Plasma membrane

The cell membrane (also known as the plasma membrane (PM) or cytoplasmic
membrane, and historically referred to as the plasmalemma) is a biological
membrane that separates the interior of all cells from the outside environment (the
extracellular space) which protects the cell from its environment.

Cell membrane consists of a lipid bilayer, including cholesterols (a lipid

component) that sit between phospholipids to maintain their fluidity under various
temperature, in combination with membrane proteins such as integral proteins,
and peripheral proteins that go across inside and outside of the membrane serving
as membrane transporter, and loosely attached to the outer (peripheral) side of the
cell membrane acting as several kinds of enzymes shaping the cell, respectively.

The cell membrane controls the movement of substances in and out of cells and
organelles. In this way, it is selectively permeable to ions and organic molecules. In
addition, cell membranes are involved in a variety of cellular processes such as cell
adhesion, ion conductivity and cell signalling and serve as the attachment surface
for several extracellular structures, including the cell wall, the carbohydrate layer
called the glycocalyx, and the intracellular network of protein fibers called
the cytoskeleton

Ultra structure and composition of

Plasma membrane :

The principal components of the plasma membrane are lipids (phospholipids and

cholesterol), proteins, and carbohydrate groups that are attached to some of the

lipids and proteins.

 A phospholipid is a lipid made of glycerol, two fatty acid tails, and a phosphate-

linked head group. Biological membranes usually involve two layers of

phospholipids with their tails pointing inward, an arrangement called

a phospholipid bilayer.

 Cholesterol, another lipid composed of four fused carbon rings, is found alongside

phospholipids in the core of the membrane.

 Membrane proteins may extend partway into the plasma membrane, cross the

membrane entirely, or be loosely attached to its inside or outside face.

 Carbohydrate groups are present only on the outer surface of the plasma membrane

and are attached to proteins, forming glycoproteins, or lipids, forming glycolipids.

The proportions of proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates in the plasma membrane

vary between different types of cells. For a typical human cell, however, proteins

account for about 50 percent of the composition by mass, lipids (of all types)

account for about 40 percent, and the remaining 10 percent comes from

carbohydrates,20% water.

1. Phospholipids

Phospholipids, arranged in a bilayer, make up the basic fabric of the plasma

membrane. They are well-suited for this role because they are amphipathic,

meaning that they have both hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions.

Chemical structure of a phospholipid, showing the hydrophilic head and

hydrophobic tails.

The hydrophilic, or “water-loving,” portion of a phospholipid is its head, which

contains a negatively charged phosphate group as well as an additional small group

(of varying identity, “R” in the diagram at left), which may also or be charged or

polar. The hydrophilic heads of phospholipids in a membrane bilayer face outward,

contacting the aqueous (watery) fluid both inside and outside the cell. Since water is

a polar molecule, it readily forms electrostatic (charge-based) interactions with the

phospholipid heads.

The hydrophobic, or “water-fearing,” part of a phospholipid consists of its long,

nonpolar fatty acid tails. The fatty acid tails can easily interact with other nonpolar

molecules, but they interact poorly with water. Because of this, it’s more

energetically favorable for the phospholipids to tuck their fatty acid tails away in

the interior of the membrane, where they are shielded from the surrounding water.

The phospholipid bilayer formed by these interactions makes a good barrier

between the interior and exterior of the cell, because water and other polar or

charged substances cannot easily cross the hydrophobic core of the membrane.

Thanks to their amphipathic nature, phospholipids aren’t just well-suited to form a

membrane bilayer. Instead, this is something they’ll do spontaneously under the

right conditions! In water or aqueous solution, phospholipids tend to arrange

themselves with their hydrophobic tails facing each other and their hydrophilic

heads facing out. If the phospholipids have small tails, they may form a micelle (a

small, single-layered sphere), while if they have bulkier tails, they may form

a liposome.

2. Proteins (20-70%) :

Proteins are the second major component of plasma membranes. There are two

main categories of membrane proteins: integral and peripheral.

Integral membrane proteins are, as their name suggests, integrated into the

membrane: they have at least one hydrophobic region that anchors them to the

hydrophobic core of the phospholipid bilayer. Some stick only partway into the

membrane, while others stretch from one side of the membrane to the other and are

exposed on either side^11start superscript, 1, end superscript. Proteins that extend

all the way across the membrane are called transmembrane proteins.
The portions of an integral membrane protein found inside the membrane are

hydrophobic, while those that are exposed to the cytoplasm or extracellular fluid

tend to be hydrophilic. Transmembrane proteins may cross the membrane just

once, or may have as many as twelve different membrane-spanning sections. A

typical membrane-spanning segment consists of 20-25 hydrophobic amino acids

arranged in an alpha helix, although not all transmembrane proteins fit this model.

Peripheral membrane proteins are found on the outside and inside surfaces of

membranes, attached either to integral proteins or to phospholipids. Unlike integral

membrane proteins, peripheral membrane proteins do not stick into the

hydrophobic core of the membrane, and they tend to be more loosely attached.

Type Description Examples

Span the membrane and have a

hydrophilic cytosolic domain, which interacts with
Integral proteins internal molecules, a hydrophobic membrane-spanning Ion
or domain that anchors it within the cell membrane, and a channels, proton
transmembrane hydrophilic extracellular domain that interacts with pumps, G protein-
proteins external molecules. The hydrophobic domain consists of coupled receptor
one, multiple, or a combination of α-helices and β
sheet protein motifs.

Covalently bound to single or multiple lipid molecules;

Lipid anchored hydrophobically insert into the cell membrane and
G proteins
proteins anchor the protein. The protein itself is not in contact
with the membrane.

Attached to integral membrane proteins, or associated

with peripheral regions of the lipid bilayer. These Some
Peripheral
proteins tend to have only temporary interactions with enzymes, some
proteins
biological membranes, and once reacted, the molecule hormones
dissociates to carry on its work in the cytoplasm.
 3. Carbohydrates (1-5%) :

Carbohydrates are the third major component of plasma membranes. In general,

they are found on the outside surface of cells and are bound either to proteins

(forming glycoproteins) or to lipids (forming glycolipids). These carbohydrate

chains may consist of 2-60 monosaccharide units and can be either straight or

branched.

Along with membrane proteins, these carbohydrates form distinctive cellular

markers, sort of like molecular ID badges, that allow cells to recognize each other.

These markers are very important in the immune system, allowing immune cells to

differentiate between body cells, which they shouldn’t attack, and foreign cells or

tissues, which they should.

4. 20%water .

Membrane fluidity :

The structure of the fatty acid tails of the phospholipids is important in

determining the properties of the membrane, and in particular, how fluid it is.

Saturated fatty acids have no double bonds (are saturated with hydrogens), so they

are relatively straight. Unsaturated fatty acids, on the other hand, contain one or

more double bonds, often resulting in a bend or kink. The saturated and

unsaturated fatty acid tails of phospholipids behave differently as temperature

drops:

 At cooler temperatures, the straight tails of saturated fatty acids can pack tightly

together, making a dense and fairly rigid membrane.

 Phospholipids with unsaturated fatty acid tails cannot pack together as tightly

because of the bent structure of the tails. Because of this, a membrane containing

unsaturated phospholipids will stay fluid at lower temperatures than a membrane

made of saturated ones.

Most cell membranes contain a mixture of phospholipids, some with two saturated

(straight) tails and others with one saturated and one unsaturated (bent) tail. Many

organisms—fish are one example—can adjust physiologically to cold environments

by changing the proportion of unsaturated fatty acids in their membranes. For more

information about saturated and unsaturated fatty acids, see the article on lipids.

In addition to phospholipids, animals have an additional membrane component that

helps to maintain fluidity. Cholesterol, another type of lipid that is embedded

among the phospholipids of the membrane, helps to minimize the effects of

temperature on fluidity.

At low temperatures, cholesterol increases fluidity by keeping phospholipids from

packing tightly together, while at high temperatures, it actually reduces

fluidity^{3,4}3,4start superscript, 3, comma, 4, end superscript. In this way,

cholesterol expands the range of temperatures at which a membrane maintains a

functional, healthy fluidity.

The components of the plasma membrane

Component Location
Phospholipids Main fabric of the membrane
Tucked between the hydrophobic tails of the membrane
Cholesterol phospholipids
Embedded in the phospholipid bilayer; may or may not
Integral proteins extend through both layers
Peripheral On the inner or outer surface of the phospholipid bilayer,
proteins but not embedded in its hydrophobic core
Attached to proteins or lipids on the extracellular side of
Carbohydrates the membrane (forming glycoproteins and glycolipids)
 Fluid mosaic model
It was proposed by Singer and Nicolson (1972) and is the most accepted model.

 According to their model, cell membranes are composed of a lipid bilayer

with globular proteins embedded in the bilayer.
 Lipid bilayer mainly has 2 layers of phospholipids, the nonpolar tails point
towards the inner side and the polar heads are on the surface.
 The layer also consists of cholesterol in animal cells.
 The layer allows proteins to move around within the bilayer as it is fluid.
 This arrangement ensures resistance to water.
 Membrane transport system
Two types of the transport system are seen in the plasma membrane. They are
passive and active transport systems.

1. Passive transport: It occurs by 2 means, diffusion and osmosis. No energy is

spent in this type of transport system.

 Diffusion- Diffusion is the net movement of particles (atoms, ions or

molecules) from a region of higher concentration to regions of lower
concentration. It continues until the concentration of substances is uniform
throughout. It is further of two types:
o Simple Diffusion: whereby molecules pass through a membrane without
any intermediary such as an integral membrane protein.
o Facilitated Diffusion: whereby molecules or ions pass across a cell's
membrane via specific transmembrane integral proteins. It can be

Channel Proteins Mediated Transport Carrier Proteins Mediated Transport

Carrier proteins can change their shape

Channel proteins span the membrane
to move a target molecule from one side
and form pores, allowing free diffusion of
of the membrane to the other by binding
molecules.
with them non - covalently.

It does not undergo any conformational

It undergoes conformational changes
changes.

Carrier proteins are typically Selective for

It is selective in nature
one or a few substances.

It allows the movement of polar and The carrier proteins involved in

charged compounds in order to avoid the facilitated diffusion simply provide
hydrophobic core of the plasma hydrophilic molecules with a way to
membrane, which would otherwise slow move down an existing concentration
or block their entry into the cell. gradient (rather than acting as pumps).

 Osmosis- It is the diffusion of water across a semipermeable membrane that

occurs under the influence of an osmotically active solution.

2. Active transport: It requires energy and occurs against a concentration gradient i.e. from
lower concentration to higher concentration. Special proteins within the cell membrane act
as specific protein ‘carriers’. The energy for active transport comes from ATP generated by
respiration (in mitochondria). It occurs by two means

 Na+-K+ exchange pump- These transport pumps require energy i.e. ATP. The
pump works across n number of animal membranes.
  Bulk transport- It is the movement of macromolecules such as proteins or
polysaccharides into and out of the cell. Bulk transport occurs by exocytosis
and endocytosis. Both of these require ATP.
o Endocytosis is the process wherein the materials move into the cell
rather is engulfed by the cell. The process occurs by an infolding or
extension of plasma the membrane to form a vacuole or a vesicle (small
vacuole).
o Exocytosis is the process wherein the materials are exported out of the
cell via secretory vesicles by reverse pinocytosis. Exocytosis is also
known as reverse endocytosis.

3. Facilitated Diffusion :
Facilitated diffusion is the passive movement of molecules along the concentration
gradient. It is a selective process, i.e., the membrane allows only selective molecules
and ions to pass through it. It, however, prevents other molecules from passing through
the membrane. The electric charge and pH helps in the diffusion across the membrane.
In living systems, the lipid based membrane creates compartments which allow the
transport of a selective concentration of water-soluble substances. The ions, small
molecules, proteins, and other solutes have different concentration across the
membranes. Hydrophilic, polar or charged molecules cannot cross the membrane.
Factors Affecting Facilitated Diffusion
Brownian motion is the force behind the diffusion of fluids. The main factors affecting the process of
facilitated diffusion are:
 Temperature- As the temperature increases, the movement of the molecules increases due to
an increase in energy.
 Concentration- The movement of the molecules takes place from the region of higher
concentration to lower concentration.
 Diffusion Distance- The diffusion rate is faster through smaller distance than through the
larger distance. For eg., gas diffuses much faster through a thin wall than through a thick wall.
 Size of the molecules- The smaller molecules are lighter and hence diffuse faster than the
larger molecules.

Importance of Facilitated Diffusion

Not every molecule can cross the cell membranes. The molecules should be small
and non-polar to traverse the membrane. For eg., glucose is a large molecule that
cannot diffuse across the cell membrane. Ions like sodium, potassium, and calcium
are charged and are repelled by the cell membrane. Amino acids and nucleic acids
are polar and too large to cross the cell membrane. Also, the water movement across
the membrane in bulk is difficult at times.
To facilitate these transfer of substances across the membrane, certain integral
membrane proteins or the transmembrane proteins are required. They are channel
proteins and carrier proteins.

Transmembrane Proteins
Transmembrane proteins are the proteins present in the cell membrane that
facilitate the movement of certain molecules across the membrane. There are
certain channel proteins and carrier proteins that accelerate the transport process.
 Channel Proteins: These help in the entry and exit of substances in the cell.
There are two types of channel proteins, open channel proteins, and gated
channel proteins. Open channel proteins create a pore in the cell membrane
and allow the charged molecules to pass through. The gated channel proteins
are either closed or open and regulate the entry and exit of substances.
 Carrier Proteins: These are present on the cell membrane. They carry the
molecules, change the confirmation of the molecules and release the
molecules to the other side. Temperature and saturation affect the carrier
proteins.
There are certain transmembrane proteins that help in the movement of solutes and
ions.

Examples of Facilitated Diffusion

Glucose Transporter
These facilitate the transport of glucose across the plasma membrane. These are
present in the plasma membrane that binds the glucose molecules and transports
them across the lipid bilayer.
The glucose transporters are of two types- sodium-glucose cotransporters which
are present in the small intestine and renal tubules and are responsible for the
glucose transport against the concentration gradient, and the facilitative glucose
transporters which are responsible for the bidirectional movement of glucose
molecules across the plasma membrane.

Aquaporins
These proteins facilitate the transport of water across the lipid bilayer. If the
proteins forming aquaporins are mutated, it might result in diseases such as
diabetes insipidus.

Ion Channels
These are transmembrane proteins that allow the selective transport of ions and
solutes across the plasma membrane. These ionic pumps maintain the concentration
of the extracellular fluid different from that of the cytosol.
When an excess of sodium ions are present in the extracellular region and excess of
potassium ions are present inside the cell, a resting potential is obtained. With a
small voltage change, the sodium ion channels open and the sodium ions rapidly
enter into the cell. The potassium ion channels also open and the ions move out of
the cell.

Functions of the Plasma Membrane

 he primary function of the plasma membrane is to protect the cell from its
surroundings.
 The plasma membrane also plays a role in anchoring the cytoskeleton to
provide shape to the cell, and in attaching to the extracellular matrix and
other cells to help group cells together to form tissues.
 The membrane also maintains the cell potential.
 The cell membrane interacts with the cell membrane of adjacent cells e.g. to
form plant and animal tissues.
 The cell membrane is primarily composed of proteins and lipids. While lipids
help to give membranes their flexibility and proteins monitor and maintain the
cell’s chemical climate and assist in the transfer of molecules across the
membrane.
 The lipid bilayer is semi-permeable, which allows only selected molecules to
diffuse across the membrane.
 Cell junctions: Tight junctions, Gap junctions, Desmosomes

Cell junctions (or intercellular bridges) are a class of cellular structures

consisting of multiprotein complexes that provide contact or adhesion
between neighboring cells or between a cell and the extracellular matrix in
animals.

They also maintain the paracellular barrier of epithelia and

control paracellular transport. Cell junctions are especially abundant in
epithelial tissues. Combined with cell adhesion molecules and extracellular
matrix, cell junctions help hold animal cells together.

Cell junctions are also especially important in enabling communication

between neighboring cells via specialized protein complexes
called communicating (gap) junctions. Cell junctions are also important in
reducing stress placed upon cells.

In plants, similar communication channels are known as plasmodesmata, and

in fungi they are called septal pores.

1. Tight junctions

Composition

A tight junction—a kind of symmetrical cell junction—is composed of numerous important

proteins that are either directly involved in its composition or intimately involved with
connecting the tight junction to and between the cells in one way or another. These
proteins include:

 Occludins, which maintain the barrier between adjacent cells.

 Claudins, which form the backbone of tight junction strands.
 Junctional adhesion molecules (JAMs) are immunoglobulin (antibody) proteins that
help seal the intercellular space between two cells.
 Zonula occludens (ZO) are proteins that help link the tight junction to each cell’s
internal skeleton (cytoskeleton).

The occludins and claudins are the major components of tight junction strands. When fully
formed, a tight junction is not one, long, continuous seal. Instead, it looks like a series of
local seals joined together in a maze-like fashion.
2. Gap junctions
Gap junctions are also called communicating junctions, macula communicans, or
nexuses. These are connections that allow for the direct passage of molecules between
two cells.

Gap junctions consist of a number of transmembrane channels called pores that are
found in a closely packed arrangement. The number of gap junctions shared between two
cells can vary as well.

Location

Gap junctions are found in many places throughout the body. This includes epithelia,
which are the coverings of body surfaces, as well as nerves, cardiac (heart) muscle, and
smooth muscle (such as that of the intestines).

Their primary role is to coordinate the activity of adjacent cells. For instance, when heart
cells need to beat in unison, gap junctions allow for the transmission of electrical signals
between the cells.

Structure

Each gap junction channel is made up of two half channels (hemichannels), one in each
cell’s membrane. These half channels join together, bridge the extracellular space in the
process, and form the entire channel that spans both cell membranes.

Each of these half channels is called a connexon. Each connexon is made up of six
symmetrical integral membrane protein units called connexins. This means each channel
is made up of 12 circularly arranged protein units.

3. Desmosomes

Desmosomes, also termed as maculae adherentes, can be visualized as rivets

through the plasma membrane of adjacent cells. Intermediate filaments composed
of keratin or desmin are attached to membrane-associated attachment proteins that
form a dense plaque on the cytoplasmic face of the membrane. Cadherin molecules
form the actual anchor by attaching to the cytoplasmic plaque, extending through
the membrane and binding strongly to cadherins coming through the membrane of
the adjacent cell.
Hemidesmosomes
Hemidesmosomes form rivet-like links between cytoskeleton and extracellular
matrix components such as the basal laminae that underlie epithelia. Like
desmosomes, they tie to intermediate filaments in the cytoplasm, but in contrast to
desmosomes, their transmembrane anchors are integrins rather than cadherins.