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NOTE- Wireless Networks AND Mobile Computing

(Elective-II)
computer application (Purbanchal Vishwavidyalaya)

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UNIT II: WIRELESS LAN

Infra-red Vs. radio transmission:

Infrared Transmission

 Infrared technology uses diffuse light reflected at walls, furniture etc. or a directed light if
a line of sight (LOS) exists between sender and receiver.
 Infrared light is the part of the electromagnetic spectrum, and is an electromagnetic form
of radiation. It comes from the heat and thermal radiation, and it is not visible to the naked
eyes.
 In infrared transmission, senders can be simple light emitting diodes (LEDs) or laser
diodes. Photodiodes act as receivers.
 Infrared is used in wireless technology devices or systems that convey data through infrared
radiation. Infrared is electromagnetic energy at a wave length or wave lengths somewhat
longer than those of red light.
 Infrared technology allows computing devices to communicate via short range wireless
signals. With infrared transmission, computers can transfer files and other digital data
bidirectional.

Advantages of infrared

 The main advantage of infrared technology is its simple and extremely cheap.
 No licenses are required for infrared and shielding is very simple.
 Electrical devices cannot interfere with infrared transmission.

Disadvantages of Infrared

 Disadvantages of infrared transmission are its low bandwidth compared to other LAN
technologies.
 Infrared transmission cannot penetrate walls or other obstacles.
 Their main disadvantage is that infrared is quite easily shielded.

Radio Transmission

 Almost all networks use radio waves for data transmission, Radio transmission
technologies can be used to set up ad-hoc connections for work groups, to connect, e.g., a
desktop with a printer without a wire, or to support mobility within a small area.
 The two main types of radio transmission are AM (Amplitude Modulation) and (FM)
Frequency Modulation.
 FM minimizes noise and provides greater reliability. Both AM and FM process sounds in
patterns that are always varying of electrical signals.
 In an AM transmission the carrier wave has a constant frequency, but the strength of the
wave varies. The FM transmission is just the opposite; the wave has constant amplitude
but a varying frequency.

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Advantages of Radio Transmission

 Advantages of radio transmission include the long-term experiences made with radio
transmission for wide area networks (e.g., microwave links) and mobile cellular
phones.
 Radio transmission can cover larger areas and can penetrate (thinner) walls, plants,
furniture etc.
 Radio typically does not need a LOS (Line of Site) if the frequencies are not too high.

Disadvantages of Radio Transmission

 Radio transmission can be interfered with other senders, or electrical devices can destroy
data transmitted via radio.
 Bluetooth is simple than infrared.
 Radio is only permitted in certain frequency bands.

Infrastructure and Ad-hoc Network

Infrastructure mode is when the wireless network requires a physical structure to support it. This
essentially means there should be a medium handling the network functions, creating an
infrastructure around which the network sustains.

It performs these typical functions:

 Providing access to other networks

 Forwarding
 Medium access control

In infrastructure-based wireless networks, the communication takes place between the wireless
nodes (i.e., endpoints in the network such as your computer, your phone, etc.) and the access
points (i.e., the router) only. There can be more than one access point on the same network
handling different wireless nodes. A typical example of an infrastructure network would be
cellular phone networks. They have to have a set infrastructure (i.e., network towers) to function.
When to use an infrastructure network:

 If you can easily add more access points to boost the range
 If you want to set up a more permanent network
 If you will need to bridge to other types of networks (e.g., you can connect to a wired
network if required)

Ad-hoc wireless networks, on the other hand, do not require a set infrastructure to work. In ad-
hoc networks, each node can communicate with other nodes, so no access point that provides
access control is required. Whereas the routing in infrastructure networks is taken care of by the
access point, in ad-hoc networks the nodes in the network take care of routing. Routing is to find
the best possible path between the source and destination nodes to transfer data.

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All the individual nodes in an ad-hoc network maintain a routing table, which contains the
information about the other nodes. As the nature of the ad-hoc network is dynamic, this results in
ever-changing router tables. One important thing to note is that an ad-hoc network is asymmetric
by nature, meaning the path of data upload and download between two nodes in the network may
be different.

A typical example of an ad-hoc network is connecting two or more laptops (or other supported
devices) to each other directly without any central access point, either wirelessly or using a cable.
When to use an ad-hoc network:

 If you want to quickly set up a peer-to-peer (P2P) network between two devices
 When creating a quick temporary network
 If there is no network infrastructure set up in the area (ad-hoc is the only network mode
that can be used in areas like this)

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IEEE 802.11

IEEE 802.11 standard, popularly known as WiFi, lays down the architecture and specifications of
wireless LANs (WLANs). WiFi or WLAN uses high-frequency radio waves instead of cables for
connecting the devices in LAN. Users connected by WLANs can move around within the area of
network coverage.

IEEE 802.11 Architecture

The components of an IEEE 802.11 architecture are as follows –

 Stations (STA) − Stations comprises of all devices and equipment that are connected to
the wireless LAN. A station can be of two types−
o Wireless Access Point (WAP) − WAPs or simply access points (AP) are generally
wireless routers that form the base stations or access.
o Client. Clients are workstations, computers, laptops, printers, smartphones, etc.
 Each station has a wireless network interface controller.
 Basic Service Set (BSS) − A basic service set is a group of stations communicating at the
physical layer level. BSS can be of two categories depending upon the mode of operation−
o Infrastructure BSS − Here, the devices communicate with other devices through
access points.
o Independent BSS − Here, the devices communicate in a peer-to-peer basis in an ad
hoc manner.
 Extended Service Set (ESS) − It is a set of all connected BSS.
 Distribution System (DS) − It connects access points in ESS.

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Frame Format of IEEE 802.11

The main fields of a frame of wireless LANs as laid down by IEEE 802.11 are –

 Frame Control − It is a 2 bytes starting field composed of 11 subfields. It contains control

information of the frame.
 Duration − It is a 2-byte field that specifies the time period for which the frame and its
acknowledgment occupy the channel.
 Address fields − There are three 6-byte address fields containing addresses of source,
immediate destination, and final endpoint respectively.
 Sequence − It a 2 bytes field that stores the frame numbers.
 Data − This is a variable-sized field that carries the data from the upper layers. The
maximum size of the data field is 2312 bytes.
 Check Sequence − It is a 4-byte field containing error detection information.

802.11b, 802.11a

802.11b and 802.11a are both standards for wireless networking, but they operate on different
frequencies and have different capabilities. 802.11b was one of the earliest Wi-Fi standards and
operates in the 2.4 GHz frequency band. It has a maximum theoretical data rate of 11 Mbps (megabits per
second). Despite being slower compared to newer standards, it was widely adopted due to its
compatibility with older hardware and relatively low cost.

802.11a, on the other hand, operates in the 5 GHz frequency band and offers higher data rates compared
to 802.11b. It has a maximum theoretical data rate of 54 Mbps. One of the advantages of 802.11a is that
it operates in a less crowded frequency band compared to 802.11b, which can result in less interference
and better performance in environments with many wireless devices.

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HIPERLAN 1, HIPERLAN 2

HIPERLAN is the short form of High-Performance Radio LAN. It is a variant of the IEEE 802.11
standard developed by ETSI BRAN for use in the European region.

HIPERLAN (High Performance Radio Local Area Network) is a set of standards developed by the
European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) for wireless communications.
HIPERLAN 1 and HIPERLAN 2 are two different versions of this standard, each with its own
characteristics and capabilities.

HIPERLAN 1: This was the first version of the HIPERLAN standard, initially developed in the
1990s. HIPERLAN 1 was designed to provide high-speed wireless networking in indoor
environments, with a focus on applications such as multimedia streaming and high-speed data
transfer. It operated in the 5 GHz frequency band and offered data rates of up to 24 Mbps.
However, HIPERLAN 1 did not gain widespread adoption compared to other standards like Wi-
Fi due to various factors, including market dynamics and compatibility issues.

HIPERLAN 2: HIPERLAN 2, also known as HiperLAN/2 or Wireless LAN/MAN (Local Area

Network/Metropolitan Area Network), is an updated version of the HIPERLAN standard. It was
designed to offer improved performance and support for a broader range of applications,
including both indoor and outdoor use. HIPERLAN 2 operates in the 5 GHz frequency band and
provides higher data rates compared to HIPERLAN 1, with maximum theoretical speeds of up to
54 Mbps. It also incorporates features such as Quality of Service (QoS) mechanisms to support
multimedia applications and mobility support for seamless handover between access points.
However, similar to HIPERLAN 1, HIPERLAN 2 did not achieve widespread adoption
compared to Wi-Fi standards, partly due to competition from established technologies and
market dynamics.

While HIPERLAN standards have not seen as much deployment as Wi-Fi, they have contributed
to the development of wireless communication technologies and have been influential in shaping
standards and protocols in the field.

Bluetooth

Bluetooth is used for short-range wireless voice and data communication. It is a Wireless Personal
Area Network (WPAN) technology and is used for data communications over smaller distances.
Bluetooth simply follows the principle of transmitting and receiving data using radio waves. It can
be paired with the other device which has also Bluetooth but it should be within the estimated
communication range to connect. When two devices start to share data, they form a network called
piconet which can further accommodate more than five devices.

Key Features of Bluetooth

 The transmission capacity of Bluetooth is 720 kbps.

 Bluetooth is a wireless device.

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 Bluetooth is a Low-cost and short-distance radio communications standard.

 Bluetooth is robust and flexible.

Architecture of Bluetooth

The architecture of Bluetooth defines two types of networks:

Piconet: Piconet is a type of Bluetooth network that contains one primary node called the master
node and seven active secondary nodes called slave nodes. Thus, we can say that there is a total
of 8 active nodes which are present at a distance of 10 meters. The communication between the
primary and secondary nodes can be one-to-one or one-to-many. Possible communication is only
between the master and slave; Slave-slave communication is not possible. It also has 255 parked
nodes; these are secondary nodes and cannot take participation in communication unless it gets
converted to the active state.

Bluetooth Architecture

Scatternet: It is formed by using various piconets. A slave that is present in one piconet can act
as master or we can say primary in another piconet. This kind of node can receive a message
from a master in one piconet and deliver the message to its slave in the other piconet where it is
acting as a master. This type of node is referred to as a bridge node. A station cannot be mastered
in two piconets.

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UNIT III: GLOBAL SYSTEM FOR MOBILE COMMUNICATIONS (GSM)

Mobile Services:

In GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications), mobile services refer to the various
communication services provided to mobile subscribers. These services include voice calls, SMS
(Short Message Service), MMS (Multimedia Messaging Service), data services such as internet
browsing, and value-added services like mobile banking, mobile commerce, and mobile
entertainment.

Here's a brief overview of some key mobile services in GSM:

1. Voice Calls: GSM networks allow users to make and receive voice calls using their mobile
phones. This is the primary service offered by mobile operators.
2. SMS (Short Message Service): SMS allows users to send and receive short text messages
between mobile devices. It's a popular and widely used communication service.
3. MMS (Multimedia Messaging Service): MMS enables users to send multimedia content
such as images, videos, audio clips, and text to other mobile devices that support MMS.
4. Data Services: GSM networks support data services, including internet browsing, email,
and access to various online services. Initially, data services were limited to low-speed
connections for basic web browsing, but with advancements in technology, faster data
speeds became possible.
5. Value-Added Services (VAS): These are additional services provided by mobile operators
beyond basic voice and data services. Examples include mobile banking, mobile payments,
location-based services, mobile entertainment (such as gaming and streaming), and
personalized content delivery.
6. Roaming: GSM networks support roaming, allowing subscribers to use their mobile
devices in other countries or on networks operated by different providers while traveling.
Roaming services enable seamless connectivity and communication for users even when
outside their home network's coverage area.
7. Voicemail: GSM networks typically offer voicemail services, allowing users to receive
and manage voice messages when they are unable to answer calls.

System Architecture

The Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) network architecture is a complex system
that enables the delivery of mobile services to millions of users. It is based on a series of
interconnected components that work together to provide reliable and efficient mobile
communications.

The main components of the GSM network architecture are:

1. Mobile Station (MS) - this refers to the mobile device that is used by the subscriber to
make calls, send text messages, and access other mobile services.

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2. Base Station Subsystem (BSS) - this includes the Base Transceiver Station (BTS) and the
Base Station Controller (BSC). The BTS is responsible for radio communication with the
mobile device, while the BSC provides the connection between the BTS and the Mobile
Switching Center (MSC).
3. Mobile Switching Center (MSC) - this is the central switching unit that handles the call
processing for the mobile network. The MSC provides the connection between the BSS
and the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) or other mobile networks. It also
manages the authentication, authorization, and accounting (AAA) functions for the
network.
4. Home Location Register (HLR) - this is a database that contains permanent subscriber
information, such as the subscriber's telephone number, the services that they are
subscribed to, and the location of the Visitor Location Register (VLR) that currently serves
the subscriber.
5. Visitor Location Register (VLR) - this is a database that contains temporary information
about subscribers that are currently active within the area covered by the MSC. The VLR
is used to route incoming calls to the correct mobile device and to provide information to
the HLR about the current location of the subscriber.
6. Authentication Center (AUC) - this component is responsible for verifying the identity
of the mobile device and providing encryption keys for secure communication.
7. Equipment Identity Register (EIR) - this is a database that contains information about
the mobile devices that are authorized to access the network. The EIR is used to prevent
unauthorized devices from accessing the network and to prevent the use of lost or stolen
devices.

Protocols

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GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) utilizes a variety of protocols to facilitate
communication between different network elements and mobile devices. These protocols define
the rules and procedures for various functions within the GSM system. Here are some key
protocols used in GSM:

1. GSM Radio Interface Protocols:

o GSM Air Interface Protocol: Defines the communication protocol between the
mobile station and the base station subsystem (BSS). It includes protocols for
physical layer modulation, channel coding, and logical channels.
o Radio Resource Control (RRC): Manages radio resources such as frequency and
power allocation, handovers, and connection establishment.
2. Signaling Protocols:
o Mobile Application Part (MAP): A signaling protocol used in the Network
Switching Subsystem (NSS) for signaling between Mobile Switching Centers
(MSCs) and other network elements. It handles functions such as call setup,
mobility management, and subscriber authentication.
o Signaling System 7 (SS7): A suite of signaling protocols used for communication
between different network elements in GSM and other telecommunications
networks. It provides signaling for call setup, routing, and network management.
3. Call Control Protocols:
o Call Control (CC): Manages call establishment, modification, and termination
between mobile stations and the network.
o Mobility Management (MM): Handles functions related to subscriber mobility,
including location updating, registration, and authentication.
4. Short Message Service (SMS) Protocols:
o SMS Point-to-Point (SMS-PP): Protocol for sending and receiving SMS messages
between mobile stations and the Short Message Service Center (SMSC).
o SMS Cell Broadcast (SMS-CB): Protocol for broadcasting messages to multiple
mobile stations within a specific geographic area.
5. Packet Data Protocols:
o General Packet Radio Service (GPRS): Packet-switched data service that enables
mobile data transmission in GSM networks. It uses protocols such as the GPRS
Tunneling Protocol (GTP) for packet routing and mobility management.
6. Security Protocols:
o Authentication and Key Agreement (AKA): Protocol for subscriber
authentication and key agreement between the mobile station and the network's
Authentication Center (AUC).
o Encryption Algorithms: GSM uses encryption algorithms such as A5/1 and A5/3
to secure voice and data communication over the air interface.

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Localization & Calling

In mobile computing, localization refers to the process of determining the geographical location
of a mobile device or user. This is often achieved using a combination of technologies and
techniques, including GPS (Global Positioning System), cell tower triangulation, Wi-Fi
positioning, and sensor fusion. Localization plays a crucial role in various mobile applications,
enabling services such as location-based advertising, navigation, emergency services, and social
networking.

Here's how localization works in mobile computing:

1. GPS (Global Positioning System):

o GPS relies on a network of satellites to accurately determine the device's location
based on signals received from these satellites.
o GPS is widely used for outdoor localization and provides high accuracy in open
sky environments.
o However, it may have limitations in urban areas with tall buildings or indoors where
satellite signals are obstructed.
2. Cell Tower Triangulation:
o Cell tower triangulation uses the signal strength and timing information from
multiple nearby cellular towers to estimate the device's location.
o By measuring the time it takes for signals to reach the device from different towers,
the system can calculate the device's approximate location.
o This method is commonly used for indoor and urban localization where GPS
signals may be weak or unavailable.
3. Wi-Fi Positioning:
o Wi-Fi positioning relies on the detection and analysis of nearby Wi-Fi access points
to determine the device's location.
o By comparing the device's observed Wi-Fi signals with a database of known Wi-Fi
access points and their locations, the system can estimate the device's position.
o Wi-Fi positioning is often used indoors and in urban areas where Wi-Fi networks
are prevalent and provides relatively high accuracy.
4. Sensor Fusion:
o Sensor fusion combines data from various sensors built into the mobile device, such
as accelerometers, gyroscopes, magnetometers, and barometers, to enhance
localization accuracy.
o By integrating data from multiple sensors, the system can compensate for
limitations in individual localization methods and provide more robust and accurate
location estimates.

Once the device's location is determined, various mobile applications can utilize this information
for different purposes, including:

 Location-Based Services (LBS): Providing personalized and location-aware services such

as local business recommendations, weather forecasts, and event notifications.

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 Navigation and Mapping: Assisting users in finding directions, planning routes, and
navigating to specific destinations.
 Emergency Services: Enabling emergency responders to quickly locate and assist
individuals in distress.
 Social Networking: Facilitating location-based social networking features such as check-
ins, location sharing, and nearby friend notifications.

Calling in mobile computing refers to the process of initiating and receiving voice or video calls
on a mobile device using cellular networks or internet-based communication services. This
functionality is typically provided through dedicated calling applications or the device's built-in
phone app. Users can make calls to other mobile devices, landline phones, or internet-connected
devices, and they can communicate in real-time using voice, video, or text-based messaging.
Mobile calling relies on various protocols and technologies, including GSM (Global System for
Mobile Communications), VoLTE (Voice over LTE), VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol), and
messaging protocols such as SIP (Session Initiation Protocol) and RTP (Real-Time Transport
Protocol).

Handover

In GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications), handover, also known as handoff, is the
process of transferring an ongoing call or data session from one cell (base station) to another
without interrupting the communication. Handover is essential to maintain seamless connectivity
and ensure quality of service as mobile users move within the network's coverage area. There are
several types of handovers in GSM:

1. Intra-cell Handover:
o Intra-cell handover occurs when a mobile device moves within the coverage area
of a single cell but changes its channel or frequency due to factors such as signal
strength or channel congestion.
o This type of handover helps optimize resource allocation within the cell to maintain
call quality and minimize interference.
2. Inter-cell Handover:
o Inter-cell handover occurs when a mobile device moves from the coverage area of
one cell to another cell belonging to the same or different Base Station Controller
(BSC) within the same Mobile Switching Center (MSC).
o Inter-cell handovers are triggered by factors such as signal strength, quality, and
load balancing between adjacent cells.
o The handover process involves measuring signal strength and quality from
neighboring cells, selecting a suitable target cell, coordinating the handover
between the current and target cells, and transferring the call or data session
seamlessly.
3. Inter-BSC Handover:
o Inter-BSC handover occurs when a mobile device moves from the coverage area of
one cell to another cell served by a different BSC but within the same MSC.
o This type of handover may be necessary when the target cell belongs to a different
BSC due to network topology or resource allocation considerations.

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o Inter-BSC handover involves additional signaling and coordination between the

BSCs and the MSC to ensure a smooth handover process.
4. Inter-MSC Handover:
o Inter-MSC handover occurs when a mobile device moves from the coverage area
of one cell to another cell served by a different MSC.
o This type of handover typically involves handovers between cells belonging to
different Location Areas (LAs) or when the target cell is served by a different MSC
due to geographical boundaries or network operator boundaries.
o Inter-MSC handover requires signaling between the MSCs to exchange subscriber
information and coordinate the handover process.

Overall, handover in GSM networks is a critical mechanism for maintaining connectivity and
ensuring seamless communication as mobile users move within the network's coverage area. It
involves complex signaling and coordination between network elements to transfer ongoing calls
or data sessions without interruption or degradation in quality.

Security

Security in GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) is essential to protect the privacy
and integrity of communication between mobile devices and the network. GSM employs several
security measures to safeguard against various threats, including eavesdropping, interception,
fraud, and unauthorized access. Here are the key security features and mechanisms used in GSM:

1. Authentication and Encryption:

o Authentication and encryption are fundamental security mechanisms in GSM.
o Authentication ensures that only legitimate subscribers can access the network by
verifying the identity of the mobile device and the subscriber's SIM card.
o Encryption protects the confidentiality of communication by encrypting voice calls
and data transmissions over the air interface between the mobile device and the
base station.
2. Subscriber Identity Authentication:
o GSM uses a challenge-response mechanism to authenticate subscribers during the
registration process.
o The mobile device and the network exchange authentication messages, including a
random challenge, to verify the authenticity of the subscriber's SIM card.
o Authentication algorithms such as A3 and A8 are used to generate authentication
tokens and encryption keys to validate the subscriber's identity.
3. Encryption Algorithms:
o GSM employs encryption algorithms such as A5/1, A5/2, and A5/3 to encrypt voice
calls and data transmissions over the air interface.
o A5/1 and A5/2 were initially used in GSM for voice encryption, but they have been
found to have security weaknesses. A5/3, also known as the Kasumi algorithm, is
a more secure encryption algorithm used in newer GSM networks and 3GPP
standards.

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4. Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI):

o TMSI is a temporary identifier assigned to a mobile device during registration and
authentication.
o TMSI is used in signaling messages to reduce the exposure of the subscriber's
permanent identity (International Mobile Subscriber Identity or IMSI) and enhance
privacy.
5. Equipment Identity Register (EIR):
o The EIR is a database that stores information about mobile devices, including their
International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI) numbers.
o The EIR helps identify stolen or unauthorized mobile devices and prevents them
from accessing the network.
6. Signaling Security:
o GSM signaling messages are protected against interception and tampering using
encryption and authentication mechanisms.
o Signaling System 7 (SS7) protocols used for network signaling are also secured
through measures such as firewalls, access controls, and encryption.
7. Network Security:
o Network elements such as Mobile Switching Centers (MSCs), Base Station
Controllers (BSCs), and Authentication Centers (AUCs) are protected against
unauthorized access and attacks through measures such as access control,
authentication, and encryption.

Overall, security in GSM is a multi-layered approach that combines authentication, encryption,

privacy mechanisms, and network security measures to ensure the confidentiality, integrity, and
availability of mobile communication services.

GPRS:

GPRS module is an extension to GSM and specially used for higher data transfer rate. GPRS stands
for General Packet Radio Service. GPRS technology was established to provide higher data rate
compared to GSM. GPRS system architecture contains 2 new elements, i.e., GSN (GPRS Support
Nodes), which are also known as routers, and SGSN (Serving GPRS Support Nodes). Figure – 1
displays GPRS system architecture. GPRS architecture includes following important components:

 MS
 BSS
 GGSN
 SGSN
 MSC
 HLR / GR
 VLR
 EIR
 Interfaces

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FIG: GPRS System Architecture

Mobile Station (MS) comprises of users’ hardware and software to interact with GPRS network.
Base Station Subsystem (BSS) is responsible to maintain radio connection with MS and coding /
decoding of voice. Every BSS of network is controlled by Base Station Controller (BSC). BSS is
connected with MS via Um interface. All GSNs are integrated with GSM architecture and new
interfaces have been defined in GPRS architecture. Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN) is an
inter-working component between external packet data network (PDN) and GPRS network. GGSN
maintains GPRS user’s routing information and also performs address conversions. GGSN is
connected with PDN via Gi interface and transfer information in terms of packets via Gn interface.
SGSN is connected with MS and BSS via Gb interface while it is connected with other SGSN
through Gn interface. SGSN request Home Location Register (HLR) or GPRS Register (GR) to
track location of individual MS and collecting billing information. SGSN can request to Equipment
Identity Register (EIR) for identification and authentication related tasks. SGSN can also request
to Visitor Location Register (VLR) via Mobile Switching Center (MSC) for bilingual information
if MS is not available in HLR. As displayed in figure 1, information in packet data format is
transferred from external network to MS via GGSN, SGSN and BSS respectively. In GPRS
architecture, MSC is used for signaling process.

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UMTS:

UMTS or Universal Mobile Telecommunications Framework, is the 3G successor to the GSM family of
measures counting GPRS and EDGE. 3G UMTS employments a completely diverse radio interface based
around the utilize of Coordinate Grouping Spread Range as CDMA or Code Division Multiple Access.
Although 3G UMTS employments a completely distinctive radio get to standard, the center arrange is the
same as that utilized for GPRS and EDGE to carry partitioned circuit exchanged voice and bundle data.

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LTE: Long Term Evolution,4G,5G

LTE (Long-Term Evolution), often marketed as 4G LTE, is a standard for wireless broadband
communication for mobile devices and data terminals. It represents a significant advancement over
previous cellular technologies, offering higher data speeds, lower latency, and improved spectral
efficiency. Here's an overview of LTE, 4G, and 5G:

1. LTE (Long-Term Evolution):

o LTE is a standard developed by the 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) to
improve mobile communication capabilities.
o It aims to provide higher data rates, lower latency, and better spectral efficiency
compared to previous cellular technologies such as 3G (UMTS) and 2G (GSM).
o LTE achieves these improvements through advanced technologies such as
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (OFDMA) for the downlink and
Single Carrier Frequency Division Multiple Access (SC-FDMA) for the uplink, as
well as advanced antenna techniques like Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO).
2. 4G (Fourth Generation):
o 4G refers to the fourth generation of mobile communication technologies, with LTE
being a prominent example of a 4G technology.
o 4G networks, including LTE, are characterized by their ability to deliver
significantly faster data speeds compared to previous generations, supporting
multimedia streaming, online gaming, and other high-bandwidth applications.
o In addition to LTE, other 4G technologies include WiMAX (Worldwide
Interoperability for Microwave Access) and HSPA+ (High-Speed Packet Access
Plus).
3. 5G (Fifth Generation):
o 5G represents the next major evolution in mobile communication technology
beyond 4G LTE.
o 5G aims to deliver even higher data speeds, lower latency, increased network
capacity, and support for a massive number of connected devices compared to 4G
technologies.
o Key features of 5G include millimeter wave (mmWave) frequencies, massive
MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output), network slicing, and ultra-reliable low-
latency communication (URLLC).
o 5G is expected to enable a wide range of applications and services, including virtual
reality (VR), augmented reality (AR), autonomous vehicles, smart cities, and the
Internet of Things (IoT).

In summary, LTE (4G LTE) is a significant advancement in mobile communication technology,

offering faster data speeds and improved performance compared to previous generations. 5G
represents the next leap forward, promising even higher speeds, lower latency, and greater capacity
to support a diverse range of applications and services in the era of connectivity

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UNIT IV: MOBILE NETWORK LAYER

Mobile IP is a protocol designed to allow mobile devices to maintain continuous network

connectivity while moving between different networks. Here's a breakdown of its components:

Goals:

 Enable seamless communication for mobile devices without disrupting ongoing

connections when moving between different networks.
 Ensure efficient routing of IP packets to mobile devices regardless of their location.
 Minimize the overhead associated with managing mobile IP connections.

Assumptions:

 Mobile devices change their location frequently, switching between different networks.
 The home network maintains information about the mobile device's permanent IP
address.
 Foreign networks provide temporary IP addresses to visiting mobile devices.

Entities and Terminology:

 Mobile Node (MN): The mobile device that moves between different networks.
 Home Agent (HA): A router in the home network that maintains information about the
mobile node's location.
 Foreign Agent (FA): A router in the foreign network that assists in routing packets to
and from the mobile node.
 Care-of Address (CoA): The temporary IP address assigned to the mobile node when it
connects to a foreign network.
 Home Address (HoA): The permanent IP address assigned to the mobile node in its
home network.

IP Packet Delivery:

 When a mobile node is away from its home network, packets destined for its home
address are intercepted by the home agent and forwarded to the care-of address.
 The home agent encapsulates the original IP packet with a new header containing the
care-of address and sends it to the foreign agent.
 The foreign agent decapsulates the packet and forwards it to the mobile node using its
temporary care-of address.

Agent Discovery:

 The mobile node discovers foreign agents in the visited network through agent
advertisement messages.
 It can also discover its home agent through configuration or dynamic means.

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Registration:

 When the mobile node enters a new foreign network, it registers its care-of address with
its home agent.
 This registration informs the home agent about the mobile node's current location.

Tunneling and Encapsulation:

 Tunneling involves encapsulating IP packets within other IP packets to facilitate routing.

 In Mobile IP, tunneling is used to route packets between the home agent and the foreign
agent.

Optimizations:

 Various optimizations exist to improve the efficiency of Mobile IP, such as reducing
signaling overhead and enhancing handoff performance.

Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP):

 DHCP is a protocol used to automatically assign IP addresses and network configuration

settings to devices on a network.
 In the context of Mobile IP, DHCP may be used in conjunction with Mobile IP to assign
temporary care-of addresses to mobile nodes when they connect to foreign networks.

In simple words, Mobile IP allows your phone or any other mobile device to keep its internet
connection even when you move between different Wi-Fi networks or cellular towers. It works
by having a home network that keeps track of your device's permanent address and assigns it a
temporary address whenever it connects to a new network. This way, even if you're moving
around, your device can still receive emails, messages, or stream videos without interruption.

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UNIT V: MOBILE TRANSPORT LAYER

The mobile transport layer encompasses various protocols and techniques tailored to ensure
reliable and efficient communication over wireless networks for mobile devices. Here's an
overview of some key concepts and protocols:

Traditional TCP (Transmission Control Protocol):

 TCP is the standard protocol used for transmitting data reliably over the Internet.
 It ensures that data packets are delivered in the correct order and without errors.
 However, traditional TCP implementations may face challenges in wireless environments
due to issues like high latency, packet loss, and frequent network handovers.

Indirect TCP:

 Indirect TCP, also known as I-TCP, is a technique that involves using a proxy or
intermediary node to improve TCP performance in wireless networks.
 The proxy buffers and forwards TCP segments between the mobile device and the
destination, mitigating the effects of packet loss and reducing latency.

Snooping TCP:

 Snooping TCP is another approach to optimize TCP performance in wireless networks.

 It involves intermediate nodes "snooping" on TCP traffic between the mobile device and
the destination.
 These nodes can make optimizations like selective retransmissions or prioritized
forwarding based on network conditions.

Mobile TCP:

 Mobile TCP is a variant of TCP specifically designed for mobile devices and wireless
networks.
 It may incorporate optimizations such as larger initial windows, adaptive timeouts, and
aggressive fast retransmit/fast recovery mechanisms to cope with wireless network
characteristics.

Fast Retransmit/Fast Recovery:

 Fast retransmit and fast recovery are mechanisms in TCP that aim to expedite the
recovery from packet loss.
 If a TCP sender detects that a segment has been lost (due to duplicate acknowledgments),
it can trigger a fast retransmit, resending the missing segment without waiting for a
timeout.
 Fast recovery allows the sender to continue sending new data even before the timeout
expires, improving throughput.

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Transmission/Timeout Freezing:

 In wireless networks, the round-trip time (RTT) can vary significantly due to factors like
signal strength and interference.
 Transmission/timeout freezing involves temporarily freezing the retransmission timer
when the network is experiencing high latency or congestion to avoid unnecessary
retransmissions.

Selective Retransmission:

 Selective retransmission is a technique where only the lost or damaged segments of a

TCP connection are retransmitted, rather than retransmitting the entire window of data.
 This approach reduces retransmission overhead and can improve network efficiency.

Transaction-Oriented TCP:

 Transaction-oriented TCP variants, such as T/TCP, optimize TCP for transaction-based

applications like web browsing.
 They aim to reduce connection setup time and improve performance for short-lived
connections typically encountered in web browsing scenarios.

TCP over 2.5G/3G Wireless Networks:

 TCP performance over 2.5G (GPRS) and 3G wireless networks can be impacted by
factors like higher latency, lower bandwidth, and packet loss.
 TCP optimizations and adaptations specific to these networks may include adjusting
congestion control algorithms, tuning retransmission behaviors, and optimizing buffer
management to enhance performance.

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