0(s),1(p)=p subshell
n=3,l=0(s),1(p),2(d),=
Tells about shapes of orbitals

🥴 S=>spherical
P=>dumbbell shaped
d=>double dumbbell
dz² has a collar..
Electron density is max at nodal plane collar shaped...
f=>quadruple dumbbell complicated..

🤢 Magnetic Quantum:(m)
m=-l to +l
Mean if l is 0 then m=0 mean in s there is only oone orbital
If l is 1 then m=-1,0,+1 mean in p there are 3 orbitals
If l is 2 then m=-2,-1,0,+1,+2,=d and there are five orbitlas....
It tells about orbitals or orientation of orbitlas in space

🤫 Spin Quantum number:(s)

Tells spin of electron in orbitals
+1/2,-1/2

🤗Electronic configuration: distribution of e in subshell and orbitlas..

🙃 Auf-bau principle;
Electron filling is in increasing order..
(n+l) rule

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🥱 Pauli's exclusion:
No two electrons in an atom can have same set of 4 quantum number mean spin s opposite of
two e in an orbital

🤫 Hunds rule:
In degenerate (having same energy) orbitals, electron will be placed with same spin first in
different orbitals and then filled completely with opposite spin...

😝 Short trick for electronic configuration

Ss,psps,dps,dps,fdps,fdps

🔴Moles🔴
❤️
❤️1amu=1.661x10-²⁷kg or 10-²⁴g

❤️1litre=1dm³=1000cm³=1000ml
1cm³=1ml

1m³=1000litre=1000dm²=10⁶ml=10⁶cm³

🔴 Monoisotopic atoms or atoms having no isotopes are Four, Gold(Au),Arsenic(Ar),Fluorine(F),

Iodine(I)

♨️ Relaive atomic mass of an element=(mass of atom A x%abundance of A) + (mass of Isotope

B x %abundance of B)÷100

🟫 At stp 0°C(273K) 22.414volume

At room temp 25°C(298K) 24volume
At 50°C 26Volume

🟫For ionic only empirical formula and for molecules Molecular and empirical formula
🟪Molecular formula=n×empirical formula
🤗Where n=molar mass molecular formula ➗ molar mass of empirical formula
😑 Empirical formula:
i) calculate the %age of each element in compound
ii)divide %age by atomic mass of each element to get no of moles
iii) divide all value with least mole no..
iv)if result is in fractions then multiply with suitable no to get whole number

🤓 Combustion analysis:
The %age of C,H,O...
Mass of C /mass of whole compound x100%

😬 Stochiometry:
All reactants muat be convert to product

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No side reaction occur
Law of conservation of mass and law of definite proportion obeyed
Applicable to only irreversible reactions

😬Percentage composition:
%w/w=w of solute/weight of solution×100
%w/v=weight of solute/volume of solution x100
%v/w=volume of solute/weight of solution x 100
%v/v=volume of solute/volume of solution x 100

🤗%Yield=Actual yield/theoriticcal yield x100

🤣Theoriticcal yield is always greater than the actual yield.
🥳Molarity: Number of moles of solute in 1dm³ or 1litre of solution
🤓 M=m/molar mass×1/1000cm³
M=moles of solute /volume of solution in litre or dm³
M=m/molar mass×1000/given volume

😛Note:one molar liquid is more concentrated to one molal liquid

🙃 And molarity is effected by temperature
Molality isn't effected by temperature

😄 Mole fraction:
Xa=na/ntotal
It has no unita , its value is always less than one

Solids:

😇 Note;melting and boiling point of Covalent solid is high than Ionic solid than Molecular solid
as in molecular solid there are just vander waals force of attraction

😇 Struture of ICE:😇
🤭Molecular solid,
Density is 9 times less than water
As volume is 9 times more than water
9% increase in volume due to empty spaces
Tetrahedral geometry of molecules
Diamond like strucutre
Hexagonal packing
6 atoms per unit cell
12 coordination number
O-atom in ice is attached with four H-atoms by two chemical bonds and two physical
(H-Bonds)bonds
Water start freezing at 4°C

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H20 has Maximum density at 4°C because of decreasing in volume and then volume increases
4 to 0C.

🟦
🤗 Giant ionic strucutre:
Sodium Chloride:
Face centered Cube
Number of formula is 4 per unit cell
Na+ is surrounded by six 6 Cl- ions and
1Cl- is surrounded by 6 Na+ions
Coordination no is 6
High M.P and B.P
Non conductor in solid form
Nacl molecule present only in Vapour phase

🟨
🟧 Simple molecuar Solid:
Solid Iodine:
Face centered Cube
Low M.P and B.P as non polar and wander waals force of attraction
As non polar thus london dispersion forces are present
In gaseous state
Coordination number is 12
4 atoms per unit cell
Bond length in gaseous state of I2=266.6pm
Bond length of I2 in crystal lattice=271.5pm
Non conductors
Soluble in non polar solvent CCl4
Greyish black in colour

🟪
🟧 Giant Covalent Solid:
Diamond:.trasnparent
It absorbs invisible radiations and reases radiation of visible wavelength that's why glow in dark
Sp³ hybridised
Tetrahedral geometry
Face centered cube
Non conductor
Very high Melting point;?:3550°C
Highest refractive index

🤭 5 allotropes of carbon
Bucky ball
Diamond
Coal
Graphite
Ozone
Only graphite is conductor

🟪 Packing of points in solids:

Hexagonal close packing

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12 12 12
AB AB AB
12 34 5 6
1,3,5 layers have same arrangement
2,4,6 layers have same arrangement
Coordination number is 12
6 atoms per unit cell

🟫 Cubic close packing:

123 123 123
ABC ABC ABC
123 456. 789
1,4,7 layers are same
2,5,8 are same
3,6,9 are same
Coordination no is 12
4 atoms per unit cell

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Orders

✌️Increasings or Decreasing Order

✨ 01. Melting point=
Li > Na > K > Rb > Cs

✨ 02. Colour of the flame=

Li-Red, Na-Golden, K-Violet, Rb-Red, Cs-Blue, Ca-Brick red, Sr-Blood red, Ba-Apple green

✨ 03. Stability of hydrides =

LiH > NaH > KH > RbH> CsH

✨ 04. Basic nature of hydroxides=

LIOH < NaOH < KOH < RbOH < CsOH

✨ 05. Hydration energy=

Li> Na > K> Rb > Cs

✨ 06.) Reducing character=

Li > Cs > Rb > K > Na

✨ 07. Stability of +3 oxidation state=

✨08. Stability of +1 oxidation state= Ga < In < TI

B> Al > Ga > In > T1

✨ 09. Basic nature of the oxides and hydroxides=

B< Al< Ga < In < TI

✨10. Relative strength of Lewis acid= BF3 < BCl3 < BBr3 < BI3
✨ 11. Ionisation energy=
B> Al <Ga > In <TI

✨ 12. Reactivity=
C<Si< Ge < Sn <Pb

✨ 13. Metallic character=

C< Si < Ge < Sn < Pb

✨ 14. Acidic character of the oxides=

Co2 > SiO2 > Ge02 > SnO2 > PbO2

✨ 15. Reducing nature of hydrides=

✨
CH4 < SiH4 < GeH4 < SnH4 < PbH4
16. Thermal stability of tetrahalides=
CCl4> SiCl4> GeCl4> SnCl4 > PbCl4

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✨ 17. Oxidising character of M+4 species=

✨
GeCl4 < SnCl4 < PbCl4
18. Ease of hydrolysis of tetrahalides=

✨
SiCl4 < GeCl4 < SnCl4 < PbCI4
19. Acidic strength of trioxides=

✨
N203 > P2O3 > As2O3
20. Acidic strength of pentoxides=
N2O2 > P2O2> As202 > Sb2O2 > Bi̟ 202

✨ 21) Acidic strength of oxides of nitrogen=

N2O < NO <N2O3 <N2O4 < N2O5

✨ 22. Basic nature/ bond angle/ thermal stability and dipole moment of hydrides=

✨
NH3 > PH3 > AsH3 > SbH3 > BiH3
23. Stability of trihalides of nitrogen=

✨
NF3 > NCl3 > NBr3
24.Lewis base strength=
NF3 <NCl3 <NBr3 < NI3

✨ 25. Ease of hydrolysis of trichlorides=

NCl3 > PCI3 > AsCl3 > SbCl3 > BiCl3

✨ 26.Lewis acid strength of trihalides of P, As, and Sb=

PCl3 > ASCl3 > SbCl3

✨ 27. Lewis acid strength among phosphorus trihalides

PF3 > PCl3 > PBr3 > PI3

✨ (28) Melting and boiling point of hydrides=

✨
H2O > H2Te > H2Se >H2S
29. Volatility of hydrides=
H2O < H2Te < H2Se < H2S

✨ 30. Reducing nature of hydrides=

H2S < H2Se < H2Te

✨ 31. Covalent character of hydrides=

✨
H2O < H2S < H2Se < H2Te
32. The acidic character of oxides (elements in the same oxidation state)=
SO2 > SeO2 > TeO2 > PoO2

✨
SO3 > SeO3 > TeO3
33. Acidic character of oxide of a particular element (e.g. S)=
SO < SO2 < SO3
SO2 > TeO2 > SeO2 > PoO2

✨ 34. Bond energy of halogens=

Cl2 > Br2 > F2 > I2

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✨ 35. Solubility of halogen in water =
F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > I2

✨ 36. Oxidising power=

F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > I2

✨ 37. Enthalpy of hydration of X ion=

F- > Cl- > Br- >I-

✨ 38. Reactivity of halogens:=

F> Cl> Br > I

✨ 39. Ionic character of M-X bond in halides

= M-F > M-Cl > MBr > M-I

✨ 40. Reducing character of X ion:=

I- > Br- > Cl- > F-

✨ 41. Acidic strength of halogen acids=

HI > HBr > HCI > HF

✨ 42 Reducing property of hydrogen halides

= HF < HCL < HBr < HI

✨ 43. Oxidising power of oxides of chlorine

= Cl2O > ClO2 > Cl206 > Cl2O7

✨ 44. Decreasing ionic size=

02- > F- > Na+ > Mg2+

✨ 45 Increasing acidic property=

Na2O3 < MgO < ZnO< P205

✨ 46 Increasing bond length=

N2 <02 < F2 < CL2

✨ 47 Increasing size=
Ca2+ < Cl- < S2-

✨ 48 Increasing acid strength=

✨
HClO < HClO2 < HClO3 < HClO4
49 Increasing oxidation number of iodine=
HI< I2 <ICl <HIO4

✨ 50. Increasing thermal stability=

HOCl < HOClO < HOClO2 < HOClO3

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Carboxylic acids

🛑 Preparation by oxidation of aldehyde and ketone (two chain of carboxylic acid) using
K2Cr2O7+H2SO4...
By hydrolysis of alkane cyanide..
R-CN+H20+HCl=>RCOOH+NH4Cl
Carboxylic acids form 8 membered ring in non polar solvent..having 2 physical (H bond) and 8

🌐
chemical bonds..

🌐 C1-C3 pungent smell

🛑 C4-C6 unpleasant smell

Alkyl chain is inversly proportional to H bond and Solubility...

🚀Note:acidic strength and Reactivity are Inversly proportional to Chain length...

🤪Esterification is a Nucleophilic substitution Reaction mechanism......
🧭 Acid Halides
RCOOH+SoCl2=>Rcocl2+so2+hcl
Rcooh+pcl5=>Rcocl+pocl3+hcl

🛑 Acid anhydride:
2Carboxylic acid(,P2O5)=>acid anhydride + h20

🍄 Amide formation;
Note it is two step process not formed directly
RCOOH+NH3=>CH3COONH+=>heat=> CH3COONH2+H2O

🍐 Reactivity order:
Acid halides>carboxylic acids>acid anhydride >Esters>Acid amides

🌐 Acidic strength;
Electron withdrwaing groups increase acidity
Electron donating groups decrease acidity
Closer the electron withdrawing group stronger will be the acid

🤭 Fluoro carboxylic acid>cloro>bromo>iodo

Trichloro carboxylic acid>di>mono>carboxyli
Note: Dichloro carboxylic acid>fluoro acid
And dibromo,iodocarboxylic acid,>Fluoro acid
1chlorocarboxylic acid>2chloro>3chloro..

🌐 Acidic strength;
Carboxylic acids>Phenols>water>Alcohols
Exception;only Methylalcohol is more acidic than Water...

🏟️Mineral acids are stringer than organic acids.....

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Aldehydes and Ketones

🌐 CnH2nO both aldehyde and ketone general formula

Carbonyl group
C=O is planar C ,O both are Sp² hybridized
Pi electron is attracted by O towards its self and partial negative charge on O
Aldehydes are more reactive than ketones because having less steric hinderince and less

🛑
electron donating alkyl group thus more electrophilic carbon
Aldehydes with smaller chain are more reactive than longer...

🚀 Aldehydes and ketones show Nucleophilic addition reaction...as there is unsaturation having
pi bond

😋 Aldehydes preparation;
Methanol +O2 {FeO Mo2O3 500C)=> methanal+H20

🤭Methanol+O2(pt/asbestos 300°) methanal +H20

🤭Ethene+O2(Pdcl2+Cucl2(promoter)=> ethanal
🌝Ethanol +[O](Na2Cr2O7)=>ethanal+H20
🎠 Primary alcohols on oxidation =>Aldehydes
Secondary Alcohols=>Ketone
Tertiary alcohols=>no reaction beta elimination and form Alkene

🍎 Ketone preparation
2°Alcohols(K2Cr2O7)=>Ketone

🍄 Aldehydes and ketones give Nucleophilic addition reaction

Base catalyst generates strong Nucleophile
+C=O-=>OH-=>>=-O-C-OH

🗼 Acid catalyst generates strong electrohile

+C=O-=>H+=>>+C-OH
In both acid and base catalysed reaction are Nucleophilic addition reaction,same product also
and product are same in both aldehyde and ketone..

🚖
C+
Aldehyde and ketone +HCN cyanohydrin group is attached to both H+ to O- and CN- to

🧭 Other base catalysed reaction

Addition of Nahso3=> all R-CHO and only methly ketones...give this reaction
Aldol condensation=> dil NaOH +alpha hudrogen =>aldol=>both aldehyde and ketone group
present
Cannizaros reaction=>50%NaOH+ no alpha hudrogen disproportionate reaction...
Halofrom reaction=>acetyl group or methyl ketonic group

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🍅Acid catalysed reaction (addition reaction (adduct)}
🤪 DNPH(di-nitro-phenol hydrazine)
X+2,4DNPH=>X2,4DNPH+H20

😅 Note:X can be any aldehyde and ketone group and in product it will be same as reactant
And in reactant it is Hydrazine
And in product it is Hydrazone+H20

😁 Aldehyde by reaction with 2,4 DNPH gives Yellow colouration

And Ketone gives Red colour

😑 Reaction with NaBH4/LiAlH4

Partial reduction
Aldehydes to primary Alcohols

♨️
Ketones to seconds Alcohols by partial reduction
Note:NaBH4/LiAlH4 don't reduces Alkyne and alkenes becuase These NaBH4, LiAlH4
generayes H- and in alkene there must be an electrohile and H- is a Nucleophile..

🔴
🤭Note:NaBH4 Don't do partial reduction of Carboxylic acid to alcohols
NaBH4 and LiAlH4 don't do partial reduction of double bonds or tripple bond...

But LiAlH4 do partial reduction of Carboxylic acid to their relevant Alcohols...

😆 Differentiation reaction Aldehyde and Ketone

Aldehyde reacts with mild oxidizing agents
And ketone don't react
For ketone strong oxidizing agent is required

🥳 Tollens Test:Silver mirror test

(AgNO3+NH4OH) Aldehyde aromatic+ aliphatic both give this reaction
Aldehydes are reucing agent
Its a redox reaction
Ketone don't give this reaction

🤗 Fehling's solution test:

(CuSO4+NaOH+Tartaric acid)
Brick red ppt of Cu2O by only Aliphatic Aldehydes, Ketone don't give this reaction

🤗 Benedict's solution test:

(CuSO4+NaOH+Citric acid)
Just like fehling's test...

🤗 Sodium nitroprusside test(Na[Fs(CN)NO]

Ketone give this reaction
Aldehyde don't give this reaction

🥰 Iodoform test;
Compounds containing methyl ketonic group show this test yellow ppt of CHI3 is formed

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Acetaldehyde+3I+NaOH=> CHI3+ Hcoona+ 3NaI+3H20

🤩
🤩 In primary Alcohols only ethylalcohol give this reaction

😍 In secondary alcohols 2-Ol give this reaction

🥰InIn aldehydes inly acetaldehyde give this reaction..

Ketones all methyl ketone show this reaction..

🟧 Aldol condensation:
Aldehydes and ketones having alpha Hudrogen give this reaction

🟧 Cannizros Reaction:
Aldehydes and ketones having no alpha hudrogen gives this reaction

Alcohols

11 june

🍊
CnH2n+2,O..
Preparation of methylalcohol/ carbinol, zerone
Co+2H2(ZnO+Cr2O3+450°C +200atm)=>CH3OH
Ethanol/grain alcohol
Ethene+H2SO4 ethyl hydrogen sulphate +H20 100°C =>ethyl alcohol

🍍 Preparation of alcohol by fermentation

From molasses 60%sucrose solution
Sucrose>(yeast, invertase)glucose+sucrose
Glucose+fructose=>(yeast ,zymase)>ethanol +Co2

🥬 Alcohol From starch:

Starch>(yeadt,diastase)>maltose
Maltose=>(yeast ,maltase)=>2Glucose
Glucose=>(yeast, zymase)=>ethanol Co2

🍇 By industrial we get upto 12-14%alcohol

By redistillation=>we get 95% ethyl alcohol
And by lime distillation we get 100% ethyl alcohol
100% alcohol is absolute alcohol

🍅 For avoiding drinking purpose of alcohol we mix it with some denaturation

Like methyl,pyridine,acetone 10%
90%ethyl alcohol=>then it is called denatured alcohol

🍐 Lower alcohols are colourless and toxic liquid sweet smell and burning taste
Solubility=>readily soluble in water due to H bond but in higher alcohols it decreases

🍎 Reaction of alcohols R-OH(R-O bond breakage)

R-oH+Pcl5>pocl3+Hcl+R-Cl
Roh>+pcl3>h3po3+Rcl

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Roh+socl2>Hcl+so2+Rcl note hcl and so2 are gases thus purest Alkyl halide is formed
Reactivity;
Tertiary alcohols>2ndry>primary

🍄 Reaction of alcohols(ROH =>O-H bond breakage)

Roh+2Na=>RONa+H2
Roh+Naoh==>RONa+h20
Roh+rcooh=>ester
Note H+ from alcohol and Oh from carboxylic acid

🍆 Oxidation reaction
Primary alcohols (K2Cr2O7+H2SO4)=> Aldehydes
Secondary Alcohols (K2Cr2O7+H2SO4)=> Ketones
Tertiary alcohols (K2Cr2O7+H2SO4)=> don't show reaction and show beta Elimination reaction
and form Alkene

🛑Note tertiary alcohols by oxidation form 🚜Alkenes (by beta elimination reaction)
🧭 Dehydration of Alcohols
Ethyl alcohols (Conc H2SO4) 180°=> ethene +H20

🚒
Ethyl alcohol (Conc H2SO4) 140°=> ether is formed
Note by decreasing temp from two molecule one Water molecule is removed but in 180°C
from one molecule of alcohol one water is removed
And in same reaction if aluminum oxide Al2O3 is used then only Alkene are formed by alcohols
what is the temp..
Doesn't matter if there is tertiary 2ndry or primary alcohols..

🚀 Lucas test;🚀
Distinguish between 1°2°3° Alcohols
Lucas reagent is Zncl2+Hcl
Alcohol+lucas reagent=> Alkyl halide +H20
An oily layer is formed after reaction

🚓 Primary alcohols Don't show lucas test

No oily layer is formed(but gives by heating)
Secondary alcohols show lucas test oily layer is formed after 5-10minutes
Tertiary alcohols show lucas test oily layer is immediately formed....

🚕 Iodoform test:🛺
Distinguish between methanol and ethanol
In primary alcohols only ethanol gives iodoform test.....

🎠 Phenols;benzene +one or more Oh groups

Carbolic acid is the simplest phenol
Benzen+Oh=>carbolic acid, benzinol or simplest phenol

🚀 Phenol preparation by dows process

Chlorobenzene+base(NaOh)=> phenoxide

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Phenoxide+Hcl=>phenol

🗽Phenol is acidic in nature that's why it only reacts with strong bases
🗼Phenol +Zn dust=>Benzene
🚖 Nitration=>phenol+dilture HNO3 (nitric acid )
Ortho , para nitrophenol mixture

🏕️ Phenol+Dilute nitric acid=>2,4,6 nitrophenol

2,4,6 nitrophenol=>Picric acid

🏟️Sulphonation=>phenol+H2so4=>ortho, or para mixture is produced

🌐Halogenation=>phenol+bromine water=> 2,4،6 bromo phenol
🌐Hydrogenation of phenol +3H2 => Cyclohexanol is formed
🌐 Backellite formation;Synthetic rubber
Formaldehyde (methanal +phenol)=> ortho hydrozy, para hydroxy benzyl alcohol

Alkyl Halides

😐
11 june

🤭 Halothane=>an anesthesia, optically active compound(beta carbon is chiral carbon)

Name:2,bromo,2,chloro,1,1,1 trifluoroethane

🥶 Freons:(CF2Cl2)
Aerosols propellents,are refrigents
Ozone depletion

🤡 Chloroform:(CHCl3)
Polar solvent, anesthetics, specimens preservation
Carbon tetrachloride (CCl4):
Non polar solvent, produce freons
Fire extinguisher

👻 Teflones-(CF2-CF2)-:
Tetrafluoro ethylene
Corrosion free machines, covering wires
Non stick pan, utensils quality plastic
Electrical neutral

😋 Alkyl halides reactions;

Are highly reactive , show substitution and elimination Reactions and don't show addition
reactions
Are saturated

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⚡
Reactivity:
R-I>R-Br>R-Cl>R-F

💢 Nucleophilic substitution reaction:

💝
Stronger nucleophile substitute weaker nucleophile
SN2:
In primary alkyl halides
Non polar solvent
Rate is directly proportional to nucleophile and substrate
Biomolecular Reactions
Follow 2nd order kinetics
Nucleophile attacks backside of leaving group
100%Inversion
No Carbocation intermediate....
Need a strong nucleophile..
Ease of SN2 reaction;
1°>2°>3° alkyl halides

🤥 SN1:
In tertiary alkyl halides
Polar solvent
2 step mechanism
1st step is slow and rate determining step
2nd step is fast
Rate is directly proportional to only substrate
Unimolecular reaction
1st order kinetics
Nucleophile can attack both side

🥴
50%inversion and 50%retention
Racemic mixture formation
Reaction occurs either strong or weak nucleophile
Ease of SN1 reaction:
3°>2°>1°

💛 Note:SN1 is faster than SN2 instead of having two steps

And SN2 reaction needs strong nucleophile
But SN1 Reactions doesn't depends upon strength of nucleophile

🟨SN1 and E1 rate is affected by nature of leaving group

🤮Nucleophilic substitution (SN) reaction occurs in presence of a strong nucleophile
❤️Elimination reaction occurs in presence of a strong Base
😇Elimination reactions in alcoholic medium presence of a strong base
💦 E1:
Unimolecular, strong base, complete in two step, 1st step is just like SN1 reaction

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Ease of reaction 3°>2>1
In result alkene are formed from alkyl halide

😁 E2:
Bimolecular, strong base, complete in one step
Ease of reaction 1°>2>3

🥳Note:There must be a beta Hydrogen for elimination reaction if no beta H no elimination

Hydrocarbons

🧡 Alkanes CnH2n+2 general formula

Are parrafin, least reactive and sp3 hybridizaed, 25%S character which is directly proportional to
ionic character and E.N

🤒
Are non polar and weak intermolecular forces
Low melting and boiling point
C1-C4 gases
C5-C17 liquid
C18vsolids..

🔴 Stability order:
Alkane,Benzene,Alkyne,Alkene

💥 Combustion:
CH4 +2O² (excess oxygen)=>Co2 +2h2O
∆H=-892kj/mol
Note for balance equation
No of carbon dioxide molecule=no of C
And No of H20 are =1/2 half of H atom

🖤 If there is no excess of oxygen

There will be no production of Co2
CH4=>Co,C,H20....

💦 By oxidation of methane we get Co2 and H20 but catalytic oxidation of all other alkanes we
get carboxylic acids..

♥️
Alkane=>alcohol=>aldehyde/ketone =>carboxylic acid
Catalyst are Cu+400°C +200atm
K²Cr²O⁷+H2SO4
KMnO4+H2SO4 are catalyst produce nascent oxygen....

🌚 Free radical substitution to alkane by replacement of H...

Neither electrophilic nor nucleophilic substitution...because alkane are non polar...
Reactivity=F>Cl>Br>I

♥️Alkenes;olefins
Most reactive hydrocarbons having double bond

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Show Beta elimination reaction mechanism (Hydrogen elemenated at Beta Carbon alpha

💚
attached to halogens)
There must be Beta hydrogen for example neopentyl chlorife having no beta hydrogen thus
not gonna show reaction
For Beta elimination reaction mechanism Alcoholic base=>Alkene

=>>HBr+H202=>>Antimarkonikovs rule

⚡(Note if medium is Aquous then =>Alcohols are formed)

💙 Alkene formation by dehydration of alcohols
Also beta elimination reaction mechanism
Al2O3 340-450°C

🤮Alkene formation by partial reduction of Alkynes

♨️Pd(BaSO4)quinoline =>Lindlars catalyst Cis alkene=>alkynes partial reduction♨️
♨️Na+Liquid ammonia=>Birch synthesis Trans alkene by partial reduction of alkyne♨️
♥️Reactivity=Alkene>Alkyne>Benzene>Alkane
👺 By hydrogenation Vegetable ghee formation
Alkene=>pd/pt Ni 250°C=> alkane

🤍In sabatier sandernns reaction Raney nickel is used 100°C 3atm...

🤭 Bayer's Test:
1%Cold alkaline KMnO4 by raction with alkene adds two OH group adjacent carbon by
breakage of double bond
By reaction with alkyne it only adds Oxygen to two adjacent carbon where is triple bond
Bayer's test used to check unsaturation of Alkene,Alkyne...

🧡Hot KMnO4 is used for formation of carboxylic acids,ketone,according to type of alkene

💦 Ozonolysis used to locate the position of double bond
By Alkene aldehyde and ketone are formed

🥶 Polythene or polyethylene
-[Ch=Ch]- ziggler natta catalyst is used AlCl3 +TiCl4 400°C 100atm

😇 Benzene😇
Highest ratio of C/H
Lowest ratio of H/C
C-C =1.397A C-H 1.09A
Bond angle is 120

😇
Sp² hybridized , one unhybridized orbital pz orbital
Regular hexagonal planar structure

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😇 Heat of hydrogenation for Benzene
Is -208kj/mol as there are 3 pi bonds
For 1 pi bond heat of hydrogenation is -190.5 kj/mol for 3 is 358.5kj/mol but for benezene 3pi
bonds it is 208kj/mol so benezene resonating energy is 150.5kkj/mol
Benzene don't show polymerization and elimination Reaction..

🤡 Hydrogenation of benzene
Benzene +3H2 (Ni+200°C,pt h³o+)=>cyclohexane

👻 Note 3 molecules of hydrogen

And 6 hydrogen atom for hydrogenation of benezene is used

🤭Benzene ring is oxidized by very strong oxidizing agent V2O5

🤒 For side chain reaction in benzene one carbon atom is oxidized by 3[O]
For methyl 3[O]
For ethyle 6[O]

💜 Ortho para (2,4)directing groups are ring activating groups, except halogens still they are
deactivating but they are ortho para directing groups due to strong indictive effect,they increase
electron density at ortho and para position

💗 Meta directing groups are deactivating groups which decreases electron density at Meta
position (3,5)

Organic compounds

😇
9june
Cracking/Pyrolysis

❤️
Higher to lower hydrocarbons

💦 Thermal cracking;under high temp,lower un satirated hyrocarbon obtained (petrochemicals)

Steam cracking;at 900°C and rapid cooling, lower unsaturated hydrochemicals

💛
(petrochemicals)
Caralytic cracking:by using catalyst SiO2+Al2O3+500°C +2atm
To increase quantity and also quality of gasoline

🤥 Nucleophile=>directly proportional to size of molecuele, and inversly proportional to E.N and

👺Alkene,alkyne, benzene NH3, are also nucleophile

Basic character

🥰 Free radical;bearing an unpaired or odd e- specie

Are result of homolytic cleavage
Electricaly neutral and paramagnetic in nature (attracted by magnet)
Stability=>3°>2>1
Shortlived (intermediate in reactions)

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👻 Carboanion=>stability 1°>2>3
Carbocation=>stability 3°>2>1
Carboanion and cation are formed result of heterolytic cleavage of bond
Are short lived...

😋 Alkane shows only chain isomerism

And also confirmational isomerism

🤍 Functional isomers
Aldehyde and ketone
Alcohol and ether
Carboxylic acids and esters

😋 Metamerism
Distribution of carbon chain either side of functional group

🤮 Tautomerism,( dynamic isomerism, prototropism,keto-enol isomerism, karyotropism:) is due

to shifting of H b)w atom...

😅 Geometric isomerism, Configurational

Alkane,alkyne don't show geometric isomerism
Only alkene shows geometric isomerism

🌝 Cis-form

🤭
Polar molecules thus have strong Inter molecular forces and that's why have High B.p
Dipole is not zero
Strong Inter molecular force
High B.P
Low M.P
Loose packing, Unsymmetrical
B.P depends upon IMF and M.P depends upon intermolecular forces

🤪 Trans-form
Dipole moment is zero
And non polar thus weaker intermolecular forces
High M.P
Low B.P
Compact packing, symmetrical

😑 Optical isomerism
Shown by chiral carbon
-ve lactic acid=>dextro form rotates light right side and found in sour milk

😅 +Ve lactic acid acid =>leavo form, rotates light left side
Mirror images are called enantiomers

😁Lactic acid IUPAC name;2 hydroxy propionic acid,propanoic acid

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😂 In amino acids all are optically active except the glycine because having similar group of
H..thus no chiral carbon(having different group on four sides)

🤣=>Halothane formula:2 bromo,2 chloro,1,1,1 trifluoroethane

Transition metals

🤒 All transition elements are metals

3d series=>4th period Sc21 to Zn30
Each series has 10 element as d has only 5 orbitals
4d series Y39 to Cd48 5th period
5d series La Hg80
6d series Ac89 to Cn112.
D block elements are called outer transition elements

🤥 F block elements are also called inner transition elements has 14 elemts in one series 7
Orbital
Lanthanides Ce58 to Lu71
Actinides Th90 to Lr103

🥴Sc=>iiiB to Mn viiB Fe,Co,Ni ViiiB Cu=>iB Zn=>iiB

🤭 Group iB(Cu,Ag,Au) are coinage metals have highest conductivity
Group iiB(Zn,Cd,Hg) are pseudo transition metals or non typical transition metals

🤮 Group iiB and iiiB are non typical transition elements

ViB=>Cr,Mo,W has highest melting and boiling point
W has highest Mp and Bp among three...

🤔 Radii=>1st decreases from iiiB to viA then constant viiB,viiiB(Mn,Fe,Co,Ni) and then
increases iB,iiB

🌝Cromium has the highest heat of atomisation in the periodic table

😅 D series general electronic configuration
(n-1)d¹-¹⁰,ns¹-²
Note electron will be added in d at last and will be released from S orbital...

🥰Cr,Mo,W,Cu,Au,Ag show abnormal electronic configuration

😋 Oxidation state:
Variable oxidation state except Zn(which shows only +2 oxidation state)
Common oxidation state in transition elements is +2 (which is common in all)
Oxidation state which is commonly found in transition elements is +6
Oxidation in transition elements periods 1st increase then decrease
Higher oxidation state is directly proportional to Covalent character and acidic strength

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😑Low oxidation state is directly proportional to ionic character and basic strength
🤪 Transition elements used as catalyst having vacant d orbitals and surface for adsorption and
showing variable Oxidation state
Eg=> TiCl⁴+(C²H⁵)³ Ziegler natta catalyst
V²O⁵,Ni,Cu,Fe,Pt,....

Groups

🔥
7 june

🎧 2 groups s can have only two electrons

😛
🙄
Group:1=ns¹=>M+¹(Li Na K Rb Cs Fr)
Group:2ns²=M+²(Be Mg Ca Sr Ba Ra)
Be is not counted in alkaline earth metals it is rare

😳
😆 In S groups down group size increase

😉
🟤
Left to right size decrease

Down the group in S blocks ionisation enthalpy decreases and Cs has least 😊Ionization
Be is samllest incsize in S group

enthalpy in periodic table

🔥 Hydration energy decrease down the group

Size is inversly proportional to Hydration energy

🔥 Flame coloration
Li=>Red
Na=>golden yellow
K=>liliac,pink
Rb=>red (reddish violet)
Cs=>Blue
Fr=>radioactive

🤭
,
Be=>No colour
Mg=>No colour
Ca=>orange red
Sr=>red

🔵
Ba=>pale green
(Cu=>blue green)
(Pb=>greyish white)

👺 Reaction with water:

2M+2H20=>2MOH+H2+ energy
Down the group reactivity increase

📛 Melting and Boiling point decreases down the group=>s group

Mg has lowest melting and boiling point
Due to its loose hexagonal arrangement

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B.p=>HF>HI>HBr>HCl
B.P=>RI>RBr>RCl

🔥 Melting and Boiling point increase from left to right upto IV-A group then Decreases in period
due to first increasing and then decreasing the no of unpaired electrons...

💥 In group IA to IV-A decreases down the group

In group V to ViiiA decrease down group

⭐ Mg has lowest melting and boiling point...

Silicon (Si) has highest melting and boiling point increment in its group

⚡Down the group conductivity increases as size increase and metallic character increase
🌚 Effective nuclear charge left to right increases that's why size decreases and top to bottom
decreases and size increases

🤮 And atomic radii decreases left to right and increases down the group as shell and shielding
effect increases
Note:No variation in atomic radii
Continuous decrrasing or increasing

🌝 Ionic radii
Cation<neutral atom<Anion

🥶Effective nuclewr charge is attraction of proton ,nucleus felt by last, valence electrons
🤥 Reaction with Oxygen.
Li=>normal oxide(Oxide)=>Li2O =>-2
Oxidation

Na=>Peroxide=>Na2O2. =>-1
K=>Superoxide=>KO2 =>-1/2
Rb=>superoxide=>RbO2=>-1/2
Cs=>superoxide=>CsO2=>-1/2
Fr radioactive
Size =>normal oxide<peroxide<superoxide

🥴 Be,Mg,Ca form oxides (normal oxide)

Sr,Ba form Peroxides

👺 Mg(OH)2 milk of magnesia

Controls acidity

💦 Reaction with Halogens

Reactivity:metals=>Li>Na>K>Rb>Cs
Halogens=>F>Cl>Br>I

👻Li highest polarising power in it's group because of small in size

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😇 (Be)Beryllium and Aluminum (Al) oxide,Hydroxide are amphoteric
Zinc (Zn) also form amphoteric oxides
Beryllium is hard metal form covalent compounds
Beryllium is hard that it can scratch a glass
Form covalent bonds
Max covalent character
Don't react with water even in red hot conditons

🤒 Alkaline earth metals nitrites when they are hydrolised, reaction with water,they produce
ammonia

🤡 F=>pale yellow gas

Cl=>grenish yellow gas
Br=>orange red liquid
I=>greenish black solid
Oxidizing power=>F,Cl,,Br,I
E.N same
E.A=>Cl,F,Br,I
Bond energy Cl,Br,F,I
Fluorine can replace all halogens
I can't replace another halogen

♥️Permanent bleaching=> nascent oxygen[O]

Temporary bleaching=>nascent hydrogen

💖Freons=>Chlorofluorocarbons are refrigents ,coolents

💚 Teflons[CF2-CF2]=>quality plastic ,stable in acid and bases , non stick utensils
Halothane=>F3-C-C-Cl-Br is an anesthesia
Chloroform anasthesia
Pyrene CCl4 non polar solvent
AgBr photography fungicide

💙 Ionisation energy is always required, always endothermic, always +Ve

2nd Ionization energy is always greater than its 1st Ionization energy

💛 Penetration effect:s>p>d>f
Ionization energy increases from left to right but due to complete,half filled orbitals are stable
and show variations are group IIA,IVA...

🧡Top to bottom ionisation energy drcreases

❤️ Ionisation energy trend in period
IA<IIIA<IIA<IVA<VIA<VA<VII<VIII
Some groups are showing variations due to their complete and half filled orbital stability

♥️Orbital stability

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Complete filled>half filled>partially filled
Group showing completely filled orbitals are IIA ns² and VIIIA ns²,np⁶
Group showing half filled IA ns¹, IV A ns²,np³

🖤 For comparison of Ionization energy check the filling of orbitals either half,completely or
partially..

💜 E.N incrrases left to right and decreases top to bottom

It is a molecular property having no units
∆E.N=0-0.5=non polar
∆E.N=0.5-1.6=polar covalent
∆E.N=1.7 (50%covalent and 50%Ionic)
∆E.N=1.8 ionic
Note:in Bond b/w H-F having difference of E.N 1.9 still it is a highly polar covalent bond not an
ionic
Fluorine has highest E.N 4.0
And Cesium has the lowest E.N=0.7
E.N is zero for noble gases
Fluorine is the single element by bonding with oxygen, oxygen shows positive oxidation state
and have -ve oxidation state by forming bond with other atoms
E.N>F>O>N

💗 Electron affinity
1st E.A may be +ve or -ve but 2nd ,3rd... are always gonna be endothermic +ve for an atom
E.A increases left to right and Decreases top to bottom
But some variations are there due to half and complete filled orbitals group IA has higher affinity
than IIA and for same group IV has higher E.A than VA
So II<I<III<V<IV<VI<VII
E.A=Cl>Br>F>I

💢 Conductance:
Left to right Decreases top to bottom increases
Depends upon:
Metallic character, no of free electrons , packing of ions
Conductivity trend=Ag(silver)>Cu>Au(gold)
>Al>Na
Coal=>sp³ hybridization => no conductivity no free electrons and tetrahedral struture
Diamond=>sp³ hybridization no conductance cubical packing(tetrahedral)
Graphite=>sp² hybridization=> hexagonal paking and conductor

💫
Ozone..
Oxidation stat;
Increases left to right
Variations in groups due to d and f subshell
Usually group no is max oxidation number
The Fluorine is the only atom having single oxidation state -1 (Only -ve because no atom has
more E.N than Fluorine)
Noble gases also shows oxidation state of +-2,4,6,8

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💛Oxidation state is directly proportional to Covalent character and Acidic strength
❤️ Hydration energy:
Is directly proportional to charge density and inversly proportional to size

💥
🧡Note Aluminum with Iodine forms Covalent bond
Amphoteric oxides:
Be,Al,Zn forms amphoteric oxides

💝 Ionic oxides are Basic

Covalent oxides are Acidic

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