Meaning-Making,_Connectedness,

MEANING-MAKING, CONNECTEDNESS, AND LEGACY:
EXAMINING THE BENEFITS OF STORTYELLING IN AN AGING POPULATION
A dissertation submitted
by
ELIZABETH L. MURPHY
to
FIELDING GRADUATE UNIVERSITY
in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN PSYCHOLOGY
With an Emphasis in
Media Psychology
This dissertation has been accepted for

the faculty of Fielding Graduate University by
____________________________________
Pamela B. Rutledge, PhD
Committee Chair
Committee:
Jerri Lynn Hogg, PhD, Faculty Research Specialist

Jason Ohler, PhD, Faculty Reader
David M. Kaufman, EdD, External Examiner
STORYTELLING & OLDER ADULTS
MEANING-MAKING, CONNECTEDNESS, AND LEGACY:
EXAMINING THE BENEFITS OF STORTYELLING IN AN AGING POPULATION
by
ELIZABETH L. MURPHY
Abstract
As the number of older adults increases substantially over the next few years, aging well is a
priority. Navigating the later stages of life and developmental goals of meaning-making, life
purpose, and meaningful relationships can be challenging. Narratives and stories can provide the
framework and tools to help people successfully make sense of themselves, their lives, and
bridge connections with others. According to narrative and developmental theory, the need for
storytelling increases as one gets older because the benefits of reflection, revising, and sharing
one’s story can foster meaningful connections and leave a legacy spanning generations. Research
about narrative and storytelling in the later stages of life is limited. However, key theories and
research suggest that storytelling and digital storytelling among older adults may benefit positive
aging. An in-depth look at the storytelling experience of adults primarily in their 70s and 80s
provides insight into storytelling, technology, and their perceptions of meaning-making,
connectedness, and legacy. This research study supports storytelling as a positive activity to aid
later life stage goals and needs. Connectedness was found to be vitally important and an
excellent tool for meaning-making and feeling validated. Legacy and technological applications
of storytelling were appreciated but not as important. Applications of this research and
recommendations for future research are discussed.
Keywords: narrative, storytelling, digital storytelling, older adults, later stages of the
lifespan, meaning-making, connectedness, legacy, positive aging
ii
Copyright by
ELIZABETH L. MURPHY
2021
iii
Acknowledgements
I am profoundly thankful for my committee's support and guidance, which helped me add
this new chapter to my life. First and foremost, Dr. Pamela Rutledge, my chair, and Dr. Jerri
Lynn Hogg have been fantastic advisors. They kept me focused, on-track and helped transform
my experience into an amazing journey. I was fortunate to have Dr. Jason Ohler as part of my
committee, along with his storytelling expertise and wisdom. He helped put the pieces together
for this dissertation and helped me weave the stories of my life. Additional thanks to Dr. David
Kaufman, whose research was an inspiration and starting point for my own.
I was truly blessed to have a fabulous cohort as well. The community we developed
helped me navigate the ups and downs and still have fun. In particular, Sara, Kerri, and Jay have
been immensely supportive. Thank you, friends.
Before I embarked on a path to my PhD, I needed the immense support of my family.
This accomplishment for me is particularly sweet to have finished with adult sons as champions.
Grant with his quiet and unwavering encouragement on every call, and Parker, who
procrastinated with me and pushed me to get back to work when I needed to. Thank you!
My mother has been my personal cheerleader and set the standard in our family as an
accomplished woman. I am grateful to have such tremendous support throughout my entire life. I
certainly cannot forget the encouragement and support from my Dad and my Aunt. They have
been keenly interested in my work and ask many questions which propel me to work harder.
I am grateful for my husband, Brian, who supports my dreams and endeavors. He
appreciates the intangibles and helped ensure that my plans did not fade away. Thank you for
your love, support, and of course, the Diet Coke.
iv
My work with older adults has provided insight into years and years of wisdom that I am
fortunate to have heard. I am thankful for Thursday Conversations, which gave me the
opportunity and shined the light on my path. I am also grateful for the Storytellers who have
shared their lives and wisdom for my growth and research. I look forward to my years ahead as
they have been modeled for me.
v
Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................... 1

Theoretical Foundations.......................................................................................................... 3
Narrative Theory................................................................................................................. 3
Lifespan Development ........................................................................................................ 6
Socioemotional Selectivity Theory...................................................................................... 9
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................... 11
Overview of Narrative and Storytelling................................................................................. 11
Reminiscence vs. Life Review .......................................................................................... 11
Recap of Narrative and Storytelling Research ................................................................... 15
Overview of Digital Storytelling ........................................................................................... 16
Background of Digital Storytelling.................................................................................... 17
Benefits of Digital Storytelling.......................................................................................... 19
Recap of Digital Storytelling Research .............................................................................. 20
Statement of the General Research Problem .......................................................................... 25
Purpose of the Research Study .......................................................................................... 28
Research Questions ........................................................................................................... 29
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLGY ............................................................................................... 31
Defining Older Adults........................................................................................................... 35
Methods and Procedure......................................................................................................... 36
Recruitment ...................................................................................................................... 38
Storytelling Lessons .......................................................................................................... 38
In-Depth Interviews .......................................................................................................... 42
Analysis ................................................................................................................................ 49
Data Handling and Coding ................................................................................................ 52
CHAPTER 4: PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS ..................................................................... 55
Participant Detail .................................................................................................................. 56
The Storytelling Experience .................................................................................................. 58
Unprompted Story Themes ................................................................................................... 61
Meaning-Making .................................................................................................................. 64
Reflecting on the Past ....................................................................................................... 64
Meaning-Making from the Process.................................................................................... 66
Gratitude and Appreciation ............................................................................................... 67
vi
Ongoing Meaning-Making ................................................................................................ 68

Connectedness ...................................................................................................................... 68
Connection with Loved Ones ............................................................................................ 69
Connection with Peers ...................................................................................................... 71
Being Heard ...................................................................................................................... 73
Creating vs. Sharing vs. Listening ..................................................................................... 74
Loneliness ......................................................................................................................... 75
Legacy .................................................................................................................................. 76
Technology ........................................................................................................................... 80
Medium Choice ................................................................................................................ 80
Next Stories ...................................................................................................................... 81
Paper as Media.................................................................................................................. 82
Perceptions ....................................................................................................................... 82
Limitations of the Study........................................................................................................ 85
CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION .................................................................................................... 87
Overview .............................................................................................................................. 87
The Storytelling Experience Contemplated ........................................................................... 87
In-Person Group Connection ............................................................................................. 88
Storytelling Challenges ..................................................................................................... 89
Story Themes of Older Adults............................................................................................... 90
Benefits of Story Creation: Meaning-Making ........................................................................ 93
Participant Expressed Benefits of Storytelling....................................................................... 94
Connectedness through Storytelling .................................................................................. 95
Aiding Loneliness ............................................................................................................. 97
Participant Expressed Benefits of Story Sharing.................................................................... 99
Shared Experience ............................................................................................................ 99
Listening and Learning From Others ............................................................................... 100
Feeling Heard and Validated ........................................................................................... 101
Receiving Support and Feedback .................................................................................... 101
Legacy ................................................................................................................................ 101
StoryCorps ...................................................................................................................... 103
Technology Challenges ....................................................................................................... 104
Voice and Paper as Preferred Media ................................................................................ 105
Three Hurdles Related to Technology ............................................................................. 107
vii
Reflection ........................................................................................................................... 111

Truthfulness .................................................................................................................... 111
Older Adults and Qualitative Research ............................................................................ 112
Power of Stories and Group Dynamics ............................................................................ 113
Legacy Expanded ............................................................................................................ 114
Summary ............................................................................................................................ 114
Summary of Reponses to Specific Research Questions.................................................... 117
Recommendations............................................................................................................... 118
Future Research .............................................................................................................. 119
Applications of Research ................................................................................................ 122
Conclusions ........................................................................................................................ 124
References .............................................................................................................................. 126
viii
List of Appendices
Appendix A Erikson's Stages of Development ........................................................................ 136
Appendix B Lessons on Narrative & Storytelling.................................................................... 137
Appendix C Lambert Interview Guidelines ............................................................................. 138
Appendix D In-Depth Interview Protocol ............................................................................... 139
Appendix E Interview Guide .................................................................................................. 140
Appendix F IRB Approval ...................................................................................................... 142
Appendix G Popular 1930s Names ......................................................................................... 143
ix
List of Table and Figures
Table 1 Coding Summaries…………………………………………………55

Table 2 Participant Demographics………………………………………….57
Table 3 Storytelling Experience…………………………………………….59
Table 4 Story Themes……………………………………………………….63
Table 5 Legacy Comments………………………………………………….77
Table 6 Technology Perceptions and Comments….………………………..84
Figure 1 Story Themes Word Cloud ……………..…………………………61
x
DIGITAL STORYTELLING & OLDER ADULTS
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Aging challenges will be compounded as the population's median age rises, life
expectancy increases, and older adults outnumber children within 15 years (Mather et al., 2019).
By 2030 over 20% of the population will be 65 (United States Census Bureau, 2018). As adults
live longer, they will potentially experience a significant loss of individual abilities and the
physical loss of loved ones. Older adults also face unfounded misconceptions about aging, which
lead to negative aging stereotypes (Diehl et al., 2020). The unique challenges older adults face
can be emotionally, mentally, and physically costly, and the need for social and healthcare
services will dramatically increase. Researchers from Yale recently reported that one in seven
healthcare dollars spent for older adults is related to negative perceptions of getting older (Chang
et al., 2020). This means that not only will an aging population have the expected medical issues
and confounding personal losses, but they will also be battling internal and external ageist
beliefs. Therefore, reducing negative views, increasing connection, and fostering positive self-
views could improve older adults’ health and be cost-effective.
Although later life stages are often seen as a period of decline with decreases in well-
being and life satisfaction, a well-being paradox exists. Older adults can experience happiness,
positive well-being, and improve life satisfaction in their later years, even when they may also
experience physical and cognitive decline and other losses (Cosco et al., 2017; Dubovska et al.,
2017). Identifying and understanding the critical factors and components that foster positive
mental and emotional health among older adults as they traverse through later developmental
stages is vitally important over the next 10 years as the older population grows. The expansion of
Erikson’s (Erikson & Erikson, 1998) widely applied developmental stages to include a
STORYTELLING & OLDER ADULTS 2
“transcendent” ninth stage emphasizes the importance of extended longevity and the ongoing
challenges older adults may experience.
Older adults, though, are often grouped in a catch-all category of over 55, which is
substantially below the United States average age of 78 (United States Census Bureau, 2018).
Targeted research on the specific needs and challenges of older adults is minimal, and older
adults are often excluded (Chang et al., 2020). The American Psychological Association has
recently published a dedicated issue to reexamining adult development, which illustrates the
need for more discussion, research, and changing perspectives on what it means to age well
(Arnett et al., 2020). As a result, it is vital to research older adults as a unique category and look
at different age segments within this population.
Storytelling is one of the oldest forms of communication. Stories are the foundation of
how individuals understand their present and their past, and imagine their future (Polkinghorne,
1991). Narrative theorists such as Polkinghorne (1991) and Bruner (2004) suggest that
storytelling is innate and a pivotal element to feeling connected to others. Developmental theorist
Erikson also indicated that connectedness is critical to development and well-being at all life
stages (Erikson & Erikson, 1998). Popular activities such as storytelling, life review, and
reminiscence are viewed as beneficial for positive aging . These activities may help mediate the
negative aspects of aging by offering reflection, deeper understanding, shared experiences,
meaningful connections, and the ability to leave a legacy (Hausknecht, Vanchu-Orosco,
Kaufman, 2019). Subsequently, it is crucial to explore the role of storytelling in the later stages
of the lifespan.
Digital storytelling (DST) brings an added dimension to traditional storytelling. Broadly
defined, digital storytelling is a brief 2 to 5-minute digital clip, which can be an audio recording
or a combination of visual images and sound. The multi-media benefits of adding visual
components and music to one’s voice may be a more engaging process. Prior research in
narrative theory and digital storytelling among older adults indicates that digital storytelling can
develop technical skills and a sense of accomplishment (Chonody & Wang, 2013; Hausknecht,
Vanchu-Orosco, Kaufman, 2019). In addition, sharing one’s story can ease loneliness and foster
a sense of legacy and connectedness. However, the research is sparse and more study is needed.
An in-depth study of the storytelling experience among older adults was conducted to
understand how storytelling may aid the goals of meaning-making, connectedness, and legacy.
The study also strived to evaluate the potential benefits of technological applications of
storytelling and the participants' thoughts and views on technology. In addition, due to the
unique stresses of a pandemic, thoughts and experiences of loneliness and isolation were
investigated in tandem with connectedness. Broad research questions covered an exploration of
the storytelling experience among older adults, prominent themes, feelings of connectedness to
others through storytelling, views of technology, and the predisposition of technology choices.
Theoretical Foundations
Narrative theory, lifespan development theory, and social-emotional selectivity theory
provide a framework for how narrative and stories can be utilized to enhance well-being, life
satisfaction, and benefit the later stages of life.
Narrative Theory
People organize knowledge to understand the information they receive (Polkinghorne,
1991). Polkinghorne outlines that the natural way all people think, organize, and share their
knowledge is through stories. Narrative is the cognitive process through which this occurs
(Bruner, 2004; Haven, 2007; Ohler, 2013). McAdams (2001) theorized that as people strive to
find purpose and meaning in their lives, they create an integrated narrative and storyline that
makes sense and provides a meaningful view of self. Narrative is the means, and story is the
specific narrative framework (McAdams, 1995).
A narrative is created from experience and shaped by the story format to make sense of
and develop continuity between the present, past, and future (Ochs & Capps, 1996). Events
become part of the created plot with settings, chapters, subplots, themes, and smaller storylines
that are edited, linked, and changed over time and experiences (Gubrium, 2001; McAdams &
Guo, 2015). Thus, people create a wide variety of stories about themselves and others. The
narrative identity and evolving stories are internalized and tell the unique personal life story of
who someone is, how they became that way, and whom they hope to be. A whole picture of an
individual’s reality is developed instead of a list of past events and experiences.
McAdams’ life story model of identity also suggests that people do not view themselves
as static or limiting, but instead can evolve and change (McAdams & McLean, 2013).
Storytelling reveals an individual’s inner narrative and psychological construct of one’s life and
these changes are revealed through their stories (McAdams, 1995). Mar (2004) suggests that the
narrative construction is not only a way to be social and communicate, but agency of one’s
narrative can be essential for positive health. As people use narrative to form their personal
histories, their health is positively impacted if narratives are future-oriented and trauma-free.
Storytelling aids empowerment because the storyteller can control the narrative and can recall,
reframe, and review as they like. Future-oriented perspectives may speak to hope and legacy,
which are key for later stages of the lifespan.
Cognitively, people are hardwired to think in stories and communicate through stories as
a natural part of their social interactions (Haven, 2007; Mar, 2004; McAdams, 2001; Ohler,
2013; Widrich, 2012). Stories are the building blocks of language and, thusly, communication.
Due to this biological feature, stories are universal across ages and cultures. Stories are a vital
part of how people connect with others and remember.
Stories and narrative processes activate the brain. Specific regions light up and are
engaged in the listening and processing. Narrative neuroscience has shown that the frontal,
temporal, and some cingulate areas are particularly active in the creation, communication, and
understanding of stories (Mar, 2004). Brain scan research using fMRI has shown that the brain
activity can synchronize between storyteller and listener (Stephens et al., 2010). The processing
is different from what is seen for words and sentences, indicating that there are neurological
reasons why stories can be more effective than recounting events. Stories are shown to be so
effective that the listener can exhibit anticipatory neural responses to a story and can react as if
the story was their own (Katuscáková, 2015; Stephens et al., 2010). Because storytelling
provides linkages that provide meaning, it is a meaning-making activity (Gubrium, 2001).
A key functional use of memory is sharing. Bluck and Alea (2009) claim that 14% of
social interaction is sharing memories about the past. This means that people are not making
sense of their experiences alone. They continually interpret existing information with the added
input of their physical, emotional, and mental states from other sensory information and other
people (Bluck & Alea, 2009). Exchanging stories has essential psychosocial functions for
individuals, including problem-solving, directing future behavior, helping with identity, and
creating, maintaining, and enhancing social bonds (Bluck & Alea, 2009). Ohler (2016) sums the
importance of stories in one’s life by stating that we are “living within our stories” (p. 187).
One’s life story is never complete as long as one is alive. Stories can provide meaning and
purpose throughout the entire lifespan, including among older adults.

Lifespan Development
Aging is not a process of preset decline with a loss of physical and cognitive abilities and
negative emotional impact (Carstensen et al., 2003; Cohen, 2008; Diehl et al., 2020). Some
decline may occur depending on an individual's health and genetics, but positive changes are at
play too. As an example, Cohen (2008) notes that as people age, relationships can improve.
Older adults may have fewer relationships, but the relationships become more important because
older adults seek out and develop more meaningful relationships. Aided perhaps by technology,
older adults value non-familial relationships now more than in previous generations, and this
area of friendship is expanding (Hülür & Macdonald, 2020). Older adults may have stronger
emotional resiliency because they do not judge as quickly as younger adults, and they are more
likely to understand and forgive (Cohen, 2008). These changes result in stronger relationships
and can be relayed through stories. Stories provide coping skills, emotional management, and aid
in helping people connect.
Narrative components can be seen in many developmental theories (McAdams, 2001).
Freud utilized dreams as symbolic stories, Adler believed memories were symbolic stories of
one’s life, and Tomkins suggested that people view their lives as a drama and create scenes and
scripts along the way. McAdams (2001) life story identity theory spans from the beginning of the
sense of self, age 2, and continues throughout adulthood. Erikson theorizes that identity work is
mostly correlated to the adolescent years, but the generativity stage of mid-life and later is about
narrative as well. Stories start early in childhood to help develop language, one of the first and
most important developmental milestones. Stories continue to be foundational and are utilized
early on in childhood to share life lessons and social and cultural norms (Polkinghorne, 1991).
Changes in the types of stories and the need for stories can be mapped with Erikson’s
developmental stages. People work on identity, meaning, and connection throughout their
lifespan, but there is a different focus in the later years of life (Erikson & Erikson, 1998).
Intrinsic motivation seemingly becomes more critical in the generativity and ego integrity stages
of older adults. Another developmental theorist, Maslow, has similar self-actualization concepts,
which parallel with Erikson's later stage of life and emphasizes an individual's move from self-
oriented to other-oriented (Slater, 2003). For more detail on Erikson’s stages of lifespan
development, please refer to Appendix A.
Mid-life is hard to define. People do not journey through developmental stages in a set
age-determined path. Milestones and similar life events help define the differing stages. Erik
Erikson considered people aged 40 to 65 to be in the mid-life stage (Erikson & Erikson, 1998).
In the mid-life generative vs. stagnation stage, people are concerned with caring for the next
generation, giving back, and leaving a legacy (Erikson & Erikson, 1998; McAdams & Guo,
2015). It is a productive and creative stage in which people look for ways to create and nurture
things that will outlive them.
The opposite of Erikson’s concept of generativity is stagnation. In a stagnation state,
individuals may not perceive themselves as contributing meaningfully and may have difficulty
maintaining a meaningful social identity (George, 2015). As people age, the opportunity to
realize goals and share experiences decreases, which can lead to stagnation and a feeling of being
disconnected. Generativity can be hindered by ones self, culture, or outside influences (George,
2015). Older adults, and those with cognitive or physical declines, may rarely be asked or
enabled to help others, even though they are quite capable of doing so. Additionally, people may
limit themselves with their internal negative self-talk of being too old.
Generative adults, when compared to less-generative adults, will have significantly more
heroic stories with a redemptive theme (McAdams & Guo, 2015). This type of story may mirror
individuals’ view of and interpretation of their lives. After conflict or struggles, successful
stories offer resolutions that are often redemptive (Ohler, 2013, 2016). This same principle can
carry over to one’s personal life. Creating and recalling redemptive stories helps the storyteller
find positive meanings that are psychologically beneficial. They can also be beneficial to the
listener and storyteller through the shared experience and learned mutual understanding. Legacy
may be fostered through this connectedness as well.
In Erikson’s developmental ego integrity vs. despair stage, people strive to feel their life
has meant something and that it was well-lived (Slater, 2003). Wisdom is the outcome of
successfully navigating the ego integrity vs. despair stage (Woolf, 2011). Older adults can use
their lifetime of knowledge and experience to be objective about life and develop new
perspectives. Stories can assist in reviewing and sharing the wisdom of one’s life.
When Erikson and his wife, Joan, entered their 80s and 90s, they realized older adults
were capable of continuous change. After Erik’s death, Joan expounded on Erikson’s stages and
added a ninth stage, transcendence, which is introspective and encompasses all other stages
(Erikson & Erikson, 1998). At the transcendent stage, the need for meaning-making may be
magnified as people in their 70s, 80s, and 90s face unique struggles and end-of-life concerns are
closer (Erikson & Erikson, 1998; Slater, 2003). Previously resolved crisis points are confronted
again, and it can be essential to review life events and rethink the past (Brown & Lowis, 2003).
Also known as geo-transcendence, people in this later developmental stage may appear
more childlike and joyful or become quite introspective. However, this stage is not solely about
activity or withdrawal (Corley & Southam, 2018). Erikson would suggest they have gone beyond
the fear of death and are perhaps transcending time, ego, and societal norms (Erikson & Erikson,
1998). Creativity peaks for many at this stage.
Individuals strive for a positive sense of self through all ages; however, meaning-making,
meaningful relationships, and having a sense of a well-lived life are center stage in the later
stages of life (Erikson & Erikson, 1998). Erikson's developmental stages are about problems or
crises that people conquer as they navigate each stage and illustrate that thinking, learning, and
growth change, but do not stop. Most importantly, stories are about solving problems, and when
done well, can provide meaning and contribute to a positive sense of self (Hull, 2020).
Therefore, with a broad perspective, stories can assist with the challenges of aging. Stories are
significant throughout one’s lifespan, and perhaps even more personal and important as one gets
older when considered in light of the later stage developmental goals of generativity and ego
integrity. Slater (2003) notes that an older adult might say, “I am what meaning I can make of
my life” (p. 64).
Socioemotional Selectivity Theory
Socioemotional selectivity theory suggests that older adults value meaningfulness,
emotional well-being, and relationships more than younger adults because their perspective of
time changes, and they want to make the most of the limited time they have left (Carstensen et
al., 2003). This theory is often applied to explain motivational changes and subsequent relational
and coping differences between older and younger age groups. Socioemotional selectivity theory
can also help explain the importance of narrative in the later stage of life.
Different goals in the later stages of life shift older adults' attention towards goals and
experiences that highlight an appreciation of life and relationships (Carstensen et al., 2003; Hülür
& Macdonald, 2020). Social goals are more sought after than information-related goals (Hülür &
Macdonald, 2020). Similar effects may occur in younger people due to particular life
circumstances such as illness, but the perspective is dominant in older adults because they are
fundamentally aware of their time left in life. As a result, older adults may be more inclined to
evaluate and revise their stories and look positively at memories to aid emotional regulation and
social connections (Trentham, 2007).
Memories are not just recalled but are shown to influence well-being and the perceptions
and understanding of the past (Carstensen et al., 2003). Research suggests that when emotion
regulation is a priority, such as among older adults, people focus on the positive and present, and
forget the negative. Emotionally laden content is recalled more than neutral memories, and
subsequently, older adults tend to cite more positive memories when queried (Carstensen et al.,
2003). This increased emphasis on positive past events may be why recalling personal memories,
and reminiscing is universal in older adults and necessary in the later stages of life (Carstensen et
al., 2003).
Socioemotional selectivity theory, like Erikson’s life span development theory, suggests
that people do not passively age. Although there are many changes, older adults continue to
fulfill their goals, change their perspectives of the past, and maximize their satisfaction with life
and maintain a positive well-being. Storytelling may be an effective means to recall and
highlight positive memories to enhance life satisfaction and well-being.

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
Overview of Narrative and Storytelling
Narrative gerontology is a popularized term for the study of aging, which uses a narrative
lens akin to the storied-self (Polkinghorne, 1991). By looking at life as stories, one can study
narrative and storytelling to gain insight into aging, personal meaning, and the internal and
external challenges that are involved (Kenyon & Randall, 1999). One’s stories can contribute to
understanding beyond a physical or mental exam to understand the inner person. This is
particularly important when studying Erikson’s later stages of adult development, where the
challenges and experiences may not be physically visible. In the generativity vs. stagnation, ego
integrity vs. despair stage, and transcendence stages, much of the work is internal as one strives
to develop a positive sense of self, look to aid future generations, and come to terms with one’s
life (Erikson & Erikson, 1998).
People are fundamentally storytellers who create, live, and become their stories. Their
stories provide a mixture of facts and events, and a sense of who they are and want to be
(Kenyon & Randall, 1999). Storytelling activities such as life review and reminiscence can
reveal this insight into one’s self and create meaning. Sharing one’s story through these methods
helps build a deeper understanding, connection, and legacy (Chonody & Wang, 2013). Current
technology allows the recording of stories and the addition of music, pictures, and the ability to
be archived at the Library of Congress, which may enhance the benefits of storytelling.
Reminiscence vs. Life Review
Life review and reminiscence were once thought to be mortality-oriented and a final
stage activity, but they are developmental (Westerhof & Bohlmeijer, 2014). Both are related to
happiness and can help individuals reflect on their lives and reorganize, reinterpret, and rethink
events and experiences. Consequently, this can improve well-being and ameliorate depressive
symptoms (Westerhof & Bohlmeijer, 2014). Reminiscence and life review can also develop
coping skills, foster positive relationships, deepen bonds, and help one develop a sense of
mastery and accomplishment. These benefits can assist in deriving and developing meaning from
one’s life and increase self-esteem. Seemingly interchangeable, they are different processes used
in different ways with social, instrumental, and integrative functions (Westerhof & Bohlmeijer,
2014; Woolf, 2011). Life review is about putting a coherent story of self together and may
include reminiscence. In contrast, reminiscence may focus on a particular event, life stage, or
experience. It is important to differentiate these terms for research purposes.
Reminiscence. Butler viewed reminiscence as recalling personal memories, a naturally
occurring activity in older adults (Westerhof & Bohlmeijer, 2014). Older adults will often relay
stories and talk about the past as a social activity (Chonody & Wang, 2013). Chonody and Wang
(2013) note that the perception of older adults “living in the past” is negatively oriented and
inaccurate. Researchers indicate that recalling memories and stories about one’s life is an
adaptive way to think and talk and is beneficial to processing the past and creating meaning
(Chonody & Wang, 2013; Woolf, 2011). Reminiscence does not require a critical analysis or
deep thinking about the past. Developmentally, as one gets older, it can help integrate one’s life,
help with closure, and deal with one’s mortality. New perspectives and interpretations can be
developed, and satisfying reflection and resolution can occur.
People can reminisce on their own, socially with others, or in a structured reminiscence
group, which has the added benefit of sharing one’s stories (Chonody & Wang, 2013).
Reminiscing can fill a social function that may foster bonding and connection (Westerhof &
Bohlmeijer, 2014). Reminiscing can also help maintain coping strategies by enabling the
individual to look at the past to assist with present problems and be a strategy to refocus on
positive memories to improve one’s mood.
Additionally, memory is shown to be functionally different across different life stages
(Bluck & Alea, 2009). Older adults often reminisce to teach lessons or to maintain connections
to lost loved ones. In comparison, younger adults are more likely to reminisce to decrease
boredom, problem-solve, or develop their identity.
Due to a broad appeal and evidence of numerous benefits, reminiscence is used in health
care settings and as an interventional activity for older adults (Bohlmeijer et al., 2007). In a
meta-analysis review by Bohlmeijer and fellow researchers (2007), reminiscence was correlated
with successful aging due to integrative and instrumental functions. These functions include
evaluating and reconciling past experiences and relying on previous experiences to assist in the
present such as problem-solving. Aging is viewed as dynamic, and identity is seen in one’s
behavior and how one keeps their narrative going. These are illustrated through their storytelling
and reminiscing.
A Taiwanese study using a 6-week intervention for older adults (n=106, 56% over 70
years) with mild to moderate dementia reported that among their participants, a spiritual
reminiscence was likely to help build new relationships, help find meaning in life, and foster
transcendence (Wu & Koo, 2016). Although this study has unique cultural and cognitive
characteristics, it does illustrate the importance of storytelling in the minimally studied later
stages of life. In addition, this study seemingly supports Erikson’s later life goals and
motivations for older adults, such as developing meaningful relationships, seeking meaning-
making of their lives, and achieving transcendence.

Not all reminiscence research is clear cut. One robust study (n=420) of older adults (avg.
age 61) looking at mental health and marriage by Cappeliez et al. (2005) reported significant
associations between reminiscence and mental health. Using reminiscence to foster conversation
and prepare for death was correlated with higher satisfaction. Reminiscence focused on old
problems, and to fill a void as something to do was associated with lower satisfaction. Escapist
or obsessive reminiscence was seen as a defensive mechanism and was not shown to be
beneficial.as a defensive mechanism and was not shown to be beneficial.
Life Review. Butler (1963) does not view life review and reminiscence as the same
activity, but there is much overlap between them in the literature. Like reminiscence, older adults
naturally review their lives to understand, process, and organize their lives. Generally, life
review is understood as a normal part of life, and a developmental task often cued when people
become aware of their death sooner rather than later (Woolf, 2011). Life review storytelling
aligns well with Erikson’s later life stages where individuals look at their lives and want to feel a
sense of accomplishment and find meaning. A sense of mortality may spark transcendence, and
the need for life review may arise (Chonody & Wang, 2013; Trentham, 2007).
Individuals may take a life review approach and look at their entire lifespan to evaluate
positive and negative events with an attitude of reflection and resolution (Bohlmeijer et al., 2007;
Woolf, 2011). Successful life review can lead to wisdom and serenity, while negative life review
or unsolved issues may result in despair. Chonody and Wang (2013) point out that the retelling
of the same story repeatedly among some older adults may be helpful if individuals are grappling
with certain life events. Although research on aging populations has demonstrated that life
review has a greater impact on well-being than reminiscence, reminiscence is accomplished

more easily and has also been effective for improving well-being among older adults
(Bohlmeijer et al., 2007; Chonody & Wang, 2013).
Recap of Narrative and Storytelling Research
Research on aging populations has demonstrated that life review has a greater impact on
well-being than reminiscence (Bohlmeijer et al., 2007; Chonody & Wang, 2013). Reminiscence,
though, is an easier activity and can be somewhat useful for improving well-being among older
adults. These differences were discovered through a meta-analysis of 15 empirical studies from
the past 20 years (Bohlmeijer et al., 2007). The average compiled age was 75-85. The analysis
indicated that reminiscence had a moderate effect on older adults' life satisfaction and emotional
well-being. Life review had a significantly greater effect than reminiscence. Bohlmeijer et al.
(2007) suggested that reminiscence brings up simpler associations and generally more positive
memories. Therefore, the researchers theorized that differences in results were due to the more
targeted and change-focused life review approach.
Cappeliez et al. (2005) discovered significant associations between reminiscence and life
satisfaction in a large-scale marriage and mental health study with 420 participants and an
average age of 61. There were reported differences between the goals of the reminiscence
activity and subsequent scores. Reminiscence intended to foster conversation or discuss end-of-
life concerns was positively correlated to life satisfaction. Reminiscence focused on old
problems or just as something to do was not. Conversational reminiscence was shown to support
the social benefits of sharing one’s stories.
An exploratory study by Mager (2019) examining storytelling as a short-term
intervention to build resilience showed promising results; however, the sample size of eight was
limiting. Weekly prompts and surveys were used in a 5-week group storytelling program.
Prompts included asking participants to tell a story about adversity, transitions, home, important
relationships, and confidence. Participants were asked each week what was meaningful that day,
and if anything during the past week significantly impacted their happiness. At the end of the
fifth week, they were asked how their participation in the group affected them. Happiness and
resilience measures were taken before and after each intervention. The descriptive statistics were
not significant due to variability and sample size, although increased resilience and happiness
scores from participants in the storytelling group were noted.
The participants reported an increased awareness of and appreciation for their life, which
may be a factor for successful aging (Mager, 2019). The thematic analysis revealed four
important themes: listening and learning from others, being heard, connection, and
empowerment. It is unknown if the feelings of connection arose from being part of a group or the
sharing and listening of stories. Mager (2019) suggests that a social control group should be
added next time for comparisons to the storytelling group. Future research may consider a closer
look at the theme of connectedness and the differences between telling and listening to others’
stories.
Overview of Digital Storytelling
Storytelling is powerful, but digital storytelling can be even more compelling, especially
when the resulting digital artifacts can be kept for future generations. Digital storytelling brings
added features and benefits to traditional storytelling and can be more than simply recording
one’s life events. Music, coupled with the narrator’s voice, and accompanying visuals, can
convey a wide range of emotions and other aesthetic qualities that are not possible without a
multifaceted approach. Additionally, when individuals relay their personal stories, in their voice,
a certain intimacy is shared (Hausknecht, Silva, & Kaufman, 2019). It is powerful to hear the
storyteller’s voice across generations and may make the story seem more personal. This personal
quality may help to mitigate the stereotypes about older adults and ageism as well. The usage of
digital storytelling hopefully would naturally expand as generations growing up with new
technologies will more likely be drawn to digital media as they get older. This digital expansion
can already be seen among older adults as the non-Internet usage of adults over 65 has decreased
by 7% from 2018 to 2019 (Anderson et al., 2019). In 2019, 27% of adults over 65 did not use the
Internet, and this decline is expected to continue.
Background of Digital Storytelling
Although storytelling has been around for ages, digital storytelling became popular as a
new form of expression in the 1980s and ’90s (Hausknecht et al., 2017; StoryCenter, 2019).
StoryCenter, previously known as The Center for Digital Storytelling, was an epicenter of the
digital storytelling movement (StoryCenter, 2019). Lambert (2006), a co-founder of The Center
for Digital Storytelling, developed the “Digital Storytelling Cookbook,” which the StoryCenter
and researchers often use as a model or starting point for digital storytelling workshops and
studies. StoryCenter (2019) conducts workshops and trains others to “create spaces for
transforming lives and communities, through the acts of listening to and sharing stories” (para.
1). The final product of a StoryCenter workshop is a multimedia artifact telling one’s story.
Lambert (2006) defines digital storytelling as a 3- to 5-minute digital clip utilizing audio
and visual components, including photographs, voiceover, music, and other sounds. Often with
older adults, there is an intergenerational focus, and family members or students may assist in the
development (Chonody & Wang, 2013). As an art form, it may be appealing to older adults who
become more creative as they age (Hausknecht et al., 2017).

An audio-visual clip is not the sole method of creation or medium for the distribution of
digital storytelling. In addition to StoryCenter, another digital storytelling organization,
StoryCorps, is popular and widely used. StoryCorps (2020) has a mission to “preserve and share
humanity’s stories to build connections between people and create a more just and
compassionate world” (para. 1). StoryCorps’ focus is on recording one’s stories and archiving
them with the Library of Congress, which may enhance one’s sense of legacy. A mobile app
enables widespread accessibility for people to record on their own. Some of the stories are
transformed into animated shorts for an added visual benefit.
Digital storytelling has been used extensively to increase digital literacy, foster empathy,
preserve culture, build community, and as a reflective or therapeutic intervention for improved
mental health (de Jager et al., 2017; Hausknecht et al., 2017; Hausknecht, Vanchu-Orosco, &
Kaufman, 2019). Older adults with dementia and mild cognitive impairment have also realized
the benefits of digital storytelling (Owens, 2018; Owens & Park, 2016; Savundranayagam et al.,
2011; Stenhouse et al., 2013).
As a result, digital storytelling is popular among the mainstream population and affinity
groups to create and share their stories. All of these avenues of expression have similar goals and
strive for the same result of reflecting and creating stories, sharing and connecting people
through stories, and preserving them for future generations. All are under the umbrella of digital
storytelling. Digital stories do not need to be for particular circumstances or purposes. They are a
way for the general public to create and share their own stories about what they feel is important
to revisit, share, and leave behind for others (Hausknecht et al., 2017).
Digital storytelling can be defined in a broad sense to include any story relayed via digital
media (de Jager et al., 2017). For this research project, digital storytelling includes audio
recordings and clips with audio and visual components. This broader focus enables comparisons
across technologies and a focused look at the association of digital media benefits across
developmental stages.
Benefits of Digital Storytelling
The benefits of digital storytelling are not solely about production, although the creation
of a digital multimedia digital product can contribute to a sense of efficacy and accomplishment
(Hausknecht, Vanchu-Orosco, et al., 2019). The underlying focus of storytelling, and thus digital
storytelling, is about being heard, listening to one another, connection, and providing an
exploration and meaning of one’s life (de Jager et al., 2017). The crux of the story is
introspective and personal (de Jager et al., 2017). The goal is to share part of one’s life and offer
a glimpse of who the storyteller is by sharing a sense of self and identity. Through creating the
story, an individual’s sense of self is further refined and honed, and the sharing helps one feel
heard and connected.
For older adults, digital storytelling can be a way to be heard, connect with others, pass
on a legacy, and feel that they lived a life worth sharing and feel a sense of being valued. The
process of digital storytelling also gives people the time and ability to reflect, review, and
redefine their memories and possibly alter their perspective of events or experiences using the
accumulated wisdom of life (Hausknecht, Vanchu-Orosco, & Kaufman, 2019). An added benefit
of a digital medium is the ability to share it with a broader audience. Preservation can be
meaningful even when the participant is still around to share it. As people age, sometimes there
are memory deficits, so a digital story will still be available and shared when the storyteller has
forgotten what was important to them and figuratively lost their voice (Hausknecht, Silva, &
Kaufman, 2019).
Recap of Digital Storytelling Research
A comprehensive review of research utilizing digital storytelling similar to the workshops
created by Lambert and StoryCenter shows that very little research has been done in the field, in
the United States, and with an older adult population (de Jager et al., 2017). In their review, de
Jager et al. (2017) determined that data gleaned from stories and storytelling was more
substantive than that uncovered in a typical interview process. The researchers also concluded
that digital storytelling was particularly beneficial to marginalized groups, and deep listening
contributed to the benefits. Participants were thought to be more emotionally and relationally
engaged with digital storytelling.
Recent digital storytelling research has been promising on several points connected with
Erikson’s later stages of the lifespan needs. Methods and modes vary extensively and include
workshops, classes (in-person and online), groups, blogs, and apps (Chonody & Wang, 2013;
Hausknecht, Vanchu-Orosco, & Kaufman, 2019; StoryCenter, 2019; StoryCorps, 2020).
Purposes run the gamut from therapeutic to individual expression to group community building.
Ages range from over 50 to focusing on participants in their 60s, 70s, and 80s. Overall, though,
research in the area of digital storytelling among older adults is limited.
App-Based Digital Storytelling. StoryCorps (2020) claims to have the most extensive
collection of voices and stories. Dave Isay, the founder, was inspired to create a digital
storytelling format and archive personal stories after a relationship-changing conversation with
his father. Early participants impressed upon Isay the power of being heard and the benefit of
feeling that their lives and stories were meaningful and mattered. As a result, StoryCorps is
focused on connection, compassion, and preserving history and individual legacy (StoryCorps,
2020). After a story is recorded, the audio is uploaded to the Library of Congress. Initially started
with trained facilitators and a mobile unit, an app now makes the medium accessible to most
people.
StoryCorps has two initiatives that align with the themes apparent in the later stages of
the lifespan; the Memory Loss Initiative and StoryCorps Legacy. The StoryCorps Memory Loss
Initiative is geared to those with early memory loss and strives to gather their oral history and
preserve their sense of identity (Savundranayagam et al., 2011). No studies were found related to
StoryCorps Legacy, and a request for research information was unsuccessful.
A Memory Loss Initiative study examined personhood and the relationship between those
with memory loss and their families (Savundranayagam et al., 2011). The authors note that often
when an individual has dementia, communication may be difficult, and the person may
experience a sense of loss or feel defined by the disease as opposed to other attributes
(Savundranayagam et al., 2011). Those affected by dementia can gain a sense of personhood
when they are included in activities and conversations, and when they can increase their sense of
attachment, belonging, and feel their identity is not diminished. Being included and heard is
fundamental. These points align with Erikson’s later stages of the lifespan theory, where
individuals desire to maintain a positive sense of self, connect with others, and leave a legacy. It
also supports the socioemotional selectivity theory’s tenet that people are more focused on
deriving meaning from their life and sharing their stories when they realize their time is limited.
Forty-two people self-identified with early memory loss participated in the Memory Loss
Initiative study, and their family members acted as interviewers (Savundranayagam et al., 2011).
The specific questions that were asked during the StoryCorps interview sessions by the family
members were not disclosed; however, a question generator was available to assist the family
member or facilitator. The participants selected questions which affirmed personhood, explored
family relationships, and educational and work history.
To gauge perceptions of the experience, the researchers asked open-ended questions by
telephone 10 days after the family recording sessions. The specific research questions were
1. To what extent does participating in a collaborative activity, such as the StoryCorps’
Memory Loss Initiative, influence the identity of storytellers with memory loss?
2. How did the Memory Loss Initiative influence the relationships between storytellers and
their family members who interviewed them? Was there evidence that the impact was
sustained over time? (Savundranayagam et al., 2011, p. 417).
Suggestions for improving the StoryCorps process were also asked. Three months after the
study, family members were asked if the relational benefits had been sustained. The participants
were not queried, so it is unknown if the relationship changes were sustainable for the storyteller.
The storytellers and family members indicated they enjoyed the time to reminisce and
that the experience gave them time to reconnect, reflect on shared memories, and reaffirm their
relationships and value. The researchers also discovered that a primary benefit of the storytelling
experience was being present in the moment, which aided meaningful conversation
(Savundranayagam et al., 2011). It is unknown whether the telling and sharing of the story or the
listening was the most impactful. Legacy was important for both parties, and the participants
were reportedly pleased to be part of a legacy encompassing their future generations and others.
A thematic and content analysis of the shared stories was not discussed in the research
results. In addition, the population was particular to those with memory loss. It is unknown how
the results may differ among older adults without a cognitive decline who may have a different
socioemotional time perspective or be focused on a different stage of life.

Video-Based Digital Storytelling. Digital storytelling with video incorporates added
sounds and pictures that may be more impactful than other storytelling options (Hausknecht,
Vanchu-Orosco, & Kaufman, 2019). The additional steps to incorporate these features may also
encourage deeper and more meaningful reflection. A series of digital storytelling workshops and
courses developed through Simon Fraser University has contributed quite a bit of insight into
digital storytelling (Hausknecht, Vanchu-Orosco, & Kaufman, 2019). In-person and online
courses have been designed and evaluated with varying target groups, including intergenerational
and dementia patients.
Positive results have been seen through this series of studies; however, much of the
research has focused on digital storytelling's technical aspects. For example, the quantitative
questions have revolved around workshop evaluation and skill improvement (Hausknecht et al.,
2017). These process questions have been supplemented with qualitative experiential questions
about what the participants liked best and workshop improvement suggestions. Overall, the
workshops have shown to be beneficial.
One digital storytelling project undertaken by Hausknecht, Vanchu-Orosco, and Kaufman
(2019) sheds light on a full breadth of benefits incorporating emotional and social benefits along
three themes: shared experience and connectedness, reminiscence and reflection on life, and
legacy creation. The project workshop provided an opportunity for participants to contemplate
life stories and choose a “moment of their life” and create a digital video (Hausknecht, Vanchu-
Orosco, & Kaufman, 2019, p. 2719).
The researchers followed the workshop format from StoryCenter and Jason Ohler’s
(2013) advice to think of the story first and then use the media to bring it alive. The 10-week
series had 88 participants covering an age range from 55 to over 90. The researchers sought to
understand the experiences and perceived benefits of creating and sharing digital stories.
Research questions included
1. What do older adult participants, who completed a digital storytelling course in
which they created an artefact of a personal lived experience, perceive to be the
main benefits and experiences of the process?
2. What are story viewers’ opinions about, and reactions to, the digital stories they
viewed at a special event in which the older adults’ digital stories were shown?
(Hausknecht, Vanchu-Orosco, & Kaufman, 2019, p. 2719).
Focus groups were conducted to gather additional data. Quantitative and open-ended questions
were asked about the process and workshop. The researchers uncovered positive themes about
shared experience and a sense of accomplishment and mastery through the story creation and
learning experience.
The participants enjoyed the facilitation as well. Lifelong learning was a widely
recognized benefit by the participants, and the authors note that the older adults embraced the
new medium (Hausknecht, Vanchu-Orosco, et al., 2019). The participants reported being glad to
tell their story, be heard, empathize, connect with others, and keep a permanent record of their
story. The participants also reported deeper meaning and understanding through the workshops'
reflective sections (Hausknecht, Vanchu-Orosco, & Kaufman, 2019).
The workshop series was capped off with a “Sharing Our Stories” event, which was well
received by the creators and friends and family (Hausknecht, Vanchu-Orosco, & Kaufman,
2019). Stories about overcoming adversity were highly rated. Participants indicated higher
measures of liking for stories that were also reported to have greater emotional connection.
These results support narrative theory on how people think, process, and connect through the
emotions lived through stories.
Hausknecht, Vanchu-Orosco, and Kaufman’s (2019) research also supports the necessity
of narrative and storytelling research and indicates the usefulness of storytelling in the later
stages of the lifespan. The evidenced benefits align with older adults' developmental stages
desiring to be productive, connect, and develop meaning, and leave a legacy. The richness of a
multimedia approach is highlighted as well. Focus group discussions gleaned insight into the
experience; however, in-depth interviews may add to understanding the individual experience.
Statement of the General Research Problem
The US is seeing an unprecedented population shift with an increasing number of older
adults. People live longer, but the later stages of the lifespan are full of unique developmental
challenges that can create obstacles to positive aging. Physical, mental, and emotional difficulties
can surface, which may hinder enjoyment, happiness, and life satisfaction in the “golden years.”
Both internal and external, ageism has increased healthcare expenditures (Chang et al.,
2020). Age-based stereotypes have increased in the United States despite research illustrating
that aging should be viewed as positive (Diehl et al., 2020). Loneliness impacts well-being and
health and is considered an epidemic among older adults (Anderson, 2010). It is imperative to
explore factors related to developmental age-appropriate goals that may contribute to successful
aging. It is also essential to consider which strategies and programs enhancing these factors are
most likely to be implementable to aid individuals in their later years.
Changing the narrative of older adults is one route to go. Older adults have a certain
amount of control over their aging and the narrative surrounding aging (Diehl et al., 2020).
Stories can help people understand themselves and others, communicate and connect, and feel
positive about their lives. These tasks are particularly important in the later stages of the lifespan
when people strive to meet the developmental goals of meaning-making, connection, and legacy
while facing loss and a sense of disconnectedness (Erikson & Erikson, 1998). Loneliness is
related to the connections that older adults strive to build. Personal narratives created through
stories and storytelling change over time as older adults continue to grow and learn and become
very significant in how they view themselves and others. Theory and research illustrate how
stories are the foundation of how people think and feel, and how sharing stories can be
beneficial.
Previous research supports the benefits of reminiscence and life review for well-being
and positive mental health among older adults (Bohlmeijer et al., 2007; Cappeliez et al., 2005;
Mager, 2019; Wu & Koo, 2016). However, about half of older adults do not see a need or
purpose for reminiscence and life review (Cappeliez, 2017). Intervention approaches may not be
perceived as necessary by the general public. Life review and active reminiscence may be
dismissed with an attitude of letting things go and wondering if it is important and necessary to
bring up the past (Cappeliez, 2017).
In contrast, storytelling is seen as an enjoyable activity. A shared event, such as
storytelling, may garner more interest because it may be easier to understand and do. There may
be a certain comfort level with sharing a story with friends or loved ones rather than a review for
therapeutic purposes. As an added plus, storytelling may be just as beneficial as a formalized life
review or reminiscence program.
Storytelling and digital storytelling are shown to be beneficial for older adults; however,
research focusing on specific benefits of different methods and digital storytelling is relatively
new, and the data are limited. To confuse the topic more, not all methods are detailed, and
reminiscence and life review techniques can blur. This makes comparisons difficult between
studies (Bohlmeijer et al., 2007). Some studies use guided prompts, and some are open-ended.
Although empirical data are gathered and can be helpful, much is not generalizable due to small
sample sizes. Sample sizes have been as small as six participants and are not representative of a
larger population (Owens, 2018).
Gaps in the research literature are evident. Although one recent review study raised the
question of “What is currently known about how digital storytelling is used in mental health?,”
none of the studies reviewed in the meta-analysis were specifically about digital storytelling and
the health or well-being benefits of older adults (Vecchi et al., 2016, p. 184). Out of the 15
studies analyzed, only four were based in the United States. One study out of the United
Kingdom included seven people with dementia, which may skew results, and focused on student
nurse learning, not the experience of the individual. The authors subsequently noted that there is
a lack of study in the area of digital storytelling and mental health.
My review also noted a shortage of research in digital storytelling among older adults and
limited research about storytelling in general among older adults. Only one study touched on
Erikson’s last stage of development, transcendence (Wu & Koo, 2016). No previous research
studies were found comparing storytelling mediums.
Through a series of research projects investigating digital storytelling and older adults,
connectedness was discovered to be a predominant theme, but the authors note there is more to
learn (Hausknecht, Silva, & Kaufman, 2019). Connectedness, as a primary focus among the
oldest of the old, needs more investigation. In addition, although many previous studies have
included older adults, the data are not separated within smaller age groupings. Analyzing themes
of connectedness and examining differences in experience between telling and sharing a story is
all warranted.
Purpose of the Research Study
Suboptimal mental and emotional health among older adults, ageism, and an epidemic of
loneliness, have a tremendous impact on all people, not just older adults. There are a limited
number of studies that have evaluated the effectiveness of storytelling and the different methods
of creating stories among an older adult population (de Jager et al., 2017; Hausknecht, Vanchu-
Orosco, & Kaufman, 2019). Further ongoing research is needed to examine the subjective
experience of storytelling among older adults in general, and specifically among the oldest of the
old over 70 or 80. Age groupings covering a 25+ age range are too broad, and comparisons with
smaller age groupings would be beneficial.
A study expanding prior research to examine older adults and their essential life story
themes and connectedness goals was necessary. Although there has been research on reminiscing
and life review benefits, similar subtler activities, such as storytelling, may be just as important
and potentially more appealing to older adults. This research study focused on storytelling and
not the act of life reviewing or reminiscing. The intent was not to be therapeutic but to study
older adults' experience in an enjoyable activity.
While some studies on storytelling and digital storytelling have studied group and process
results and benefits, this study explored storytelling and the individual (Chonody & Wang,
2013). Participants were allowed the opportunity to develop a story that was most important for
them to share and they were also able to choose their preferred media. Older adults may have
shared generational events that define their era and peers, but their own stories are crafted with
personal autobiography and anchors (Gubrium, 2001). By having an open prompt, essential
themes and critical benefits can surface without the hindrance of generational anchors or
imposed aging constructs. Participants choosing their medium for storytelling may offer insights
around their choices.
This study was designed to contribute to a deeper understanding of storytelling,
technology, content themes, and connectedness as they relate to older adults. Historically, and in
other cultures, an older adult’s typical role is as a storyteller for other generations (Kitayama et
al., 2020). This skill, role, and identity may be useful in accomplishing later life-stage goals. A
variety of sharing medium options sheds insight into the impact these activities have on
individuals and their ability to create meaning, feel a sense of connectedness, and develop a
legacy. In addition, this research study furthers the understanding and subsequent development
of positive aging programs.
Research Questions
To understand the experience and benefits of storytelling with digital media options while
focusing on connection and meaning-making and legacy, a qualitative approach using in-depth
interviews was utilized. Broad research questions focused on unearthing the relationship between
storytelling, the creation and sharing of stories, connectedness, and technology. Specific research
questions that were the basis for the interviews included
1. What is the experience of storytelling among older adults, specifically those in the later
age groupings of 70s, 80s, and 90s?
2. How does storytelling impact the feeling of connectedness among older adults?
3. When allowed to choose any story to share, what themes are most prominent in
storytelling among those in their 70s, 80s, and 90s? What is the prevalence of connection
themes?
4. Does the shared experience or feeling of connectedness extend beyond the individual or
group with which the story was shared?
5. What are the views of technology among the group, that is, why did they choose the
selected media? Is it an asset to connection, or is it not seen as necessary?
6. Which aspect of storytelling, developing, or sharing a personal story has the most impact
on one’s feeling of connectedness?

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLGY
To understand the experience and benefits of storytelling while looking at the concepts of
meaning-making, connection, and legacy, it was necessary to use a multi-step, educational and
qualitative phenomenological approach with small groups and in-depth interviews. Before
studying the impact of storytelling, an educational component is often needed to teach
participants about narrative concepts and the fundamental aspects of a story. In addition,
participants need to be aware of all the storytelling options available, and time needs to be
allotted for the creation and sharing of personal stories. It is also essential that participants
understand that help is available to them for any part of the process.
A direct comprehensive qualitative lens was warranted to focus on the experience and
benefits of storytelling and older adults' connectedness. Charmaz (2004) notes that “Qualitative
research celebrates discovering the taken-for-granted meanings of our participants” (p. 982). In
this spirit, a qualitative phenomenological approach with in-depth interviews was the best
methodological fit for an exploratory study examining storytelling and older adults. There is no
set process to help ensure rigor and trustworthiness for qualitative research studies, but talking
with the participants firsthand is an excellent start to ensuring that they are accurately understood
and represented (El Hussein et al., 2015).
A phenomenological approach enables the researcher to fully understand the
individualized experience of creating and sharing a story by hearing from the participants
directly. VanManen (2016) notes that a phenomenological approach studies the individual's
philosophy and can help the researcher understand everyday life on a deeper level. The human
experience can be understood in an often overlooked way or not feasible with other methods.
This qualitative approach of interviewing utilizes a constructivist method, which is needed when
dealing with individuals' experience and their subjective views, thoughts, and beliefs. The
researcher is then able to reconstruct and interpret each individual's experience (Charmaz, 2004).
The goal is to understand and articulate what the experience means for the participants,
and then from the individual descriptions, develop an overarching understanding of the meaning,
the essence, and the architecture and importance of the experience in general (Moustakas, 1994).
In contrast to quantitative research where facts can be gathered to confirm or disconfirm a
specific hypothesis, this study provides added knowledge to whether storytelling is beneficial as
opposed to proving storytelling to be effective or not effective. From the findings of this research
study, standardized follow-up survey research can be conducted.
One drawback of a phenomenological approach can be generalizability and predictability;
however, measures can be taken to ensure the data and interpretation's trustworthiness. This
potential tradeoff allows for a depth of detail and richness in meaning, which cannot be garnered
with statistical data (Moustakas, 1994; VanManen, 2016). The data's trustworthiness comes from
an accurate representation of the participants (El Hussein et al., 2015). The researcher's
interpretations are given added support by the submersion in learning about the participant's
experience to truly understand and relay the importance and meanings of the individual's realized
experience and an in-depth understanding of the researcher's experience, which is carefully
documented and considered.
Quantitative measures have been used in storytelling research. In particular, scales
evaluating life satisfaction and well-being are popular. In digital storytelling, much of the
quantitative data has been technically oriented about the technology or process instead of the
inner experience (Hausknecht et al., 2017). The anticipated sample size of this study, though,
was not substantial enough to warrant a quantitative analytic approach or to include survey
methods. To help differentiate this research study from others, the purpose was focused on the
participants' experience and themes, and choices, and not their digital literacy or technical
aspects of digital storytelling. However, the participants’ decisions about their usage of
technology for developing and sharing a story were investigated.
Quantitative research requires reliability and validity, and these factors are still necessary
with qualitative research, although the conations and definitions differ (Creswell & Creswell,
2018; Leung, 2015). Reliability is achieved with well-documented procedures and member
checking with the participants. Validity is ensured when the resulting information is accurate
from the perspective of the participant, the researcher, and readers as well. Other factors are also
considered in order to deem qualitative research trustworthy, authentic, and credible (Creswell &
Creswell, 2018). More discussion about the trustworthiness of this study is in the Analysis
section.
In-depth interviews and focus groups have been used effectively in other storytelling
studies, and there can be many benefits. One benefit of focus groups is the group dynamic of
reinforcing and processing together, which may help build connections. This might be
particularly beneficial if the group spends several weeks working together and develops a
camaraderie. Groups can be powerful and provide the connection that is needed and sought after
among older adults.
Although no issues were discussed by the researchers conducting focus groups, one
caution about using focus groups is the spring-boarding of ideas and the potential of dominant
participants steering the conversation (Chonody & Wang, 2013; Hausknecht, Vanchu-Orosco, &
Kaufman, 2019). Some people may feel challenged in terms of expressing themselves freely
within a group. Trained facilitators can avoid negative group dynamics and make sure everyone
is heard and can comfortably voice a contradictory viewpoint.
Individual in-depth interviews may solicit more personal views. Utilizing in-depth
interviewing also allows participants to talk instead of write, which offers fuller descriptions of
the subject’s experience to surface without the reflection that a written response may activate
(VanManen, 2016). In-person questioning can maintain the focus of the discussion on the lived
experience instead of generalizing the experience. It also enables the layering of questioning,
responses, and clarification to produce an understanding and interpretation of the experience,
which can be as realistic as possible. The researcher cannot assume to know what is most
significant or important at this early stage, so this technique enables a broader and deeper swath
of inquiry to follow (Charmaz, 2004).
For this study, in which the individual experience is the focus of inquiry, and the groups
do not have a long time together, individual in-depth interviews were preferred. Specific
questions can be viewed in Appendix E, and a detailed discussion can be found under the In-
Depth Interviews section.
Directed content analysis of the participants’ stories and interviews was used as well as
an inductive approach to yield insight into the themes that older adults felt most important for
them to develop into a story and share. Hand coding and MAXQDA were used to discover the
relationship between storytelling, the creation and sharing of stories, connectedness, and
technology. Categories and individual themes were developed, and the results were aggregated to
develop group content themes, developmental goal patterns, and conclusions about the
storytelling experience of this group of older adults. Insight into the effectiveness of storytelling
as an activity to enhance and enable the fulfillment of later stages of life goals, and the ability to
reduce negative emotions of loneliness or isolation was discovered. Views on technology were
also uncovered.
Defining Older Adults
Older adults are not well defined as a category. Although one of the most diverse
populations due to their years and experience, older adults are often grouped together. Research
definitions can vary depending on the researcher, field of interest, and goal of the study. Often,
people 55 and above are grouped into an “older” age category. Cultural definitions and everyday
vernacular can also confuse the interpretation and understanding of what age defines an older
adult.
Membership in the American Association of Retired Persons (AARP) and other senior
benefits and discounts are available for those aged 50 and 55. In an AARP research-supported
study about older adults, people 45 and over were recruited (Anderson, 2010). Government
programs, such as Medicare, identify 65 to be the age for an older adult to retire and become
eligible for senior services. Social Security recipients, though, are incentivized to wait longer for
benefits, which pushes retirement into the ‘70s.
An increasing life span expands not only the term “older” into later years, but it can also
confuse developmental stages. People are working longer, getting married or remarried later, and
having children or second families at later ages. McAdams (1993) has defined mid-life as ages
40-60, leaving one to surmise that over 60 is older; however, McAdams suggests that a social
clock is at play too. The previously 55-year-old retired person may be starting a second career or
getting remarried. The 55 to 60-year-old is not the same as the 70, 80, or 90-year-old person.
Terms like “senior citizens” and “elderly” can contribute to ageist-related concepts of
decline and fragility among older adults. Chang and fellow researchers (2020) used 75 years and
over as the division in their data related to ageism and older adults. “Older adult” is the preferred
term and is seen in current research. Most of the reviewed studies use 60 or older as a benchmark
for older adults. Some studies, geared to the older segments of the population, have additional
delineated age categories.
Methods and Procedure
This research study was a multi-step project which included narrative and storytelling
lessons, story creation, a sharing event, and in-depth interviews. To prepare for the in-depth
interviews, an educational series of lessons on narrative and storytelling was offered to provide
foundational information, skills, and encouragement for participants to create their own stories.
After learning the basics of narrative and storytelling throughout two sessions, the participants
met for a creative time in which the participants were able to work on their stories and receive
help from me and bounce ideas off of the other participants. A sharing event capped off the 4-
week series, where the participants were able to share their stories and listen to the other
participants’ stories. In-depth interview participants were recruited from those that had created
and shared their story.
This research project was conducted throughout July, August, and September of 2020
when the COVID pandemic was active. Recommended CDC guidelines, state and local
government, and facility restrictions about group meetings were followed. These included 10
people or less for each in-person meeting, social distancing, spaced seating, mandatory mask-
wearing (exempting a medical condition) for the participants and myself, and hand sanitizer and
temperature checks before each meeting.
Options offered to participants that could not or did not want to meet in-person included
an online series of storytelling lessons via Zoom or a recorded version of the storytelling lessons.
Individual one-on-one assistance was also offered in-person, via Zoom, or over the phone. In-
depth interview participants had the option of talking in-person, via Zoom, or over the phone.
In-depth interviews were conducted to understand the individual experience of creating
and sharing their personal stories. This phenomenological approach allowed for fuller and more
detailed insight into the experience of storytelling. Previous research studies, including Silva and
Kaufman (2019), Hausknecht, Vanchu-Orosco, and Kaufman (2019), and Owens (2018) were
used as guidelines for questioning. The in-depth interviews focused on unearthing the
relationship between storytelling and the critical developmental challenges of later life stages,
including meaning-making, connectedness, and legacy. Questions about the medium they chose
and technology were asked as well as timely questions relating to loneliness, isolation, and the
pandemic.
The interview process used open-ended prompts and follow-up questions to explore the
experience, the benefits, challenges of storytelling, and the development and sharing of their
personal stories. The interviews were recorded and transcribed via Zoom. The full list of
interview questions is in Appendix E, and more detail can be found under In-Depth Interviews.
Here are a few examples of interview prompts:
1. What was it like to create and make your story?
2. Please tell me about the medium you chose.
3. Tell me about the story you shared.
4. Think of a time in your life when you felt disconnected or alone or lonely. Do you
think that storytelling would help you feel less lonely?

Recruitment
The educational four-part storytelling series was promoted to local community senior-
oriented groups, newsletters, and community Facebook pages in a midwestern U.S. city in July,
August, and September of 2020. Promotional materials targeted those in their 70s, 80s, and 90s;
however, all people interested in attending the series were able to attend, and age was not asked.
Please see Appendix B for an example of the promotional flyer, e-newsletter, and Facebook post.
The promotional materials and researcher informed the participants that volunteers would be
sought for in-depth interviews as part of a dissertation research study; however, it was stated that
the interview was not conditional for attendance.
Participants self-selected to attend either an in-person or online series and self-selected to
be interviewed. This convenience sample allowed for a certain amount of homogeneity because
the same researcher led the storytelling lessons, and all interviewed participants created and
shared a story as part of the series.
Due to the COVID pandemic and subsequent shelter in place guidelines and safety
measures for many older adults, the number of participants was reduced. Phenomenological
research views vary on the recommended number of participants in a sample but 5, 10, and 15
are standard guidelines (Flynn & Korcuska, 2018). Despite a limited group of potential
participants, there was enough interest for two storytelling lessons series. I was willing to
interview all interested people, and as per Flynn and Korcuska’s (2018) guidelines, aimed to
have 10-12 participants.
Storytelling Lessons
The weekly four-part storytelling lessons included an educational foundation, a creative
and development component, and a sharing event. The series was held in a local community
space that was able to space tables and chairs widely apart to meet in-person gathering
restrictions due to COVID. To adhere to in-person meeting requirements, everyone wore masks
or face shields; however, these did not seem to interfere with the learning. There were two
groups of less than 10 participants for the in-person series for a total of 12 people. An interactive
webinar was offered via Zoom for those not comfortable meeting in-person; however, there was
no interest in this option. One person opted to view a video I made and work on their own.
Part 1: The goal of the first 2 weeks of the storytelling series was to garner interest in the
concept of storytelling and to teach the basics of a good story. Reviewed storytelling research
studies utilizing storytelling groups have not incorporated a formalized educational component
separate from the storytelling event itself (Chonody & Wang, 2013; Mager, 2019). Chonody and
Wang (2013) evaluated a weekly reminiscence program where the participants were given a
prompt and a half-hour to write and then shared their stories with the group. Mager (2019)
studied a 5-week storytelling group in which a different theme was presented each week for the
participants to create a story around and share. Neither study mentions an educational
component.
StoryCenter (2019) espouses a set format for their digital storytelling workshops and
includes an educational piece about the fundamental parts of a story and how to create a story.
Other researchers have tweaked StoryCenter’s model to suit their goals, time limitations, and
methods, but usually include story creation skill building (Hausknecht, Silva, & Kaufman, 2019).
An educational foundation was imperative for this study so the participants could
understand the differences between narrative content, storytelling structure, anecdotes, life
review, and reminiscence. This starting point helped everyone have the same basic understanding
of a story's principles and assisted them in creating a story and sharing it. It was also necessary to
ensure as similar as possible storytelling experience for the participants to examine how their
experience affected important life goals and needs. The shared educational foundation provided
the structure participants needed to tell their stories and not reminisce or undertake an
autobiographical recounting or life review.
The storytelling lessons were tailored to fit the normal flow of existing senior groups and
allow for shorter development time. The purpose was to give participants a basic understanding
of how to create a good story and not the in-depth storytelling skills or digital literacy skills often
included with digital storytelling workshops. An overview of the history and concepts of
narrative and storytelling was covered. The fundamental elements of a good story were also
discussed. Material was culled from Ohler (2013), Haven (2007), and other popular resources.
Different storytelling options were highlighted, including oral tradition and audio and digital
methods. Technical aspects of how to create an audio or digital clip were not covered. For those
interested in digital clips, assistance was offered in the third session and one-on-one.
Respondents were informed they would receive as much individual help as needed so a lack of
technological ability did not curtail their storytelling efforts.
Participants of the first two sessions were encouraged to continue with the series and
attend a hands-on story developing day where I could assist in creating their personal story, and
they could try ideas out with the other participants. Stories were unprompted. Participants were
instructed to create and share a story they felt was important to them. They were told that it could
be an event, situation, or aspect of themselves that they felt was important. Participants were also
told that they did not need to share their stories with the group if they felt uncomfortable doing
so.
Because storytelling is personal, an unprompted lead was used to allow pertinent themes
to surface from the participants’ perspective. Neither the description of the educational
component, storytelling examples, nor discussions discussed aging. If age was part of someone’s
story, it was essential that it came from the storyteller and not outside influences. In addition, the
current pandemic and COVID were not mentioned as potential storylines.
Storytellers were offered three different ways to share their stories and were free to
choose a medium based on their interests. Assistance with technology was offered to help ensure
the participants could choose any medium they wanted and ameliorate worry about completing
their projects. The options for developing and sharing their story included
1. Create a 3-to 5-minute multi-media digital clip of their story.
2. Create and record a story through the StoryCorps app.
3. Create and practice their story in the oral tradition (i.e., a storytelling group).
In-between workshop meetings, participants were encouraged to start writing their stories
and gathering photos or images if they chose a digital clip format.
Part 2: The second part of the storytelling series was an active participatory work session
where questions were asked, and the storytellers bounced ideas off of each other. One-on-one
assistance was offered via Zoom, telephone, or in-person, to help the storytellers finish their
stories.
Part 3: A sharing event capped off the storytelling series and highlighted the
participants’ work. Everyone had the opportunity to share and hear the stories of others.
Participants were not required to share their stories with the group but were welcome to attend,
listen, and support the others. If someone did not want to share their story with the group, they
were encouraged to share their story with an individual of their choosing.

In-Depth Interviews
As the final step of the research project, in-depth interviews were used for data collection.
Participants who had participated in the storytelling series and created and shared their stories
were invited to participate in an in-depth confidential interview about their experience.
Participants were told at the beginning of the series that I would be looking for volunteers, but
participation was not a condition of attending the storytelling lessons. I interviewed all
participants, so the interviewer was not a differentiating factor.
Participants were able to choose between meeting in person, talking over the phone, or
meeting through Zoom for the in-depth interview. Savundranayagam et al. (2011) note that
participants prefer a home-like atmosphere and the ability to prepare for the interview. In-person
participants were interviewed in my office, which has a home-like atmosphere. The educational
storytelling series provided a means of preparation for the interview without guiding the
individual's story's thought or content.
Participants were briefed on confidentiality, and an informed consent form was
discussed, which included the nature of the research, example questions, and data handling. Each
participant was assigned a letter at the beginning of the interview to conceal their name, and any
names or identifying information were removed from the interview recordings and transcripts.
Consent forms were secured separately from all other materials, so letters and names could not
be paired with participants. Please see Appendix D for the interview protocol approved by
Fielding’s IRB. Pseudonyms were randomly assigned later on during analysis from a list of
popular names from the 1930s. None of the pseudonyms match any of the participant names. See
Appendix G for the source list of popular 1930s names. The interviews were recorded if agreed
to by the participant. StoryCorps’ (2020) instructions on how to safely record in-person during
COVID were followed. These suggestions included wiping the phone or recording device
frequently and staying 6 feet away.
The focus of questioning was on the experience and perceived benefits of storytelling, the
effect of storytelling on the topical pandemic and loneliness, and technology. Interview
guidelines by Lambert (2006) were followed. These included asking conversational questions
and few minimally scripted questions; following up naturally while using one’s intuition to get
more detailed responses; maintaining eye contact; giving the interviewee time to think, reflect,
and respond; and letting silence exist as a time the interviewee may need to express themselves.
Finally, allowing the participant to lead and signal when moving on or away from a topic is an
essential skill and was utilized. More complete details about Lambert’s suggestions can be seen
in Appendix C.
Savundranayagam et al. (2011) cautioned that older adults might have a slower
processing time and stated that 40 minutes was too brief in their study. Charmaz (2004) also
noted that the interviewer should respect moments of silence. Care was taken to ensure that
participants were not rushed or interrupted by the interviewer. Interviews lasted as long as the
participant was willing to talk and ended when the interviewee had nothing else to say.
Participants were prompted to share additional thoughts twice. Interviewees were asked 10 broad
questions with follow-up questions as needed to probe and clarify. The questions were similar to
other in-depth questions that have been used in prior research and were designed to allow the
interviewee to lead the conversation and comfortably share what they wanted. Please see
Appendix E for interview questions and Appendix F for IRB approval verification.
Detail on Interview Questions: Although there have been a few studies looking at
storytelling and digital storytelling among older adults with attention to differing factors,
examples of in-depth interview questions from previous research are sparse. Previous research
has asked specific questions about workshops, courses, technical details, and experiential or
open-ended questions about what the participant liked best. Questions like “Tell me about your
experience in taking this course,” and “What did you like/enjoy the most about the storytelling
experience?” are often seen in in-depth interviewing to examine the experience of the individual
(Hausknecht, Vanchu-Orosco, & Kaufman, 2019; Owens, 2018; Silva & Kaufman, 2019).
Benefits, challenges, and meaning are often queried as well. This study included similar
questions and utilized a conversational tone to minimize academic terminology that may have
been difficult for the respondent to understand and enabled the participant to answer freely.
Questions included
Q 2. Tell me what it was like to create and make a story.
Follow up: Can you describe how you felt going through this exercise? Was there some
part of it you enjoyed the most? Were there any challenges?
Q 3. What was it like when you shared your story?
Follow up: What did you enjoy the most when you shared your story?
Do you think this was helpful or did anything good come out of it for you?
Q 4. Tell me about anything that seemed particularly meaningful while you were
creating your story.
Follow up: Think about creating, preparing, and sharing your story. If not asked
previously: Do you think it was helpful in any way?
Owens (2018) examined the experience of digital storytelling of six adults with early-
stage dementia through in-depth interviews. Although the storytelling model was different, the
questions worked well and are pertinent for in-depth interviews with older adults. Variations on
these questions were incorporated into the in-depth interviews:
What was your experience creating your digital story?
How has the process of creating your own digital story affected your life?
What were the benefits of creating your digital story?
What were the challenges of creating your digital story?
Can you describe how you felt throughout this experience?
Do you want to create more stories? Or, would you do this activity again? (Owens, 2018,
p. 29).
Looking at Connectedness: Even though there have not been specific questions about
connectedness in many studies, it was seen as a theme or benefit of storytelling worthwhile to
address (Hausknecht, Vanchu-Orosco, & Kaufman, 2019). Mager (2019) noted that the studied
storytelling group reported positive shared experience and connection even though the study's
purpose was to look at resilience. Participants were queried after each meeting about what had
been meaningful. After the series of meetings, they were asked how being a part of the group
affected them. With a sample size of eight and no control group, the connectedness results
cannot be definitive, but the responses were connection related.
StoryCorps’ research sheds light on the importance of storytelling by acknowledging
meaningful conversations and legacy, which may speak to connectedness (Savundranayagam et
al., 2011). Questions from the sole StoryCorps’ study were not detailed, but it is surmised from
the analysis section that the storytellers were asked if they felt comfortable being interviewed,
felt comfortable in sharing their feelings, enjoyed telling their stories, shared something new,
would recommend StoryCorps, and had listened to their story on CD.

Open-ended questions are undetermined, although a comparative analysis was claimed to
have been used in order to garner more dialogue about the participants’ experiences
(Savundranayagam et al., 2011). Most notable were the following two questions that were part of
a list of seven yes/no questions presented to family members:
1. Did you have a newfound appreciation for your friend/family member after the
StoryCorps experience?
2. As a result of your StoryCorps experience, do you have more meaningful
conversations with your friend/family member? (Savundranayagam et al., 2011, p. 421).
In one of the most extensive research compilations among older adults about digital
storytelling, connectedness emerged as a clear theme (Hausknecht, Vanchu-Orosco, & Kaufman,
2019). A total of 88 participants in several digital storytelling workshops were given post-course
evaluation sheets with quantitative and qualitative questions. Focus groups were conducted as
well to uncover the benefits, challenges, and experiences of the participants. Social
connectedness through shared experience and connection through creating a legacy emerged as
top themes. Although exact questions are not known, prompts to elicit these themes arose from a
primary research question of what the participants “perceive to be the main benefits and
experiences of the process” (Hausknecht, Vanchu-Orosco, & Kaufman, 2019, p. 2729).
Although most of the questions related to digital storytelling have been process or
technically oriented, such as evaluating digital literacy skills or workshop programming, several
studies have uncovered themes of connections and positive shared social experience
(Hausknecht, Vanchu-Orosco, & Kaufman, 2019, 2017, 2016). Social connectedness is
experienced with the facilitators and other participants during the creation of the stories and with
family and friends during the sharing of the stories.

Connectedness also occurs online and not just in person. Prior research by Silva and
Kaufman (2019) evaluated the effectiveness of creating connections through an online digital
storytelling course geared to older adults. Nine people participated in one of two classes, and
eight were over 65. One participant was between the ages of 35 and 39. Themes of
connectedness arose from the post-course Skype interviews, although the questions did not
specifically ask about connection. The authors summarized that online digital storytelling could
help foster social connectedness and lifelong learning.
Because this study focused on understanding connectedness as experienced through
storytelling and looked at interpersonal connectedness with loved ones, other generations, and as
an aspect of a developmental goal, the concept of connectedness was specifically explored and
expanded beyond what had been previously studied. The following questions on the interview
list helped uncover themes of connectedness:
Q 5. Does creating a story let you feel like you are leaving something for the people
you care about?
Legacy can be an aspect of connectedness for some people. Follow-up questions may
include, Does storytelling feel like a legacy? Is that (legacy) something important to you?
Q. 7. How did you choose the story you told?
Connectedness may be a theme in the shared story, and this question assisted with
content analysis of the stories. Follow-up questions included, What does this story mean
to you?Why was this important to you? Who would you most like to hear it? Would you
like to go through this again and create more stories?
Q 8. Think of a time in your life when you felt disconnected, alone, or lonely. Do you
think storytelling would help make you feel less lonely or less connected?
The last question directly asks about connectedness. This is a unique time for many people with
mandated stay-at-home policies, and it was thought that a storyteller may create a story that is
related to their experience with COVID-19. This inquiry line explored the experience of
possibly being less connected or more isolated in more detail. Follow-up questions included, Do
you think storytelling could help? Would it help you feel less lonely or help with connecting with
others?
In addition, this was an excellent opportunity to explore the perceptions of technology
and the numerous stay-at-home pandemic rules. The following two questions helped to
understand the experience and role of storytelling during this particular time.
Q 9. What are your thoughts on technology?
Follow-up questions probed along the lines of helpful or daunting.
Q 10. Did the pandemic or stay-at-home rules people put in place to keep you safe
impact how storytelling impacted your mood?
Follow-up questions included, Did you look forward to it? and Did it help you feel better
connected?
Rosenthal’s (2003) narrative-interviewing technique was used as a guideline to prompt
participants in a narrative-generating way. The goal was not to explicitly ask the participant to
defend or explain themselves but to talk in a narrative style. For example, instead of asking why
the participant chose a particular medium, the participant was asked to talk about their choice.
Instead of “Why did you choose a digital recording?” the question was phrased as “Tell me about
the medium you chose.” This technique is a softer approach where questions are phrased as,
could you tell me more about a time, you mentioned, can you recall a time when, can you
remember a time when, instead of why did you or what were you thinking? (Rosenthal, 2003).
Some questions were more option-focused, such as, “What are your thoughts on
technology?” “Would it be helpful?” The questioning started open-ended but became more
directed if a clear response was not expressed. This type of inquiry allowed the interviewee to
lead the conversation and comfortably share what they feel comfortable revealing.
Analysis
Analysis of the in-depth interviews utilized a relativistic approach to develop an in-depth
understanding of each participant’s experiences related to storytelling, connectedness, meaning-
making, legacy, and technology. The validity and reliability of qualitative studies data have
different nuances than what is typical for quantitative research (Leung, 2015). As an exploratory
methodology, qualitative research has different goals and has different measures for evaluating
validity and reliability (El Hussein et al., 2015). Generally, validity is interpreted as accuracy,
and appropriateness of findings and reliability focuses on replicability and consistency from the
researcher. With qualitative data, these factors are encapsulated in the trustworthiness and rigor
of the study (El Hussein et al., 2015). There are several approaches to help ensure rigor and
trustworthiness, but the universal goal is to accurately represent the participant's experience and
circumstances.
One popular guide is the acronym FACTS, which can help assess qualitative data.
FACTS stands for the fit, auditability, credibility, trustworthiness, and saturation of the data (El
Hussein et al., 2015). Other methods assess the concept of trustworthiness as the key barometer
for validity and reliability by focusing on factors that encompass data collection, interpretation,
and analysis (Elo et al., 2014). For this study, five factors are contributing to the trustworthiness
of the data. These factors include credibility, transferability, dependability, confirmability,
reflexivity (Korstjens & Moser, 2017).

The first factor is credibility, which speaks to the accuracy of the information and the
reasonableness of interpretation (Korstjens & Moser, 2017). The question is, “Are the findings
accurate and interpreted correctly?” Extended engagement aids credibility, which is seen in this
study. I spent prolonged periods with the participants throughout the lessons and during the
individual interviews. Many storytelling research projects utilize a participatory approach with
the participant due to the nature of the study (de Jager et al., 2017). This is not considered a
drawback because rich insight into older adults' inner experience and benefits has been
discovered using these techniques. For some participants, a certain level of comfort may be
needed to participate and share their personal stories, therefore getting to know the researcher
may make them more apt to participate fully. Participants were not rushed and had as much time
as needed to ask questions, discuss topics, develop their stories, and share their stories. I was also
available for assistance over the phone or via Zoom for individual one-on-one assistance. I was
able to be an objective part of the group and get to know the participants personally. In addition,
I was careful not to influence the participants and avoid a Hawthorne or please the researcher
effect.
The phenomenological nature of this study involved a process of interviewer and
interviewee working together to ensure that the focus of study is understood as it is expressed,
and this was heeded (Lauterbach, 2018). Member checking is in line with this process and was
utilized to aid credibility in the gathering and interpreting of the data. The process helps ensure
that the researcher understands the participant's answers and information. Member checking was
utilized during and after the interview and the participants were asked numerous questions to
affirm, clarify, and reiterate statements and concepts that they were sharing. Interviewees agreed
to be contacted for follow-up questions as needed. This me in staying true to the content of the
interviews with the participants. Coding was an iterative process reviewed multiple times and
clarification from the interviewees was sought if context or meaning was needed. More details
on coding are found in the Coding section.
The second factor is transferability, which is the extent to which the findings can be
generalized to other groups, settings, or contexts (Korstjens & Moser, 2017). Generalizability is
not typically an expected attribute of qualitative studies due to the specific nature of studying a
focused phenomenon or a particular group (Leung, 2015). In addition, transferability to the
general population is not feasible with small sample sizes. However, researchers use
comparisons, auditing, and documentation techniques to provide detailed descriptions to
facilitate transferability to a similar group or situation (Korstjens & Moser, 2017). An
understanding of the individuals’ experience in this group was reached, and an account of this
group of older adults’ experience with storytelling was well developed. Because storytelling is a
universal activity, and the participants and circumstances are described in detail, the concepts
may be applicable to similar contexts.
Dependability and confirmability are similar factors and speak to the data's consistency
and accuracy (Korstjens & Moser, 2017). Detailed and transparent outline of the research steps
and process aids in ensuring the stability and dependability of the data. It also builds confidence
that other researchers can fully understand and follow similar procedures and interpretations and
understand they are aligned with research standards. To assist on these points, the in-depth
interview questions are supported by prior research. Member checking also enables neutral
interpretations from the researcher that are built from the data. Furthermore, as part of the
analysis, quotes are included to support interpretation and conclusions so the reader may come to
the same conclusions.

Finally, reflexivity is a process of self-analysis necessary for the researcher to avoid
preconceived assumptions and be aware of biases and subjective responses (Korstjens & Moser,
2017). To understand the participants' meaning, the researcher needs to be thoughtful and not
impose their own logic or experience (Charmaz, 2004). Lauterbach (2018), too, suggests
repeated readings of the transcripts with cycles of reflection and interpretation and note-taking
by the researcher with attention to assumptions and biases. I utilized this process of journaling
and note-taking during the process. Thoughtful evaluation and awareness of potential
assumptions and personal influence were considered (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). Altogether,
the implementation of the above procedures and awareness helps ensure the trustworthiness of
the data and interpretation.
Data Handling and Coding
Data analysis was a multi-step process that started with each interview. Notes were taken
while the interviewee talked to delve deeper into the most predominant thoughts and note any
surprises that seemed to pop up. Clarifications were asked, and I repeated phrases and concepts
that seemed important to the participant for verification. Member checking was utilized in
summarizing ideas during and after the interviews. Body language, tone, and overt expression
were noted for context when they contributed to meaning.
After the interview, the first step for coding was jotting down initial impressions,
thoughts, and immediate takeaways. This became the first wave of identifying themes that would
be used for codes and categories. I journaled the experience to be aware of initial thoughts,
assumptions, and reactions.
Secondly, the recording transcripts were reviewed, corrected, and cleaned by removing
any names and places. Any points that were not understood were clarified. This provided an
additional opportunity to see what themes and points popped out from the interviews and write
notes for coding. Isaacs (2014) suggested that it is prudent to read and reread the transcripts to
get a sense of what the participants say and see what pops out through the different iterations;
therefore, interviews were read multiple times.
The third step was immersing oneself in the data and coding as an iterative process using
an eight-step process from Creswell and Creswell (2018) and the MAXQDA qualitative data
software analysis program. Due to the subjective nature and relationships of this study, a
phenomenological approach to coding was used. This is in contrast to content analysis or a
grounded theory approach where multiple coders would be utilized. Concepts were reviewed
with participants as part of member checking and coding examples were discussed with research
colleagues to ensure an appropriate approach and interpretations.
The process started deductively by hand-coding prominent themes and points related to
five key themes of meaning-making, connectedness, loneliness, legacy, and technology.
MAXQDA was used to inductively look at the interviews again in more detail to develop other
codes and formulate individual and group themes and categories. As new codes were created,
interviews were reviewed again through MAXQDA. MAXQDA enables the codes to be easily
viewed as “condensed descriptions of the phenomena discovered in the data” (Kuckartz &
Rädiker, 2019, p. 67).
All transcripts were uploaded, and a story file for each participant was created to look at
shared story content. The story files are not the complete text of the stories, but a summary to
help generate themes and concepts from the participant’s perspective of what they felt was most
important to develop and share. Themes were distilled and further examined for any relationship
to the concepts of connectedness, age, and other older adult developmental goals such as
meaning-making, identity, and legacy. In addition, the main interview questions were coded, so
each question could be looked at in a summary manner to create general views and concepts
around research questions.
Coding continued throughout analysis, and MAXQDA’s summary coding tool was used
to further distill and examine answers in context and in comparison to others. Each interview was
coded and reviewed a minimum of six times, and there were initially 25 codes. Results are
descriptive and text-heavy, including quotations so the reader can gain a sense and appreciation
of the data.
CHAPTER 4: PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS
To address the research questions, an in-depth look at storytelling, and the themes of
meaning-making, connection, and legacy among older adults was explored through in-depth
interviews. Also evaluated was the consideration of digital storytelling options, views on
technology, and perceptions on how storytelling may counteract loneliness.
Table 1
Coding Summaries
Main Code Total # of Description Included Subcodes
Comments
Storytelling 298 Comments of the storytelling Challenges-68 Challenges or concerns about creating
experience when directly asked, or sharing a story.
Experience and comments made during other
discussions. Mood-55 Comments related to mood and storytelling
and the impact of storytelling on mood.
Meaning- 278 Comments related to the broad Reflection-110 Reflective thoughts or comments
concept of meaning-making and about creating and sharing their stories and the
Making responses related to meaning- storytelling experience in general.
making when queried.
Appreciation-48 Thoughts or comments that exhibit
appreciation of the storytelling experience and
appreciation of others or life in general through
creating and sharing their story. Includes concept of
gratitude.
Connectedness 238 Comments related to connection Family-84 Comments or themes related to family.
and can include family, friends,
and other group members. Being Heard-33 This covers feeling heard, listened
Includes bonding. to, attention, and being understood.
Legacy 73 Anything related to the broad
theme of legacy.
Technology 59 Comments related to technology. Includes thoughts on technology in regards to
storytelling and loneliness.
Medium Choice 39 Comments related to medium May also include comments about technology in
choice. general in relation to their choices.
Overt Expressed 59 Emotions that are explicitly stated Happy-22
or observed to capture context. Sad-20
Emotions Loss-16 Expressions related to grief & transition.
May not be sad at the current time.
Loneliness 36 Comments about loneliness,
being alone, and storytelling.
Springboard 21 Comments about storytelling
being a springboard to do more.
Learning 18 Learning & discovery for the
storyteller or the listener. May
have learned something about
themselves or others.
Comments or references to God
16 or faith. Can include blessings or
Faith more than a coincidence, chance,
or luck.
Notes: There were over 1,565 coded segments in total. Codes less than 10 are not listed. Due to the interrelationship of concepts,
comments may be coded in multiple categories.
As the interviews were reviewed, most of the 25 original codes were distilled into two top
umbrella codes: meaning-making and connectedness. Legacy concepts, themes, and discussions
about legacy were not nearly as predominant as meaning-making and connectedness. This was
true in all the interviews. Stories varied, and experiences were slightly different, but the
fundamental themes were the same. Results are organized by research questions and themes
derived from coding.
Participant Detail
As planned, older adults were recruited to participate in a storytelling series creating and
sharing a personal story. Sixteen individuals initially expressed interest in attending the
storytelling lessons; however, the COVID pandemic deterred four participants, 25% of the
group. Community housing participants were also limited due to COVID restrictions. One
participant lived in an independent apartment at a senior community and was able to come and
go as desired. There were no participants in their 90s. There was no interest in Zoom as an
alternative to meeting in-person.
The two storytelling series were each held over a 4-week period in August and September
of 2020 and met weekly. Twelve people participated in in-person storytelling lessons and created
and shared their stories. Recommended CDC guidelines, local government, and facility
restrictions about group meetings were followed. Two groups of 10 or less were naturally formed
based on the timing of the storytelling series. All interested respondents were able to participate
in one of the storytelling lessons. The sharing events were held outdoors to help mitigate COVID
risk and because the participants wanted to have a celebratory event with snacks, which was not
allowed inside the facility. Interestedly, no one in the group was interested in the online
storytelling lessons through Zoom, even though 5 of the 10 participants chose Zoom for the
interview. For this paper, the two groups are combined and referred to singularly.
Ten people volunteered for the interviews after taking the storytelling lessons and
creating and sharing their stories. All of those that volunteered were interviewed. The interviews
varied in length from 30 minutes to 74 minutes and ended when the participant did not have
more information to add. They were prompted twice to continue.
Table 2
Participant Demographics
Age Gender Living Education Career Technology Interview
Arrangements Field Usage Type
Joan 88 F Lives alone in Masters Helping CP, T/C, Z In-person
senior
community
Shirley 86 F Lives alone Masters Education T/C at library In-person
George 86 M Lives with Masters Education CP, T/C, Z Zoom
spouse
Betty 84 F Lives with College Education CP, T/C, Z Zoom
spouse
Margaret 82 F Lives with Masters Education T/C, Z with Zoom
family help
John 81 M Lives alone College Service None In-person
Patricia 78 F Lives with Masters Helping CP, T/C In-person
spouse
Helen 73 F Lives alone Masters Education CP, T/C, Z Zoom
Nancy 68 F Lives alone Doctorate Helping CP, T/C, Z Zoom
Dorothy 66 F Lives alone College Service T/C at library In-person
Career Field Key:
Helping: In the medical or mental health field such as a nurse, doctor, social worker, counselor, psychologist
Education: In an educational field or focused on teaching others such as teacher, principal, public health
Service: In a business service industry like insurance, law
Technology Usage Key: CP=Cell Phone, T/C=Tablet or Computer, Z=Zoom
All interviewees were Caucasian and were college-educated. Eighty percent of the
participants were female, and ages ranged from 66-88. Six lived alone, and four lived with a
spouse or other family members. Half of the participants worked in an educational field, and 8 of
the 10 were either in a helping or educational profession. These professions are focused on
helping or caring for others. Please see the Career Field Key in Table 2 for professional
examples. Nine of the interviewees use a technological device daily and can use modern
technology for communication. Although several choices were available for story sharing, all
participants told their stories orally. None of the storytellers opted for an audio or digital clip.
The interviewees were evenly split on choosing an in-person interview or a Zoom interview.
The Storytelling Experience
The first research question asks, “What is the experience of storytelling among older
adults, specifically those in the later age groupings of 70s, 80s, and 90s?” All but two of the
participants were over 70, with the majority (60%) in their 80s. None were in their 90s.
Initial reactions to the storytelling experience were mixed, with half of the participants
expressing some initial challenge and the other half commenting that it was “fun,” “interesting,”
and “naturally easy to do.” Two participants noted that a writing background was helpful for
storytelling and one said, "I think it made me not afraid."
Challenges included getting started, organizing the story, focusing on what to write, and
story mechanics such as word choice, structure, and length. These challenges did not curtail
participants in writing a story. Joan noted, “It was kind of difficult at first, but then when I
started the momentum going, it just developed a life of its own.” She went on to comment, “I
guess it was kinda, I can’t say exhilarating exactly, but it was freeing. It was a happy experience
for me.” Later on in the interview, Joan said, “It's kind of like my moment. My five minutes of
recognition or something like that where they say 20 minutes of fame.”
In regards to her experience, Helen stated, “First it was quite difficult. About
impossible.” She thought she was “not a storytelling person.” Even though it was difficult for her
to start, Helen recalled, “Really what helped me was doing the six-word sentence. And then
maybe getting a good response about mine.” She is currently working on a book of stories
Table 3
Storytelling Experience
Initial Preferred Aspect of
Response & Benefits Challenges Storytelling
Takeaway
Joan Difficult at first. o Freeing--a happy experience Concerned that Sharing and listening:
o Sharing something important to her. nobody was
o Opportunity to “hold the floor”. Had not interested. “I’d say probably both. I mean, some
thought that people would be interested but of the ones that we heard yesterday
they were. Worried about really gave me chills.”
o Glad she could focus on past times which leaving something
evoked bittersweet feelings of gratitude, out and needed to
appreciation, and sorrow about loss of focus. Could have
husband. done more.
Shirley Does not like to o Interesting--likes things that are different. Used to writing for Hearing others’ stories:
write. others so difficult to “I like to hear other people's
o Likes to share. write for self. experiences.”
George Interesting. o Positive feedback about length of story. Concerned about Sharing:“It’s easier to share than it is
Came to him o Others seemed interested. length of story. to listen all the time. But I think
naturally. most people have a fairly interesting
story. Oh, listening isn't all bad.”
Betty Fun to write and o Fun to share something that is important to Getting started Hearing others’ stories:
see what her and well received by others. “It was really nice to share my story,
develops. o Reminded her of “mesmerizing” storyteller Not sure how much but very, very interesting to hear
from youth and previous journalism to tell, what should other people's stories. Yeah. Very
experience. be kept for later or interesting.
o Springboard to get pictures out and start another story, or what And it gave you an insight into them
sorting them. to highlight to make that you might not have.”
o Children were interested. sure she didn’t lose
the audience.
Margaret Fun to reflect on o Reflect & appreciate past experiences and Which words to use. Hearing others’ stories:
past. people. “Fun… to hear everyone else's
o Realization of accumulated life wisdom. stories and pieces of their life and
o Enjoyed bringing a smile or laugh to others. realize that we are all together in this
o Felt heard and encouraged that others were and that all life can be really fun.”
receptive and interested in her stories.
o Communal feeling that “we are all in this
together.”
o Bittersweet remembrance of husband and
way to share vignettes about him.
o Springboard for other story ideas.
John Stories come o Likes to share his faith story. “I have lots and lots Creating stories:
naturally. of stories and I never “I think creating. I really do.”
o Enjoys his role as storyteller with family & forget. And that's “Somebody will say something and
friends. sad.” I’ll say I have a story about, that you
“No, that's a good know.”
thing I guess.”
Patricia Fun o Fun and positive thing to do. Happens naturally-- Enjoys interactive sharing and
no challenges listening.
mentioned.
At first it was o Encouragement and support from others Being honest in the Sharing:
difficult-almost helpful. story. “Fun to share. I guess,
Helen impossible. o Getting to know other people better. and of course, getting a good
o Springboard for other stories. reaction helps.
But I do like I do like hearing stories
from other people too.”
Difficult at first. o Opened up creativity and imagination. Out of practice and Hearing others’ stories:
o Felt good, fun, comforting, cleansing, and had to organize “I like people I like to learn more
Nancy rewarding. thoughts. about them.”
o Others were helpful in organizing thoughts,
supportive reinforced ideas and were
motivating.
Dorothy Mixed feelings o Encouragement from others to focus on Fitting story into Enjoys sharing and listening.
of painful and good. story pattern.
exhilarating o Feels good writing it.
o Acceptance and recognition from others.
Three interviewees mentioned mixed or bittersweet emotions of recalling and writing
their stories but overall were happy with the experience. Margaret describes her thoughts:
Now, this sounds weird because storytelling is usually thought of as being a very happy
and joyful experience, and yet, I have found I miss my late husband quite a bit, and
periodically I enumerate stories, vignettes, of incidences of things he said or did and
that's very joyful to me that I can remember he did these things. And I can remember and
share them.
Generally, participants stated that they enjoyed both sharing and listening to other stories.
Three participants commented that storytelling came to them naturally. Both male participants
reported that although they did enjoy listening to stories, sharing and creating stories was their
most enjoyed aspect of storytelling. John, viewed as a storyteller in his family, commented:
I think the person telling the story has the advantage. Because it’s their story you know.
But a lot of people don't like to tell stories or talk about themselves. I can never
understand that because I think I'm a talker.
The majority of people who enjoyed hearing others' stories appreciated learning more about the
person and seeing connections of which they were not previously aware.
All participants expressed having an overall positive experience and said they would
write more stories. Nine of the 12 participants started a storytelling group. The storytelling
exercise was also a springboard for many of the participants as they thought of more stories to
create and share. Betty summarized for many by claiming that the storytelling experience has
“motivated me to do more. I think it’s given me the courage to do it, know that I can.” Table 3
provides detail on each participant's storytelling experience; however, this question cannot be
answered in its entirety in this section. Additional results and analysis of this question are woven
into subsequent sections organized by theme or topic.
Unprompted Story Themes
Research question 3 inquired about unprompted themes that arise among older adults:
“When allowed to choose any story to share, what themes are most prominent in storytelling
among those in their 70s, 80s, and 90s?” “What is the prevalence of connection themes?”
Figure 1
Story Themes Word Cloud
Story themes were positively focused and ran the gamut from childhood and family to
self-discovery and learning, to coping with loneliness and isolation during COVID. Miracles
were also included. The stories were rich in meaning-making with numerous comments that were
reflective. Here are two examples from the same person illustrating the difference between these
two concepts:
Meaning-Making: “I thought it was more than coincidence.”
Reflection: “I guess it was kinda, and I can’t say exhilarating exactly, but it was freeing.”
The only prompt that was offered to the storytellers was to create a story that was
important to them. The stories reflect this importance with a wide range of emotions Although
some stories were sad in part, they all ended on a happier note with a sense of appreciation. All
stories highlighted a significant event, profound impact, or personal transformation. John’s story
is a good example of a profound impact:
He talked to God. And God says, [John’s] heart’s bad. Yeah right. And when I went to
the doctor, he put me on that EKG and said, whoop gotta call the cardiologist, and I
didn’t believe this. No, really, you know, weird. I mean. It was an awakening for me.
Other participants had similar profound experiences and felt compelled to share. Helen noted that
a class she took had “such a profound effect on me or monumental change in a lot of ways. So
that popped up as important. And I had something to say about it.”
The stories offered reflection for the individuals and were often told as a lesson for the
listener. Three storytellers specifically geared their stories to be a lesson or to share a perspective
or insight. George spoke about a new way of thinking which merged history and the 100-year
lifespan of his grandparent. Margaret shared life lessons learned through her grandparents that
she hoped “Might brighten someone’s day. But more importantly, it could be that no matter what
awful things seem to happen at the time. Later, it won't be regarded as being so bad.”
Nancy described her story as
It was somewhat of a political level. Where the people were very oppressed, and when I
was over there, I saw a lot of tremendous poverty. So my story was somewhat at the
end contrasting what we have over here compared to what it is like in [Country].
Several participants used stories as a way to enhance or adjust their mood or the listener’s
mood. John noted that “If we didn't have storytelling, we'd have a sad world” and “Happy is
better than doom and gloom.” He purposely focused on positive stories and commented, “I
actually could change [the story] in any way that I wanted to, I could make it sad or happy, you
know. Normally I always make them happy. You can determine your own outcome of your
story.” Dorothy mirrored this positivity and said, “I prefer to write ultimately happy stories right
now.” And Margaret strived to “Hopefully, bringing a smile to someone's face if they could even
try to envision it.”
Table 4
Story Themes
Story Points Story Themes Emotional Tone
Joan Family discovered Connection with Family/husband Reflection & Meaning-making
through coincidence. God's hand Connection with family and husband.
Discovery Emotions: Joy & Bittersweet about
Husband
Shirley Experience of a trip with Connection with friend and other Reflection & Connection
a friend. cultures. Feelings: Appreciation of others &
Travel, discovery, & learning. Inquisitiveness.
Appreciation of other cultures.
George Story about a new way Connection with past & Family Reflection & Meaning-making
of thinking and new New perspective of Feelings: Connection with family and
perspective on history history and time. Appreciation of history.
by using ancestor. Discovery, learning, & teaching.
Legacy
Betty Story about family Connection-Family Reflection & Connection with family.
during tough times and Care of others Feelings: Appreciation
taking care of each Overcoming trials
other.
Margaret Lessons learned from Connection with Reflection & Reminiscence
Grandparents. Family/Grandparents Emotions: Joy & Humor
Appreciation of close relationship with Feelings: Appreciation and Connection
grandparents. with family.
Life lessons
John Miracle story: God Connection with Family, Friends, & Meaning-making & Connection
spoke to friend and was God Emotions: Appreciation & Wonderment
able to seek medical care Faith
quickly. Health
Patricia Story about moving and Connection with Family and past. Reflection & Connection
next stage of life. Personal history Mixed feelings of sorrow and happy
Legacy looking ahead.
Helen COVID and online class Connection with Family and others. Reflection & Meaning-making
which has a profound COVID Emotions: Loneliness & Isolation to
impact. Challenges overcome Appreciation and Connection.
Experience & discovery
Nancy Experience of living in Connection with others Reflection & Meaning-making
another country. Social Justice Appreciation of own county and culture
Discovery
Learning
Dorothy Story about childhood Connection - Family Reflection

and self-determination. Perseverance Mixed feelings: sad to happy
Resilience
Reframing
Connection was evident in all stories. Stories included family, past and present, and also
used family as a way to reflect on the past and as a historical tool. Some storytellers specifically
wanted to let others know about themselves. Dorothy wrote about “things people haven't asked
me about, thingspeople don't know about me.” A summary of additional salient story points is in
Table 4.
Meaning-Making
Participants were asked if anything was particularly meaningful about creating their story
or during the storytelling experience. They were also asked how or why they chose the story they
shared and queried why it was important to them or if it had a particular meaning. Numerous
comments were classified as meaning-making and included statements that exhibited reflection,
appreciation, gratitude, or stated explicitly that their thoughts or perspectives had changed. Some
participants said they had a “change in thinking” or an "awakening." The goal was to ascertain if
storytelling aided meaning-making in one's life and if it was a meaningful experience. Story
content was also evaluated for meaning-making and insight. Meaning-making was a top outcome
of the storytelling experience and was closely tied to connectedness when stories were shared
with others. Following are categorizations of four types of meaning-making illuminated by the
participants.
Reflecting on the Past
All of the stories were reflective and looked at past experiences. Most individuals
discussed a profound experience or change in perspective in the storyteller's view. Meaning took
several forms and was frequently about creating meaning and remembering meaningful aspects
of their lives. Meaning was also seen through understanding others and appreciating the impact
of others in their lives. In addition, participants found it meaningful to listen to and learn from
each other’s stories and found it meaningful to guide and teach others. Appreciation from all the
interviewees was evident either directly in the story or discussed during the interview. Gratitude
was evident as well, either voiced directly or seen as a part of appreciation.
About half of the storytellers relayed a new way of looking at and reinterpreting the past.
Joan commented that the storytelling process was beneficial and "brought some things together"
and "turned things up in [her] mind," which she found meaningful. She thought of different
scenarios and said, "Things might have happened differently. But then I was grateful that they
did happen." Joan also reflected on her past and noted how she had changed and was perhaps
"immature" when younger. Dorothy also commented on having a different perspective as a child
and feeling "differently" as an adult. Dorothy said the process of creating a story "Un-dug a
bunch of old stories from my life. Things I hadn't talked about in a long time." She stressed the
importance of parents and noted that her story "redeemed my dad."
Helen also discussed self-reflection and said it "was meaningful to think, and go back
over again, and just remind myself. [There] really are good things like thankfulness." She also
enjoyed "thinking of something from the other person’s side." She noted that she had some regret
from the past and now has a different way of thinking and new beliefs. She hopes her future
stories will provide insight into how she has changed and help others understand her better. She
relayed;
This has been good for me to talk about because I haven't thought too much about how I
wanted to be more honest with my [relative] in our conversations. I hadn't thought about
storytelling, maybe as the vehicle. I knew I needed to be empathetic, say things that need
to be said that I'd like to be able to say.

Margaret spoke at length about reframing and thinking of her past. She shared that the
experience was meaningful because
I look back at my childhood and events that at that time might have seemed unpleasant
and now I can smile and laugh at them. I think it was just looking back at memories and
realizing that we weathered it all. It was fine. It was all okay. The world did not come to
an end. It was not the great tragedy that we all envisioned it would be. We all have
foibles, and none of us live an absolutely perfect life, but as time passes and we look back
on it, we can perhaps see the humor and even joy in what happened. But more
importantly, it could be that no matter what awful things seem to happen at the time,
later, it won't be regarded as being so bad. If you encounter something catastrophic, and
you think this is horrible, I'll never get over it, but let time pass, and perhaps viewing
things from a distance is sometimes much more helpful. Time has kind of smoothed
things over a bit, so as you encounter other things, you realize that you are not the most
important person in the world or the environment.
Nancy commented that the process "opened up her mind" to "things she had forgotten." Patricia
pointedly noted that she was able to look at both sides of people in her family and appreciate the
positive over the negative.
Meaning-Making from the Process
The storytelling process can provide a new way of thinking or perspective. George
explicitly stated, "One of the things I noticed in doing your stories, was the fact that all these
little things in my life are really stories." George's story was a new way of thinking and reflecting
on life and a useful history tool. He noted, "It refined what I was thinking." George shared his
story so that others could embrace a new perspective on history too.

Similarly, Nancy wanted to share so her story "hopefully will be informative" for others.
And others could find the same meaning she did. Nancy also noted that for a future story, "my
process of dealing with it might be interesting and beneficial to people as a teaching moment."
As noted earlier, Margaret wanted to share her insight and wisdom with others as well.
Gratitude and Appreciation
One story was an explicit faith-based story; however, 6 of the 10 mentioned God or used
terms like “miracle,” “blessing,” or “more than a coincidence” in their story or their lives. These
terms suggest a reflection and attribution of something positive outside their efforts and show
appreciation and gratitude. Dorothy shared that she "was able to get what I needed. That God
guided me to what I needed," and she felt she was "a miracle." Joan said her story was a series of
events which "were not a coincidence." Margaret said she "was blessed with having terrific
grandparents. It gives me a lot of fun to remember them and the interaction that I had, and the
joy that they added to my life." Shirley said upon reflecting, "I feel very blessed to have been
able to do many of the things that I've done."
Storytelling was meaningful as a way to be heard. Joan mentioned several times she was
glad to "hold the floor" and it "was positive that people were listening to me and showing some
interest." This provided meaning for her personally. Margaret mentioned the same and was glad
people were "interested" and "receptive" and not "looking at their watches." The group also
"urged" her to share a second story she had prepared, and Margaret said, "In spite of everything
going on, they remembered and wanted to hear it."
Joan also reflected appreciation, "I appreciate the fact you have given us this opportunity.
To do this, and go outside ourselves. Maybe going outside of our comfort zones, outside our
everyday lot." Several others also made directed comments about gratitude or appreciation about
the series. In talking about the class, George said, "it has made a difference in my life." When
asked in what regard, he said, "Well, I think differently." George further expressed appreciation
by saying, "I wanted you to know that you added to our lives, this process. At least to my life.
You added something to my life concept that I hadn't actually thought of before."
Ongoing Meaning-Making
Some participants gravitated to a life review approach and were trying to organize their
lives as chapters. Betty claimed she would be doing more about her life and her family's life in
the future. Dorothy wrote about her life history, and that it was important for her to think,
review, reinterpret, and share. She is continuing, as well. George thought storytelling could help
connect "things that are unrelated" and is looking at stories "all around." John talked about his
faith-oriented story quite a bit during his interview and how he keeps trying to figure it out
because
It [story] could have had a different ending, you know. I just told the truth in that one,
and I still don't believe it. And now, as I sit here. I don't believe it. He put me on that
thing and said whoop--you gotta go see the cardiologist. I guess [friend] did talk to God,
really.
Connectedness
Connectedness is a theme that encompasses three research questions and is evident
throughout the story themes, experiences, and contributed to meaning-making. The research
questions were
2. How does storytelling impact older adults’ feeling of connectedness to others?
4. Does the shared experience or feeling of connectedness extend beyond the
individual or group with which the story was shared?

6. Which aspect of storytelling, developing or sharing a personal story, has the
most impact on one’s feeling of connectedness?
Connection was seen in all of the stories, many illustrated by talking about past relatives. Both
George and Margaret honored their grandparents by discussing them in their stories, which
described a sense of connection. Joan’s story was connected to her late husband. Shirley talked
about connecting with a friend through traveling.
More connection themes were uncovered during the interviews when purposes for
creating and sharing stories were revealed. Stories were used as a vehicle for connecting with
others. The participants discussed wanting to develop a link, bond, or impact the listeners. These
include sharing about one’s life or experiences, teaching something new or important, and
uplifting others. The broader code “connection” included subcodes of “family” and the concept
of “being heard,” which tie to being connected. Participants reported feeling better connected or
closer when they learned something new about someone or discovered a shared experience or
commonality. Coding of “loneliness” was included with connection because, for some
participants, the sharing of stories was one way to feel less lonely. Following are five distinct
aspects of connection that were discussed by the participants.
Connection with Loved Ones
Connection with the past and loved ones was beneficial to the storyteller. Margaret
relayed that “ I can remember he [husband] did these things. And I can remember and share
them.” Joan stated that sharing was important to her because she could “focus on times that were
past.” The sharing brought back positive memories for Joan, “So, just telling about him
[husband] I can picture him in my mind.” Helen is planning to write about loved ones because
“there were a lot of good things that I would like, exceptional things, I think, that I would like to
get remembered about them.” Two participants lamented that they did not know more about their
parents or ancestors. Joan said she did not create stories solely to remember though. She wanted
to share the memories with others and commented that “there is no reason to write a story unless
there is somebody to share it with.”
Thinking about storytelling and discussing storytelling in their lives brought back good
memories about grandparents telling stories, helping them connect to the past, and each other.
John recalled his grandfather, who was a storyteller and from whom he learned storytelling. John
commented that “He was a big influence, Grandpa was. Like I said, he taught me all my ornery
things, he really did.” Margaret similarly commented about her grandparents and enjoyed
remembering them, the fun they had together, and “the joy that they added to my life.”
Important people and those who had an impact on their lives were also remembered.
Betty recalled, “We had a wonderful storyteller older lady at [church], and she could just
mesmerize people.” Nancy thought that if she were to write more stories, they would be about
mentors and others that greatly influenced her.
Legacy overlapped with connection if the idea was more than just leaving something
behind but included a connection theme. For instance, Betty had not thought initially about
leaving photo storybooks for her children, but after an enthusiastic response from them, she is
now creating legacy artifacts for them and enjoying their interest and involvement. Connection
spanned several generations for this group covering their grandparents to their grandchildren.
Eight participants mentioned sharing stories with future generations. Children and
grandchildren were the most mentioned people to share information with, and stories about
relatives were the most likely ones to be shared. Future stories were planned to be focused on
keeping connections and preserving memories for the family. As noted, Helen plans on writing
more about her husband and mother, for her children which will bridge legacy and connection.
Connection with Peers
Connection with peers was just as important as connecting with loved ones, particularly
in this group. Helen said, "It's fun in a group that you get to know people better through their
story." Margaret commented that "storytelling can help with connection because when people tell
stories, they are looking for similarity between themselves and others. In other words, they are
looking for a connection." Helen purposely strived to connect with others. She said,
It was very helpful and informative for me, even just to be able to write a story. It was
like a continuation of that wellness class, you know, in many ways, it's like part two. If I
could share a story or my story as part of my connection. Connectedness was a big part of
my goals. I was just thinking about people my own age but not necessarily, you know.
Just friends, different friends.
Several people mentioned that they naturally share stories with their friends, either as a
function of sharing what they read or as a natural result of getting together and reminiscing or
catching up. Storytelling is woven into or seen as a base for friendships. Joan commented that
stories are "personal so [you] will connect better. I think when you are doing a story, you are
putting more of yourself into it." Joan also noted that a story needs a "spark," which would
"foster that connection with someone else. And the trick might be, is how do you get that little
jumpstart." Joan learned from others in the group and said that she had "learned a lot from
another participant" about how to "hold interest." She said she would be thinking of "sparks" to
connect with others in her new living environment. John relayed examples of how he is the
storyteller for his family and at church. This role is one he likes and connects him to the two
groups.
The majority of participants felt similarly to Betty, who commented that it was "very
interesting to hear other people's stories… and gave you an insight into them that you might not
have known about them or how they felt about things." Shirley echoed the same sentiment and
added that she liked "to hear other people's experiences." There was a definite learning-focused
component as part of the connection. The participants enjoyed being heard and learning about
others in more detail. Even those that knew each other felt they got to know others on a deeper
level. Nancy said she likes learning about other people from their stories and commented,
I like people. I like to learn more about them. One of the things about the storytelling we
did the other day is, I enjoyed them telling stories. Because it's when they're telling the
story, the story itself is giving you an idea of what the person's like, but when the person
is actually telling you the story, you get even more information about what the person is
like.
In mentioning one participant, in particular, Nancy expressed an appreciation for the storyteller.
She said, "It took a lot of courage to do that, and I know that she, at least I felt from how she told
the story, that was a very difficult time for her in life." She could also perceive story nuances and
commented about another participant who had "expressive nonverbals” and Nancy could tell that
“she loves [place]. And that's interesting."
Many of the participants directly connected with other members of the group. Margaret
noted, "We had common things that we could share and smile about." Nancy, Betty, and Shirley
both mentioned specific individuals and how they were glad to learn more and commented on
their connections.
Being Heard
One of the main benefits of connection with peers was related to the importance of being
heard. Many of the participants commented on appreciating having people listen. Joan directly
stated, "I guess I like to have somebody listen to me." During her interview, Joan mentioned that
some friendships might be unbalanced and one may not feel heard. She recounts experiences
where
I would go out among some friends and start to say something, then it will remind them
of something in their lives, and they would take that and run with it and just [leave me
hanging], so it got to the point where I thought why even bother.
A few expressed concern about the receptivity of their story; however, many noted that
the other group members provided support and feedback, which was positive for the overall
experience. Joan thought "that nobody cared that much about what my life consisted of so I
never volunteered it" and she is "not a person who can command somebody else's attention
unless they are put in the situation." She enjoyed the storytelling because:
It gave me a chance to say something, kind of hold the floor, and here again, I never
thought that I could hold everybody's attention. So that was positive that people were
listening to me and showing some interest. It's kind of like my moment, my what, five
minutes recognition or something like that where they say 20 minutes of fame.
Many participants commented on the support and feedback of the group. Margaret
mentioned that "It's always nice to share stories when you feel that you have a receptive or
interested audience." All liked the experience of sharing and subsequently formed an ongoing
storytelling group.
Creating vs. Sharing vs. Listening
All participants preferred sharing and listening to stories over just developing them. Even
though the process was "challenging," "fun," and "creative," and an opportunity to reflect and
remember, the participants thought it was important to share them. There were differences
between the participants on whether they enjoyed sharing or listening to the most. Most people
enjoyed both, and the reasons given were connection related. Betty said that "sometimes hearing
it [a story] in a group gives you a bonding feeling when everybody's laughing at the same time or
crying at the same time." John preferred sharing, thought it was more fun, and entertained to
uplift one's mood. Helen noted that sharing in a group would be most important for her. Margaret
said, "It's not only the storytelling; it's the listening to others too." Margaret brings connections
from the past to the present. She incorporates a life lesson by saying, "As my grandmother would
say, [people] have many things to say, and it's important to listen to other people and their
stories."
John said he likes to make people "happy." Margaret said she wants to "brighten
someone's day," "make people smile," "bring laughter," and "share and smile together." Some
participants had the goal of connecting by teaching. George wanted to help others think about
history in a new way. Margaret expressly wanted to share life lessons from her grandparents and
help others realize there may be hard times, but people can get through them.
In addition to learning about others and aiming to make people happy, Margaret, George,
and Nancy wanted to teach or inform. This teaching and learning touched on their own
connection experiences and related to their stories. Margaret wanted to share wisdom from her
grandparents and George wanted to let others know about a new way of thinking about family
and history. Nancy stated she "wants to trigger a thought or help people learn something," and
she hopes her story can be
An educational tool to inform others… to help people understand what it's like to be in
such a crowded nation. I also think it's very important for people to understand what this
country gives to us...and appreciate our country more.
Loneliness
Two of the interview questions asked whether storytelling may help lessen feelings of
loneliness or improve one's mood or sense of connection when isolated or disconnected. These
were timely due to the pandemic. Comments were mixed about technology and storytelling being
helpful. Joan was realistic and asked, "If you are disconnected, who would you tell stories to?"
Further, in the discussion, she commented again that when her husband had passed away, she
was lonely, but she was unsure if people would understand or want to hear her stories, so she
would not volunteer. Joan did see creating a story could be useful if you had time on your hands
or a story to tell. She was not sure she would do this on her own though.
Most participants felt that storytelling would be helpful during a time of loneliness.
George mentioned that if one was proactive, it could be helpful with loneliness and connection,
"It would help spend the time. It would fill time up really quickly. If you're doing something
about it. In other words, you're not just thinking about it." Nancy said if someone did have a
story, they could use their phone and thought "friends would be interested in hearing it. And then
from there on, it might go to somebody else. And then you may have a thread of commonality in
you're not alone." Betty commented:
I think if you are already connected with people and then not able to be together, that
Zoom, or that technology… would make you feel not as alone. If that were set up to draw
people in, maybe stories about people who have overcome difficulties and all, would give
them insight into something that they could do to help them.
When considering a time when she was lonely and disconnected, Margaret said, "I think
it would have definitely made me feel less lonely and more connected." John said it would be
helpful, "especially if you'd be the one telling the story." John and Margaret both see stories as a
way to change one's mood and mentioned this could impact how one is feeling. Helen stated that
storytelling during a pandemic such as COVID would "help with isolation and make storytelling
more important." However, "sharing in that group" would be important too. Shirley commented
that "with this pandemic, people are making time, taking time to be human and talk with each
other, and sharing stories. So humankind is sort of emerging again.”
Legacy
Legacy is one of the later developmental adult needs and goals often discussed along with
meaning-making and connectedness. A legacy can be loosely defined as passing onto another
something of importance that you have created. It can include tangible items but also
encompasses how one wants to be known or remembered. Storytelling, especially digital
storytelling, is viewed as a legacy artifact. Preserving memories for one’s children is a frequent
goal.
Participants in this study were asked if they felt creating their story was like leaving a
legacy, and if legacy was important to them. To avoid suggesting a legacy-related idea, the
participants were not given a specific prompt. They were instructed to develop a story that was
important to them. As a follow-up, participants were also told to think of something they might
want ”others to know.” This wording did not suggest a particular person or category of people
such as children or a specific time, such as “after you are gone.” Please see Table 5 for
responses.
Table 5
Legacy Comments
Legacy Theme Can Storytelling be a Is legacy important to you?
Purposefully in Legacy? Thoughts on Legacy
Story?
Joan No Yes “My daughter has kind of indicated to me that
she's not all that interested.”
“My sister is very much into genealogy.
So anything that I thought she’d be interested in
I’ve told her.”
Shirley No Some things are important Other people have suggested she write family
for family to know. history but she does not know if the other
generations are interested. “I started just sort of
taking notes.”
George Tangentially, Yes, it would be nice to Thinking about writing for children “Well, I'm
Grandmother as know about past just thinking about. I don't like writing.”
historical marker generations. Interested in talk to text.
Betty No Yes “I want something down for family history. And
something that shows the kids when they were
babies and then you know like halfway growing
up and stuff that they can hand down to their
kids.”
Margaret No Yes “It's important to me. Yes, because I want the
people that I care about. I guess my family or
people in the story group, I would want them to
realize that life is really good.” Interested in
telling grandchildren.
John No Yes Enjoys being the storyteller/historian:
“Because I tell you, when we go like to family
reunions and everything like that. Oh, here
comes [John] he probably has a story about this.
I have lots and lots of stories and I never forget.”
Patricia Possibly for Maybe Has enjoyed things left from other generations
herself and would be interested in writing “I think for
the grandkid.”
Helen No Yes “Yes, I think those [personal stories] would be a
legacy. Then I think they are ones I have done.”
“Working on a book of stories for my kids and I
was thinking of other stories that would be, you
know, good to pass down.” Would like things
remembered about her mother and late husband.
Nancy No Yes, absolutely “I hope that I leave something behind that
people can use.” “Helping people, that would be
my legacy.”
Dorothy No Yes “[Younger relative] might be a good person to
inherit some of my stories.”
Two stories slightly referenced legacy in their theme, but none of the participants claimed
that they were creating a legacy artifact. George looked at time through the longevity of his
grandparent and is passing on their memory or legacy. He subsequently said he was considering
writing more stories for his children as a way of preserving history. These would be regarded as
legacies. Patricia mentioned that her story was a way to preserve memories for herself for when
she may not be able to remember. This could be viewed as a legacy for herself or others.
During the interview, Patricia mentioned leaving stories for her grandchildren but noted
that some family members were not interested, so she was not inspired to write more yet. Joan
echoed the same sentiment and replied that her child was not interested, and she may not do
more. Joan commented, “I’m not sure if [child] is necessarily interested.” Joan also coupled
sentimentality with wanting to leave a legacy and said that her child was “probably like me, she
doesn't have a lot of sentimentality. My mother wasn’t, and I don’t see my [child] as being that
way either.” Joan notes that she was not that interested in family history when she was younger.
Legacy was discussed and mentioned as important when prompted or asked directly but
was not freely brought up by the participants independently. Most participants said children and
grandchildren were the most likely legacy recipients. Stories were viewed as a way to preserve
family history, memories, and to give insight into understanding the storyteller better. Joan
hoped her stories would help her children “understand maybe me better, or family dynamics
better.”
Stories were also viewed as a way to impart life’s wisdom. When queried, Margaret said
legacy was important and thought of sharing life lessons or bits of wisdom as a legacy. She
hoped
the people that I care about. I guess my family or people in the story group. I would want
them to realize that life is really good. And has a lot of wonderful incidents. We just need
to recall them with love and humor and maybe some charm.
Nancy viewed her legacy as the people she helped in her career. In talking about an award she
won, Nancy commented, “But, that would not be my legacy. It would actually be the people that
I helped.”
None of the participants selected digital storytelling or the StoryCorps option for their
story. Although known, Story Corps was not of interest for most of these particular participants.
StoryCorps was viewed by Patricia as an interesting historical reference but did not see it for
herself. George, a history buff, and whose story was about a historical way of looking at things,
was not interested in it. He commented, “Library of Congress, that would be a shocker!” John
liked the idea after being directly asked and stated he would be interested in recording his story
because he thought it “was a good one.”
The storytelling experience was a springboard for several participants to create more
stories as legacy artifacts. This is in part due to the receptivity and encouragement of others.
Betty was inspired by the storytelling process to pull out pictures, and her children were
interested in seeing more. She is working on compiling a book of photographs and stories for
each child. Helen’s first story was about COVID and was introspective. Her next stories will
highlight her late husband's accomplishments, family history, and a mission that is important to
her.
Many participants had concerns about what to do with their legacy after it was created.
Joan wondered if people would be interested, but others were cautious or concerned for others
and how they may take or interpret what is left behind. Changing technology was a concern as
well. Several mentioned that they have lots of pictures and videos that are hard to access because
of out-of-date mediums.
Technology
Research Question 5 asked, “What are the views of technology among the group, that is,
why did they choose the selected media?” “Is it an asset to connection, or is it not seen as
necessary?” This was explored by asking interviewees two questions with appropriate follow-up
questions. The interview questions were
6. You had your choices of a bunch of different ways to tell your story.
Can you tell me about what you chose and why?
9. What are your thoughts on technology?
A summary of responses can be seen in Table 6. Findings revolve around medium choices for
this study and the future, and the participants’ perspectives on technology.
Medium Choice
Participants were given three sharing options for their stories: verbal, an audio recording
through StoryCorps, or a multi-media format such as a digital clip. Assistance was offered with
any method chosen. All of the participants decided to share their stories orally. After being asked
directly during the interview, one participant expressed an interest in recording his story.
Technology was not seen as an added benefit for most of the participants in sharing their stories.
Many commented that they did not know how to or it was not for them. Margaret stated that
audio was “wonderful,” but she did not consider herself a good subject and was cautious:
Oh, I'm not an unusual person. I think an audiovisual clip might be wonderful for some
people that can make, oh, a lot of expressions, and maybe with their own physical being
add a lot to an enumeration of a story. I don't think that's something that I could do easily.
I’m coming back from a time where technology was not nearly what it is now. And
although I'm very interested, I'm a little cautious about it because I want to engage with
it, but I don't want to destroy or upset anything in the process.
Helen did not consider any options besides writing: “I never thought about anything else for this.
I didn’t. Maybe that’s what's easiest for us. We can do that easily. The other….another layer of
difficulty.” Two participants mentioned age. Nancy commented that technology was better suited
for younger people, and Joan said, “No, it’s not necessary. At my age, what I've learned has
worked so far.”
Next Stories
Although assistance was available and offered several times throughout the storytelling
lessons, it was still declined. When interviewees were asked directly about how they would like
to share their next story and help was offered with a different medium, their choices did not
change. Most participants responded like Nancy and Joan and said respectively, “Well, I would
write it down on paper,” and “Probably just like this. Verbal or written.” Betty explained that she
was sticking with oral storytelling because she was “probably more comfortable with it.”
Margaret said, “I think oral storytelling. I can just think about the story and let it flow.”
Betty and Nancy were inspired to do more and indicated they would be incorporating
pictures with their stories as a physical book, transforming a photo album into a storybook. Betty
was the most interested in using technology and expressed interest in scanning photos into the
computer but has a limit at this point on how much technology to use. She said,
I've got the flash drive in the computer, and I know it would be doable. But I just don't
know how to do it. I know it's doable. So yeah, it [storytelling] opened up a lot of
different things. As far as making a little video or something, that seems to me like too
much. Although, you know, I wonder how many people are going to pull a flash drive out
and stick it in. Where an album, you know, is so good.
Paper as Media
Paper was seen as a good durable option even though it was not explicitly mentioned as a
sharing medium. Many appreciated paper to help collect their thoughts. Most then chose to read
their script during sharing or used it as a guide. Only one participant, John, did not use a script
when he developed and shared his story.
Even when other media were discussed, paper was still seen as a final product. George
noted that he did not know much about digital technology but did think an audio recording would
be useful. He commented, “Audio recording, a person could use that…But somebody would
have to transfer, put it on paper.” When asked why it had to be on paper, George asked, “Well,
how would you leave it?” When asked about archiving, Helen commented, “Technology has
changed so fast. A book is more secure.” Paper was also viewed as easier to use and more
reliable. These quotes from Joan are particularly reflective:
I think the written storytelling is easier than the verbal because I struggle for words. On
paper, you can write and scratch off and rewrite. I find this easier to do, so I think I
express myself better in the written form. I can read this off the top of my head, but my
thoughts are more like jumbled. I don’t have it in sequence, like an outline. Maybe that’s
my perfectionist attitude…these categories, and I can’t do that orally. So it's a little
frustrating because it is just jumbled words.
Perceptions
Several participants stated they think technology is “wonderful” and “amazing,” but they
have their limits and are happy with the amount they have. Some had doubt or lack of confidence
in their ability, and others saw no need. A few like Joan were not interested in learning more
because even though she had help available, she did not want to ask too often, and she wanted to
be independent. Joan reflected, “I would have to ask for help. It’s always there--always available.
My son-in-law is available, and I call him all the time.” Joan goes on to say, “I’m usually the
kind of person that if I can't do it myself, then it is just not going to get done.”
There were concerns about changing technology. Betty said, “I think it's absolutely
amazing. I love being able to pick up my phone or go to the computer and say, I want to know
about so and so, and then it comes up.” Betty also commented that it would be fun to learn more
if she had the right equipment. She, like others, is concerned about the rapidly changing pace of
technology. Helen said, “The technology is going to change. So it's really hardly worth doing,
worth the time.”
When StoryCorps and archives at the Library of Congress were suggested, George
laughed and said, That would be a shocker.” Further on, George commented that although there
is not a lot he knows about technology, and only uses a minimal amount, he could learn. The
Zoom interview, for example, was the first time he had been on Zoom. This exchange illustrates
that the technological options are seen as useful but may not be viewed as personally relevant.
This is mirrored by Patricia, who likes StoryCorps stories and appreciates the history, but said it
is not for her.
The majority of participants liked the concept and potential usage of technology,
although two were concerned about the downsides. In addition, Shirley and Nancy were
concerned about the lack of technology for underserved groups, including older adults and those
with limited incomes. Shirley suggested that the Internet should be like a public utility and
commented that
I would like to have Internet, and I do feel that there is very deliberate discrimination. In
the installation, I think. I’m not sure of the terminology--the installation of broadband for
everybody, rural areas, old people, poor people, etc. And not having those is keeping a
goodly portion, I don't know what the percentages of the population, in ignorance.
Table 4F
Technology Perceptions and Comments
Perception of Comments on Current Expected Future Format of
Technology own usage of Usage General next story
Technology Technology Usage
Joan Does not feel “At her age” what CP, T/C, Z Limited interest and Verbal or
knowledgeable. she has learned so far does not like to ask for Paper
has worked. help.
Shirley Wonderful. Does not have easy T/C at Yes-If available would Written
Internet should access to technology library use and would like to
be like a public and feels certain learn more.
utility. groups are
discriminated against.
George All for it but Prefers paper. Does CP, T/C, Z Possibly, would learn Written
some concern see a benefit of audio if personally relevant.
about downside recording. Interested in talk to
of technology. text.
Betty Absolutely Is interested in doing CP, T/C, Z Yes, wants to learn Physical
amazing more with photos. more. photo and
Some technology is story book.
doable.
Margaret Wonderful Interested-Not sure T/C, Z with Perhaps with guidance Verbal
she is the “type”. help and encouragement.
Cautious- about
breaking it.
John Not generally Would be interested None Slim Verbal
interested in in recording his story.
technology
Patricia Useful Doesn’t see other CP, T/C Slim Written
options as top of
mind.
Helen Technology Technology adds CP, T/C, Z Would use computer Written
changes so fast another layer of to write up stories and
it’s not worth difficulty. A book is put in book format.
keeping up. more secure.
Nancy Good/wonderful Technology helpful CP, T/C, Z Keyboard is easier Written
but there need to for writing to look than hand to type up
be rules. There is things up. notes.
a downside.
Dorothy Fine Doesn’t want it at T/C at Not interested Written
home. library
Technology Usage Key: CP=Cell Phone, T/C=Tablet or Computer, Z=Zoom
Limitations of the Study
Due to the qualitative nature of the study and convenience sampling, participation was
expected to be small. However, COVID created an environment that excluded many older adults.
Shelter-in-place restrictions and recommendations for older adults, rightly so, suggested they
stay at home and limit their interactions with others. Although restrictions eased a bit in August
of 2020, many older adults chose to stay home and not resume non-essential activities such as
educational programs. Although Zoom was an option online, many older adults do not have
access to technology or feel comfortable using technology independently; therefore, participation
may have been further limited.
Although recruitment from senior residences was planned, many community-living
residents could not leave unless they quarantined for 2 weeks in their apartments afterward. At
some residences, people were not able to leave their apartments at all. Community housing was
also closed for outside visitors and programs. Although initially discussed with two
communities, neither could host a series onsite nor gather residents for a group Zoom webinar.
The inability to include senior community-living residents likely further reduced the sample
population among the oldest of the old adults.
One senior residence said they were in the process of getting approval and funding to
purchase equipment to facilitate small group Zoom meetings. Two senior residences reported
that they were looking for a technology-oriented person to help individual residents with Zoom
because they realize the importance of outside connections. Zoom, or a similar video online
service, may be an added option to increase participation in future studies, even though this
group's preference was in-person learning.

Based on prior research, it was believed that 10-12 participants would be enough to reach
saturation with in-depth interviews. Ten people were interviewed, and although the group was
seemingly homogenous in ethnicity, education, and location, group members' individual
experiences were quite different. New findings were discovered with each interview, even
though fundamental themes were the same. I suspect the main themes will be similar with
additional interviews, but there is always the chance of another new finding.
This group's size is not large enough to compare specific age segments such as the 70s vs.
80s. The unanimous choice of traditional storytelling as the vehicle for sharing instead of an
audio or digital recording also hindered comparisons between medium usage. In addition, not
reaching people in their 90s slightly limited the study's scope. In more extensive research, it
might be feasible to make age strata and medium comparisons. Still, the number of participants
would need to potentially be increased to 10-12 in each segment to see if there might be
differences. Broader research when the restrictions of COVID are lifted may contribute
additional insight.
CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION
Overview
Participants self-selected to participate in a series of storytelling lessons. They created
and shared a personal story that was important to them. Afterward, volunteers were interviewed
about their experience. All of the participants were college graduates, and the majority had
advanced degrees. This interest in education reasonably indicates the group was predisposed to
learn and more likely to participate in an educational workshop. A few participants mentioned
being interested in or being “lifelong learners.” This educational orientation likely skewed the
group to a population that embraces new thoughts and activities. This sentiment was also seen in
digital storytelling workshops and may skew the participants of digital storytelling workshops to
those interested in learning new technology (Hausknecht, Vanchu-Orosco, & Kaufman, 2019).
The Storytelling Experience Contemplated
As was seen in other previous storytelling research studies, storytelling for this group did
add to a sense of accomplishment and enabled meaningful connections (Chonody & Wang,
2013; Hausknecht, Vanchu-Orosco, & Kaufman, 2019). For some participants, it sparked an
interest in legacy. Overall, the group thought that storytelling would help ease loneliness. The
respondents felt it was a meaningful experience to develop and share a story. The reflection
required in developing the story was also viewed as meaningful, as participants were able to
review, reminiscence, and think differently about the past. Connection seemed to be the biggest
driver for attending the storytelling series and the most important benefit. This is evidenced by
the participants' statements and the desire to continue creating more stories and starting a
monthly storytelling group.

Consistent with Polkinghorne (1991) and Bruner (2004), there did seem to be a sense that
storytelling is innate. Several participants commented that stories naturally developed and
flowed, and they talked about people who were "born storytellers." A few commented that they
see stories in their everyday lives and can view their lives as chapters in a book. This is
congruent with narrative theory and the concept of storytelling as being a natural part of how
people think and interact (Haven, 2007; Mar, 2004; McAdams, 2001; Ohler, 2013; Widrich,
2012). All participants were able to view themselves as storytellers at the end of the series. Even
those who did not initially view themselves as "storytellers" could create and share a story and
enjoyed doing so. Most planned on continuing to do so with connection being a primary
motivator.
In-Person Group Connection
All of the participants chose the in-person storytelling lessons over the Zoom option to
participate from home. Even though there was a pandemic and the participants' age put most of
these participants in a higher risk group, all participants wanted to meet in-person. Clearly, in the
case of this series of classes, the in-person connection was seen as more desirable than staying at
home and connecting digitally, which most of these participants could have done. Certainly,
there was a risk of venturing out, which, although mitigated as much as possible, was a risk they
undertook to be in-person instead of connecting through Zoom. For this group, the choice
seemingly was not in-person or Zoom for the storytelling lessons; it was in-person or not at all.
In addition, Zoom for older adults can be a difficult option. I have noticed, in my
experience with older adults, that it may be hard for some to hear clearly when on Zoom. It can
also be challenging to follow along and lip-read, which is vital for those with hearing difficulties.
The social cues and conversational give and take can lag behind or be missing. For some, it is not
engaging. Zoom would have been navigable for most people in this group if the technology and
Internet were available. Half of the participants used Zoom for their interviews, and most had
used Zoom within the past 6 months. Connection and in-person learning were most important,
though, so Zoom, at the choice of the participant, was used solely for one-on-one communication
during this study.
My impression is that this was not a group that was going out frequently. They were
selective in their activities and interaction. One person mentioned this was the first time they had
been out, aside from necessity, in months. Because all safety precautions suggested by the CDC
and state were followed, this may have added to a certain comfort level for the participants.
However, I believe one of the attractions of this series was to be connected and be with peers.
Connection needs were likely heightened during the pandemic. Because there was a choice,
participants were attracted to in-person meetings because much of their regular daily activities
were limited, and they were missing activities with other people. Smaller size groups worked
well for the storytelling series and allowed for more personal interaction with the participants
and among themselves. This, too, may have added to an increased sense of connection.
The aspect of a group of people coming together during a time of crisis is powerful in its
own regard and may contribute to connection feelings. Not only were the participants learning a
new activity and sharing personal stories that can lead to bonding among the group, they were
also experiencing the pandemic together. They had an opportunity to discuss and share their
unique circumstances.
Storytelling Challenges
One of the benefits of in-depth interviews is uncovering more detail and thoroughly
describing and analyzing the experience. Some participants had challenges with writing their
stories, and at times personal challenges from the past were revisited. It is unknown if these
emotions and experiences appeared in other research studies. During this research project, the
challenges were not severe enough to prompt the person to drop out.
Some participants mentioned that they struggled with words, which may be a lack of
confidence in writing ability or perhaps small delays in recall due to aging. Joan and others
expressed self-doubt on whether their work would be interesting, whether they would say the
right thing, or whether their stories might be misconstrued or misinterpreted. These challenges
were overcome with positive feedback and enthusiastic reception from the group. As such,
storytelling can be an excellent way to bolster confidence.
Several participants revisited past events that were difficult and created a story that
centered on change. As Campbell pointed out, one of the main themes of stories revolves around
the individual as a hero in their own story and their transformation (Campbell, 2004). This was
seen in several of the participant stories. Transformation themes are not surprising when people
are writing and sharing a story that is important to them. Often addressing these challenges can
be cathartic or transformative, and the benefits of storytelling outweigh the challenges if they are
addressed and aided.
Story Themes of Older Adults
McAdams (1995) suggests that storytelling illuminates an individual’s inner narrative and
life story. Erikson and Erikson (1998) remind us that meaning-making is front and center in the
later stages of life, and Hull (2020) notes stories are often about solving problems. The nature of
storytelling links events, experiences, and people, and these links provide meaning (Gubrium,
2001). The stories created in this study exhibit all of these functions and factors.
The depth of the stories was more than expected. All stories were introspective, personal,
and illustrated a profound learning or transformation. They all had a lesson to share or insight
into the person. Some were geared to specifically teach a lesson and others were designed to let
others know more about the storyteller. The stories seemed to come easily, and people shared
what popped up or what may have been top of mind in thinking about something important.
The created stories and discussion of them during the interviews provided insight into the
participants' inner world. Many were able to connect, review, reframe, and add positive meaning
to their lives through their stories. McAdams’ life story model states that people are always
capable of changing, which can be seen through their stories (McAdams & McLean, 2013). This
was seen in a few of the stories, which highlighted a new perspective. Dorothy decided to focus
on the positive, and her story was deeply personal about her childhood. It was full of redemption,
grace, power, and self-determination for herself with a retrospective approach.
Most of the stories were about family, friends, learning, and significant transitions. These
themes were most important to the storyteller and topics they wanted to share. It was also a way
to honor and remember people in the past who were important and to keep their memory alive.
Both Helen and Nancy talked about writing more stories about significant people, and Helen
specifically wanted to "preserve" the memories.
Creating and recalling redemptive stories helps the storyteller find positive meanings and
is beneficial psychologically (McAdams & Guo, 2015). Themes of resilience, overcoming
challenges, and developing new ways of thinking are examples of theory seen in action through
storytelling and themes that surfaced in this project. Themes with a heroic figure are often seen
among generative adults (McAdams & Guo, 2015).

Interestingly, the youngest member of the group, Dorothy (66), had a redemptive story
with her as a heroic figure. During her interview, she said that her story was redemptive for her
father, and it was about her resiliency and determination in helping her father. Redemption and
hero figures were evident. This story did have a positive overview, and the storyteller chose to
focus on the happier aspects and was pleased with how she navigated the past. Redemptive
stories can also be beneficial to the listener and storyteller through the shared experience and
learned mutual understanding. The story was well-received by the group, and the listeners
expressed positive regard and understanding from hearing her story. A few commented
positively in their interview about the story and storyteller, which spoke to the benefit of mutual
understanding and appreciation.
Cohen (2008) claims that older adults are more apt to be resilient, judge less than younger
adults, and understand and forgive more easily. Slater (2003) emphasizes meaning-making
teaching, and wisdom in later adult years, which dovetails with Erikson's developmental ego
integrity vs. despair stage (Erikson & Erikson, 1998). People strive to feel their life has meant
something and that it was well-lived. Wisdom is seen as the achievement of ego integrity for
older adults (Woolf, 2011). These elements were seen in several stories and reflect the meaning,
wisdom, and introspection that comes with age and a desire to teach others. For example,
Margaret revaluated life experiences and had a wise perspective full of grace and understanding
of people and life events. She specifically stated she wanted to share her views with others so
they could learn as she had. Much wisdom was shared in this group, and stories seemed to be an
excellent way to crystallize, express, and share the wisdom learned through age.
Benefits of Story Creation: Meaning-Making
The nature of creating a personal story is reflective, therefore it is not surprising that one
of the top benefits of storytelling in this study was the opportunity to be thoughtful. Other top
themes or benefits discovered related to story creation were being able to open one’s mind and
rethink experiences with a new perspective, creativity, and the realization and expression of
appreciation and gratitude. These are all components that contribute to meaning-making, an
essential part of Erikson’s developmental stage of ego integrity vs. despair (Erikson & Erikson,
1998). As seen in this study, storytelling and creating a personal narrative aligns well with the
ego integrity stage, where one looks at one’s life and desires to feel a sense of accomplishment
and meaning.
Reflection was evident in all stories, and the individuals in this study exhibited a drive for
a meaningful life. This was shown through their stories and by teaching others, learning, and
being active in the storytelling process. It was also expressed in their interviews. Several
participants were pleased to recall bittersweet memories and enjoyed remembering loved ones by
sharing their memories. Socioemotional selectivity theory indicates that this is a natural process
for older adults (Carstensen et al., 2003). They strive to focus on the positive and gravitate to
meaningful experiences.
Participants were happy even though they may have talked about difficult past times and
were a bit emotional. Even though story creation was challenging and painful for some, the
storytellers enabled new ways of thinking and did not dwell on the negative but choose to focus
on the positive. A few participants said the process was “comforting,” “freeing,” “cleansing,”
and “rewarding” and they felt a sense of accomplishment.

Nancy commented that writing reminded her of some things she had forgotten and the
process was “illuminating.” She also had a sense of control when writing her story and telling
her story. All participants were aware they had the choice to shape their story how they wished.
Storytelling helped empower them to interpret and report the narrative as they wanted. Signs of
resilience were evident in some stories, like Dorothy’s, which helped create a positive meaning
and focus. Appreciation and gratitude were woven into the stories and also were a byproduct of
reflection in creating them. These benefits can contribute to positive aging and help with
challenges as they arise.
Woolf (2011) notes that wisdom is the positive outcome of Erikson’s ego integrity vs.
despair stage. Much insight was derived and shared among the group as the storytellers could use
their life experience to reflect and view their past differently with a new perspective. Bohlmeier
and fellow researchers (2007) describe meaning as having order, coherence, and including
purpose in one’s life, worthwhile goals, and a feeling of fulfillment. Storytelling provides the
framework for this to be considered, structured, and expressed. Helen stated she would use
stories to communicate things in her past that would be different today. Many of the storytellers
expressed wisdom from their years of experience. John stated, “You can determine your own
outcome of your story,” which many participants did. This ties directly to narrative theory of
storytelling as a meaning-making activity (Gubrium, 2001; McAdams, 1995).
Participant Expressed Benefits of Storytelling
The overarching benefits of storytelling that relate to developmental goals and well-being
were realized. As seen in other studies, these included connecting with others, shared experience,
being in the moment to listen and learn, being heard which speaks to validation, and offering
understanding which encompasses empathy and appreciation (Bohlmeijer et al., 2007; de Jager et
al., 2017; Hausknecht, Silva, & Kaufman, 2019; Hausknecht, Vanchu-Orosco, & Kaufman,
2019; Mager, 2019; Savundranayagam et al., 2011). The participants also similarly experienced
personal reflection and awareness from creating the stories, which can aid meaning-making. Joan
sums up the challenges and benefits by saying that she appreciated going “outside ourselves,
maybe going outside of our comfort zones.” She had a positive experience and was open to
learning, and felt like she had a few minutes of fame—all through storytelling.
Connectedness through Storytelling
The most important and overriding benefit and impact of storytelling for this group was
connectedness. Connection encompassed the past, family, and peers. Connecting with peers was
viewed as most important and speaks to later adult goals of meaningful connections and being
more present oriented. Other researchers have mentioned a connection with the future; however,
this was not evident in this study. Any future reference that was discussed was in context of a
legacy for children or grandchildren. The future was not personally mentioned.
Erikson theorized that connection is essential in development at all stages of life, and this
need was present heavily among this group of older adults (Erikson & Erikson, 1998). In the
beginning, the participants chose to meet in-person seemingly for the connective benefit of
physically being together. Connection themes ran throughout the personal stories, and
connecting with the other participants was the most recalled underlying factor when the
participants were queried on what they enjoyed most.
This group's interest in connectedness is understandable when considering
socioemotional selectivity theory that older adults become more focused on experiences and
goals related to meaningful relationships (Carstensen et al., 2003). This is in line with other
research that indicates older adults focus on social goals over information-related goals and look
for things that highlight meaning and appreciation (Carstensen et al., 2003; Hülür & Macdonald,
2020). In addition, narrative and storytelling create resonance among speakers and listeners
because the themes, such as the hero's journey, are universal (Isbouts & Ohler, 2012).
Storytelling encompasses all of these, and this group was not different in this regard. The extent
to which connection was so prevalent was surprising. Storytelling led to a deeper appreciation of
others, and an extra level of connection, a more meaningful connection.
Connections were found in both the creation and sharing of stories. Even those who knew
each other expressed a different level of appreciation, understanding, and bonding. The
information and discussions were different than what might be shared over lunch. Bluck and
Alea (2009) posit that a key functional use of memory is sharing. This helps people interpret
information and experiences with others as well as develop and enrich social connections. When
Joan and Margaret mention their late husbands, they keep the memories of their loved ones alive,
reliving the relationship's positive emotions, and connecting with others that can relate. By
developing and sharing a story about the past, the storyteller can connect, relive the past, and
then connect with others through the sharing. If children or grandchildren are interested, then the
connection can be passed on. The storytelling sharing connection with peers may be particularly
important if children are not interested.
Initially, it was expected the stories would focus on connecting with children or
grandchildren and be family-history oriented. This was not the case in this study for most of the
first stories. Prior research on an intergenerational connection has been very positive in other
studies, although they may have had an active collaboration with other generations and been
more focused on legacy (Chonody & Wang, 2013; Hausknecht, Vanchu-Orosco, & Kaufman,
2019).
When the participants were unprompted to develop an important story without
mentioning legacy, the information was more personal, reflective, and designed to share or
enhance connection with peers. At first, relationships with the past and peers were more
prominent than connection with the future and future generations. Subsequent stories will likely
be designed with other generations in mind. In thinking of a vertical timeline, a connection was
viewed as extending upwards to previous generations as revealed in stories about grandparents,
and downward to children and grandchildren. Betty and Helen mentioned writing stories for their
children after the storytelling acted as a springboard to spark legacy.
Connection with peers was effective because most respondents commented that they felt
better connected to their peers due to learning more about them and seeing them in a new light.
As Betty said, they have insight into one another they did not have, even if they did previously
know them. Frailties and vulnerabilities were expressed to show the humanness in all, which can
have a different nuance in later years. The wisdom of age seemed to understand that humanness
can be shared and not hidden or covered or diminished. This may help explain some of the
writers' motivation to share the foibles of people and realize they are all together and can weather
life.
Aiding Loneliness
Loneliness is pervasive among older adults and particularly problematic during a
pandemic. It has been shown that loneliness impacts one’s well-being and is a serious problem
among older adults (Anderson, 2010). Mager (2019) noted that resilience and happiness can be
strengthened in the short term and can be beneficial for loneliness. Other research has shown that
people in a storytelling group can bond and feel connected after a sharing event, but it is
unknown if the connection is durable or lasting (Hausknecht, Vanchu-Orosco, & Kaufman,

2019). Nevertheless, connectedness with this group seems to be durable beyond the length of the
study. Nine were interested in continuing with a storytelling group, which speaks to a desire to
continue the relationship and experience. The durability or stickiness of the connection evidences
a heightened benefit of connection.
Even though there were mixed comments, John and others said that they thought
storytelling would be helpful if someone was lonely and could tell a story. Betty and George felt
that if someone was isolated and already connected, they could share stories through Zoom, and
it would be helpful. Betty specifically mentioned stories about resilience as being incredibly
useful.
Other participants wondered about motivation and if someone would develop stories on
their own if isolated or lonely. George suggested it would be a good activity to bide one’s time,
but Betty thought that if someone was lonely or depressed, they might not have the energy or
motivation to follow through. Most participants said there would need to be a motivator, and if
there were a group or someone to share the stories with, that would be motivating. This speaks to
connection as being a motivator for storytelling and storytelling as beneficial to combat
loneliness.
All of the participants referenced that storytelling impacted their mood. Two were
emotional during the interview, and one commented they were more emotional than expected
during the process. This was not a detraction. Mood was improved or elevated by the
storytelling. John and Margaret purposely set out to uplift people and hoped to make people
happy. Dorothy, among others, chose their stories to be happy to maintain a positive mood.
Thusly, with this group as an indicator, storytelling could help those who are isolated and
disconnected.
Participant Expressed Benefits of Story Sharing
Sharing one's story has benefits separate from story creation. For some, the story sharing
may be more important. Joan questioned the purpose of creating a story if it was not going to be
shared. The benefits and themes from sharing a story included shared experience, learning from
others, feeling heard and validated, and receiving support and feedback.
Like other storytelling studies, Mager's (2019) study reported similar benefits, including
listening and learning from others, being heard, connecting, and empowering. Mager (2019)
noted that they could not discern if the feelings of connection were from group membership or
the sharing or listening of stories. Mager (2019) suggested that a closer look at group dynamics
and a more detailed analysis of differences between telling versus listening to others' stories was
needed.
In this study, connection was interwoven in all aspects of the experience, and other
benefits may have had a hand in contributing to the sense of connectedness. Participants in this
study were explicitly asked if they most enjoyed sharing a story or listening to a story. The
responses were mixed. The participants enjoyed both, with listening and sharing having value
and beneficial together and separately. The members liked being heard and liked learning about
others. Group dynamics created a supportive environment, and interested people added feedback
and encouragement.
Shared Experience
Shared experience is an essential benefit of stories in general (Bartsch & Oliver, 2011).
Because people are connected and wired for stories, there are universal themes with which most
can relate. This was true with this group. The participants could relate to each other’s stories and
find linkages even though the specific details or experiences may have been unique. Stories can
be particularly important when people feel alone and may be compounded in later lifespan stages
when people are often isolated. The shared experience can help to lessen these negative feelings.
The participants of this group supported the idea that storytelling would help if someone were
lonely or isolated. However, the consensus was that without someone to share them, the activity
of story creation might only be a time filler.
Listening and Learning From Others
Participants expressed a deeper understanding of and more connection with others from
sharing their thoughts and stories. Some participants, like Shirley, reiterated that they like to hear
other stories and learn. Betty commented that the stories gave her more insight into people.
Bluck and Alea (2009) note that sharing stories is beneficial for problem-solving and social
connections, and this was evident in this study. Not only did the participants learn about
experiences and people, but they also learned new ways of thinking. George's story about a new
way of thinking was considered “thought-provoking” by the other group members. He also
commented that he thinks differently now, and the experience has made a difference in his life.
Listening to others also helps with theory of mind, enabling individuals to understand
another's experience and perspective and empathize and connect. “Deep listening” is a term used
related to learning and understanding and viewed as beneficial for the listeners (Chang et al.,
2020). Helen learned to think from another's perspective. Margaret remarked that "the people in
the group are very different personalities and it is a joy. And very humorous to listen to them and
see what they will come up with." As a nod and reinforcement of oral storytelling, Patricia noted
that she likes listening without pictures. Relying on one’s voice, without imagery, may enable
the listener to overlay their mental models and experiences and relate and connect more
effectively. For this group, the deep listening seemed helpful to the storytellers too as many
commented that they appreciated the attentiveness of their audience
Feeling Heard and Validated
The importance and power of storytelling are well recognized when a participant, like
Joan, recounts that they did not think anyone would be interested in their story. Sharing helps
those who have no one to tell their stories and gives people a chance to talk and connect about
things important to the storyteller. This need may be unmet in other relationships. People need to
be heard. This is fundamental in Erikson's (Erikson & Erikson, 1998) development theory and in
different approaches, such as Maslow's hierarchy of needs, where individuals strive to feel like
they belong and have healthy esteem.
Receiving Support and Feedback
Many group members expressed appreciation for others' help to support them by assisting
with thought organization, support for a topic, and motivation. This group interaction enhanced
feelings of connection. Support will make one feel closer to others. Margaret felt useful when
making others laugh and smile.
Several had concerns about how their stories might be received, so a supportive group
and environment were crucial for a positive storytelling experience. All of the interviewees
commented about how they felt supported or received a good response from their story. Margaret
noted that it was nice to have a "receptive" and "interested audience," which is not necessarily
the norm "if people are always looking at their watches or looking around or not interested."
Legacy
In common usage, legacy is thought of as leaving something for future generations. In
this study, a legacy was interpreted and seen as for oneself or others. In contrast to other research
studies, a legacy was not a primary thought; however, it was considered during the interviews
and viewed primarily as a connection to children or grandchildren and not unknown future
generations. Legacy was interpreted as extending to those the participants had a relationship
with, and as a way to enhance or connect. Legacy is centered frequently around family history.
Not all of the participants had children, so legacy was also considered in reference to other
younger generations to connect and pass on family history. Material goods or wealth were not
considered.
Another interpretation of legacy was relationally oriented and centered on the impact one
has on others. Nancy spoke about her legacy not represented by awards she won, but about the
people she helped in her career. Nancy described her thoughts: "I hope to leave something
behind that people can use. I want to say something that people can learn by." She was one of the
younger interviewees at 68, and her view is consistent with Erikson's developmental concept of
generativity. It is in the generative vs. stagnation stage that one may be most focused on legacy.
Legacy has been a substantial attribute in other studies (Hausknecht, Vanchu-Orosco, &
Kaufman, 2019); however, it was not a driver of the stories in this study, nor a top benefit.
Digital storytelling clips and audio recordings are often considered durable and common
methods for legacies. Participants in digital storytelling workshops have stated they like having a
lasting record (Hausknecht, Vanchu-Orosco, & Kaufman, 2019). The expectation may focus on
making a legacy artifact in other storytelling studies and discussed as a benefit. Therefore, there
may be an emphasis on preservation in other studies not incorporated in this one.
When given an open prompt, the participants were not necessarily primed to think about
legacy and creating a more permanent artifact. They did not view their initial stories as a legacy
story. The current moment and connection seemed more important than thinking into the future
and the concept of legacy. When asked directly, though, most participants believed that their
story could be viewed as a legacy, and the storytelling acted as a springboard for legacy. Several
participants were spurred to leave things for their children after creating their first story. Betty's
children explicitly asked her to do more, and Helen was inspired to preserve her husband's
memories. John was the only participant who expressed an interest in recording while discussing
legacy in the interview, and this was after he was asked directly.
Two participants mentioned keeping one's own memories for a later time. Shirley
commented that she missed traveling, so she had to rely on her memories. Another commented
about preserving her memories for when she may not be able to remember them. In a sense,
these individuals are interested in a legacy for themselves. Creating stories is a way for anyone to
look back and reflect on missed times and enjoy them again. Hausknecht, Silva, and Kaufman
(2019) note that preserving memories can be meaningful even when the participant is still
around, especially when one cannot share themselves.
StoryCorps
Although a wonderful tool and popular as a legacy initiative, StoryCorps is more useable
as an other-initiated method. Even though some of the participants were familiar with
StoryCorps and enjoyed listening to the stories, they did not see it for themselves. A common
added benefit of a digital medium or digital storytelling is the ability to share with a broader
audience (Hausknecht, Vanchu-Orosco, & Kaufman, 2019). It did not seem necessary for this
group to reach a broader audience beyond their family, and they did not see the Library of
Congress archive as an added value. It is unlikely these participants would utilize StoryCorps on
their own.
With StoryCorps, there are prompted themes that someone may relate to; however, if
someone does not connect to the theme, they may not seek to record under their own initiative.
In addition, if one does not feel their story is important, they will not seek out to record on their
own. This doubt was heard amongst the group. As a result, StoryCorps did not have much pull
for the storytellers. George saw legacy within family history and felt that StoryCorps was
disconnected from him and his family. For this group, legacy creation seemed to need a specific
known recipient.
On their own, older adults may not see their stories as worthwhile to preserve or that
others would be interested. StoryCorps is best when initiated by others. If a child or grandchild
asked for a recording, it is very likely the older adult would say yes. They would feel that
someone was interested in hearing what they have to say and would enjoy connecting with the
requestor.
Overall, I think this group of people would be happy to create legacy artifacts if others
expressed interest, and they were encouraged to see the value in their experiences even though
they may not be extraordinary. Joan felt her stories may not be interesting to others but was
happy to have the floor for a short while. A loved one showing interest would be motivating and
could be beneficial as well as build connections. As Joan commented, "There is no reason to
write a story unless you are going to share it." Encouragement from younger generations to let
older generations know they want to hear from them would be very beneficial for both parties.
Technology Challenges
Early on in planning this study, I hoped that there would be an opportunity to compare
the storytelling experiences across mediums. With everyone choosing oral storytelling, this was
not possible. This result is telling in itself that none of the participants chose a technological
method. The group may have self-selected to not be likely to choose a technology-oriented
method by choosing the in-person lessons over Zoom. They did self-select for storytelling and to
learn. The same process may be valid for those that sign up for a digital storytelling class. The
course's nature may likely deter those who are not prone to use new technology or do not have a
basic comfort level, need, or interest to learn about digital technology.
However, this was an educated group focused on learning. Many would be capable of
learning if they so desired. Half of the group chose Zoom for their interview and do use other
devices. The fact is, very few were interested in an audio recording or digital clip. Paper popped
up as the best medium, and the participants were inspired to write more and create physical
books. After this class, though, I am confident that several participants are primed to take a
digital storytelling workshop or do more digitally. For instance, Betty is working on marrying
pictures with stories, so digital storytelling is a logical next step, one that I believe she would not
have taken initially. The initial perceptions of sharing mediums cannot be overlooked and other
technology hurdles need to be addressed.
Voice and Paper as Preferred Media
The newest and most compelling technology and methods seem to be on the forefront,
but researchers should not forget the basics people have relied on for so long. Oral storytelling
and paper were the preferred media for this group—all perceived pen and paper as an adequate
medium that was secure and durable. The group differentiated between writing and speaking.
Three options were presented for sharing, but the group automatically considered four
possibilities by adding a written component. In this study, writing had been thought of as part of
the process for one of the other mediums, but the group viewed it as a separate choice. One
exception was John. He did not write anything down and talked extemporaneously. His story was
not a muse or reminiscence. It followed the story outline and was well delivered. Others had
concerns about forgetting or choosing the wrong words spontaneously, so they preferred to read
their story.
Hausknecht, Silva, and Kaufman (2019) discuss the intimacy of one's voice in their
research, and it is echoed in these findings as well. The storyteller's voice was perceived as the
most important and compelling component of storytelling. Patricia commented that pictures were
"secondary" for storytelling, and several others reiterated that they enjoyed hearing the others'
stories in the storyteller's voice. They felt closer, in-person, hearing from the storyteller directly.
Rodero (2020) notes that radio is the best medium in a crisis. "Listening to the voice on
the radio generates the sensation of being accompanied, of not being alone." (Rodero, 2020, p.
3). And the voice is what is needed when we are alone, isolated, staying at home during a
pandemic, or in a crisis, be it personal or worldwide. Connection is the most critical need, and
voice becomes paramount. Granted, other mediums utilize voice, but when coupled with hearing
someone in-person, this could help account for why connection was the most discussed benefit
of storytelling and why hearing someone's voice live was particularly sought after.
Research has shown that digital storytelling leads to a shared experience, a connection
among the members, and fosters technological skills that can leave an artifact that may act as a
legacy (Hausknecht, Vanchu-Orosco, & Kaufman, 2019). There is an added benefit of the digital
storytelling of learning new skills and participants of those workshops have expressed that they
feel a certain satisfaction with learning a new skill. The participants of this group were pleased to
learn storytelling, but there was no added technological achievement. With connection and
shared experience a benefit of both types of storytelling, it is interesting to determine if specific

characteristics may differentiate between the individuals or choice. This cannot be determined by
this group, however, because there were other hurdles to embracing new technology.
Three Hurdles Related to Technology
It is easy to assume that older adults can't keep up with technology or lose the ability to
utilize it, but this is not the whole picture. Research has shown a discrepancy in usage among
older adults, with about 73% of adults over 65 using the Internet compared to 90% of those
under 65 (Hülür & Macdonald, 2020). One could even think that as younger technology-raised
individuals grow older, these challenges will fade. This is not necessarily the case. These
participants were not nonadopters. Up to 80% of this group had adopted technology with
smartphones, tablets, and computers or had expressed an interest in using new technology. As a
whole, the group can use technology but is picky about what to use and choose.
Technology hurdles are not necessarily the actual mechanics of technology, but three
other issues that are more elusive and pervasive: asking for help, seeing the value of technology,
and having access to technology. The first issue is asking for help to set up, problem solve, or to
get started.
People may be hesitant to ask for help because they do not want to ask too many times or
do not want to seem incapable of managing independently. Even when there is assistance
available, the participants wisely decide when to ask for help to not over ask and overdraw on
"helping" resources. There may also be a sense of not wanting to feel incapable, for which they
will self-selectively not ask for help to possibly save face. Some older adults may not have
someone they can ask. Ideally, another older adult or friend willing to show them how would be
well-received. If someone lived in a senior community, an onsite technology person would be
very useful. I spoke with two communities who said that they saw the necessity of a hands-on
person to help residents with Zoom and were hoping to hire or train someone to fill that role due
to the pandemic.
A second issue is the value of technology. Older adults have seen many transformations
of technology. They prefer paper and view it as more durable, more secure, and easier to use than
other technological methods. The question was raised about how an audio transcript would get
transcribed, so the digital artifact is preserved on paper. As the researcher, I viewed paper as a
means to help script one's words for oral storytelling or an audio recording, or as a way to help
map out a digital clip as compared to a deliverable itself. Clearly, the group considered paper to
be one of the medium options and the one they preferred.
Several participants commented that changing technology was a deterrent for them
because they had to keep producing new versions of things or learning new skills. One
participant flat out said, "why bother." Another relayed that she had used various media in the
past for photos and videos, and the technology always changed. She gave an example of changes
in home movies from video to CDs to DVDs, and now they are not easy to view because DVD
players are out of fashion. Due to this experience, she was reluctant to do anything new. This
seemed to be more of a frustration with changing technology than fear or nonacceptance of
technology.
Only two out of this group decidedly stated they were adverse or would not entertain the
idea of new technology. Both had had cell phones and computers in the past. This departure from
technology may be due to age-related issues and not an identity of nonadopter.
The participants did not see a direct value or need for new technology. The key is
incrementalism and interest from others. Betty is a perfect example of this process. She has and
uses a computer and a cellphone. She chose the in-person option for the storytelling lessons and
greatly enjoyed learning and working and being with the group. She was able to Zoom for the
interview either because it was easier or safer for her to stay home. She did not choose a digital
option but was sparked by the experience to think about more stories and incorporating pictures.
When asked about technology, she said it was “fun” and “wonderful” but did not believe she
could do it on her own with the equipment she has. She has a newer Apple computer and a
Chromebook and says she does not use the full capabilities. Encouraged by her children, she is
interested in leaving a legacy artifact of pictures and stories for her children and hope they pass
them onto their children. She expressed an interest in scanning photos into the computer, so
digital stories and photo books are not far behind. Now that she is primed to think about digital
options, legacy, stories, and incorporating photos with stories, she would most likely sign up for
a digital story and photo workshop. As far as I can tell, she does have the necessary equipment
and could do these things with hands-on learning.
With direct questioning and prompting, audio recordings and digital clips were more
attractive to the participants. John did say during his interview that he would like to record his
story. This was after a direct prompt, which may have been a pressure point. The value of
technology is understood by seeing what it means for individuals or others, and adding
encouragement and hands-on training. And it needs to evolve in steps. Before we get to digital
storytelling, we need to learn how to use the equipment. One needs to learn all the components
and then put them together. This is often part of an ongoing digital storytelling workshop, but it
needs to start with basic computer and tablet lessons. Younger generations raised on tablets may
believe a tablet is most durable, but the tablet, in turn, may be viewed as outdated if technology
still evolves. The value of newer technology and whether to keep up with it, is an issue many
generations may face.

Older adults face many challenges as they get older, but the third issue, inaccessibility of
technology, was not a challenge I initially perceived. Learning new technology may be difficult,
but if the group felt a need or saw the value, they would learn. The technology itself was not
impossible. The added roadblock of not being available is. Although this issue is a much bigger
topic than this paper, comments about inaccessibility are valid and deserve to be heard. Older
adults need access—low-cost access to the Internet and devices to access from home. Recent
studies have shown that older adults use the Internet when available, primarily for social reasons.
This is key for those older adults living alone and subjected to a higher likelihood of loneliness
(Hülür & Macdonald, 2020).
The pandemic has changed technology accessibility among school-age students as low
cost and free Internet, wi-fi, and devices have been distributed. Older adults must have the same
access. Two participants in this study were reliant on the local library for their Internet access,
which became nonexistent for 7 months during the pandemic. The Internet should be accessible
to all like a public utility. In Shirley's small community, city-wide access was discussed several
years ago but was shot down because the local government felt that the library and Starbucks
were enough. The pandemic has proven otherwise.
In July, a survey was emailed and posted online to assess the need for city-wide Internet
access. As Shirley noted, the information was spread electronically, and the survey was designed
to take online. Those without access were not able to see or take the survey. Five months later,
there has not been any follow-up from the survey. I hope that we can start building advocacy for
access for all so older adults can genuinely have a choice, and if they become isolated, they have
a lifeline.
Reflection
One of the essential reflections must be of oneself. When undertaking qualitative
research, care needs to be taken to be objective and face assumptions and biases. To aid in this, I
kept detailed notes for bracketing to be aware of my thoughts and biases. Through this
reflexivity, four areas are most meaningful to discuss.
Truthfulness
The first is related to the concept of story truth. Stories have many meanings and
connotations, but I was surprised when three participants mentioned “telling a story” as contrived
or equating stories to lying or making things up. Generally, it seemed these were childhood
views presented to encourage truthfulness. I had not considered stories as negative or fabricated.
I can understand that people may like stories to develop as they reminisce with others
naturally. It may seem more natural than pulling out a video for people to watch. This is parallel
to telling someone a story about your trip and asking them to settle in for home movies. One is
natural, and the other may be contrived. One participant, a “facts and documentary type person”
who first thought that stories would be “contrived,” seemed to have a shift in thinking and
enjoyed the experience and liked to hear stories from others and created their own.
Another participant stated they liked storytelling because they can “fib” if they wanted to.
This comment gave me pause to consider the necessity of truth in storytelling. As a psychologist,
I would like to hear the truth of someone’s story from their perspective because that may be
enlightening or meaningful. In the context of storytelling, people are relaying their truth;
therefore, for this research study, I considered the stories at face value.
Older Adults and Qualitative Research
I was asked challenging, thoughtful, and thought-provoking questions that kept me on my
toes. They were asked from the point of learning not to test. I was glad to be prepared and not
take for granted that I should simplify the material. The main thing was to slow down and be
aware of hearing issues without being condescending or ageist. I was glad to have prior
experience with older adults, so I did not succumb to a too oft manner of speaking to older adults
in an overly familiar or childish way. One participant thanked me for not "talking to us like we
were children. My mind is not gone yet." This comment made me sad that some older adults
experience "less than" and ensured that I looked at the group as peers. In turn, I felt like I was
one of the group and trusted to share their most personal thoughts and experiences.
I was also very glad to have a background in psychology and skills in group work and as
a psychotherapist. My training and expertise with support groups served me well a few times
during interviews and discussions when topics dove deep with heavy overtones. Some points
were emotional. I could steer the discussion away to facilitate a change in mood, so the
interviewee felt better leaving and did not feel remorseful in what they had shared. One cannot
assume that qualitative research or interviews will be easy. The researcher needs to be prepared
and have the background to deal with the method's personal nature and be comfortable to hear
and discuss the inner life.
In addition, I was surprised at how nuanced some of the interviews were. When reading
line by line during MAXQDA coding, I often picked up a different tone than the one presented.
You may not get the whole context and subcontext during the interview itself. Technology can
shift the focus from content to meaning and expression. For example, one person had recently
moved and told me she would not be joining the storytelling group because she knew she needed
to connect with new people in her new community. An individual can know it is a good thing,
which is what they project, but underneath there is sadness and loss that was not evident until
later.
Power of Stories and Group Dynamics
The group bonded and came together differently than other groups with which I have
worked. This group was closer faster. Throughout this process, there have been three
hospitalizations (non-COVID-related). Everyone has been able to go home, but that will not be
the case one day. And this makes me very sad. When you get to know someone through their
stories, you are closer and more connected. It's because of the stories. This realization stressed
the importance of being objective and accurate in reporting and interpretation.
Hearing some of these stories is different from reading text because I think the voice adds
another quality. Some of these stories and underlying experiences of sadness and loss are
emotional. One cannot be immune, especially when the storyteller does not have someone
interested in hearing about them. This group has been a different experience for me than other
groups. By listening to the stories, I can see the group not as an age cohort for research but as a
wealth of wisdom which will be lost.
In thinking about the groups in general, I don't know if this is a special group or age,
which makes the group positive, reflective, appreciative, and connected. They all seem to have a
positive outlook on life. They were help-oriented and enjoyed helping and giving feedback to
others. This could be attributed to the predominant education and helping backgrounds. The
majority of the group are church attenders, but not all. I don't know if their sense of gratitude and
appreciation stems from that or not. I don't think all of it does. I do not see the overwhelming
sense of appreciation, gratitude, reflection, and positive outlook in other groups.

Legacy Expanded
Legacy looks at what we leave behind. Some felt prompted to leave pictures and stories
to pass on to children and grandchildren. In talking about memories during some of the
interviews, it is clear that experience and the created memories are also a legacy. It also stuck out
that relationships and how we impact one another are a legacy. Without interested families, the
legacy of passing on stories is gone, and someone may feel their life or history is not interesting
or unimportant. If no one is interested, what would be the motivation?
Legacy is interwoven with connection and meaning-making. As one looks at the meaning
in their lives and ponders what they leave behind, the relationships and memories are significant.
To think that others have good memories of us and want to keep a connection with us when we
are gone is comforting. For some of the participants, this was not the case. Fortunately, there was
a positive peer connection to help those with doubt of being important, feel heard and valued.
This should be a mission for families, services, and programs for older adults.
Summary
The APA has called for more research and discussion about adult development and what
it means to age well (Arnett et al., 2020). Previous research on older adults and storytelling
indicate positive benefits. Some of the questions for this study were designed to fill in the gaps or
examine concepts in further detail. These included exploring differences in creating, sharing, and
hearing stories, and detail on storytelling experience and connectedness.
In this research study, in-depth interviews were used to examine each individual’s
emotional and cognitive experiences with storytelling, uncover how they made sense of the
experience, and uncover any benefits. Interviewees participated in a storytelling series through
which they developed stories they felt were important for them to share. Digital methods for
story creation and sharing were options; however, all participants chose to share orally.
Validity, reliability, and generalizability are essential in all research, but there are
differences in how they are achieved. The concept of trustworthiness was the barometer for this
study. It was ensured by focusing on several factors that lend credence to the findings'
trustworthiness and interpretation of the research data including detailed protocol records,
member checking, and reflection. MAXQDA was used for coding and analysis.
This study supports known theory and contributes to current research by looking at older
adults' individualized experience in creating and sharing a personal story. In particular, the
research focused on older adults in their 70s and 80s. The benefits experienced in this study were
similar to other storytelling studies. Participants enjoyed the opportunity to reminiscence and
review important life events as they contemplated and reflected on their stories, which added to
their meaning-making process. A few participants explicitly discussed how looking at past
experiences helped them to reconsider and reinterpret how the events affected them and how
they view them differently today. The positive was chosen over the negative and humor, grace,
and understanding were evident. The storytellers wanted to share with others and hoped that the
other participants would benefit. Connection was paramount, and overall, storytelling was an
excellent tool for meaning-making and connecting with others. Storytelling was also an excellent
way to be heard, feel validated, view one's life positively, and know it is worth sharing. Legacy
was not seen as necessary to this group until prompted but was an important takeaway. In
addition, digital-sharing options were not perceived as more beneficial than traditional oral
storytelling.
The challenges that occurred were not insurmountable. Most difficulties were related to
getting started with a new process and self-confidence. Technology was appreciated and used by
most participants; however, it was not the first choice. They enjoyed the in-person connection
more than interacting virtually. Even though most in the group were not nonadopters, they
strived to be self-sufficient and chose new technology thoughtfully. Teaching new technology to
this group of older adults would be best in small stages to have time to feel comfortable and
adapt and see the value. Accessibility for older adults is critical as well.
The majority of participants saw the storytelling lessons and their creation of a story as a
first step in continuing their reflection, writing, and connecting with others. Nine continued with
participating in a monthly storytelling group. At least three are using the experience as a
springboard to create legacies for their children and grandchildren, using stories as a central part.
One was inspired to gather stories from others on a particular topic and is striving to self-publish
a book.
Not all participants would necessarily agree outright that storytelling is a meaning-
making activity and might suggest it is a time filler. One of the people that suggested it was a
good way to "fill time" did find meaning for themselves. One can think it is not necessarily a
meaning-making activity but still find meaning in the process. It is hard to conceptualize sitting
down to think about meaning. It generally comes to you. Connection, though, is something that
is actively sought and found. All participants agreed that storytelling was a good way to connect
with the past and connect with friends and family. And all thought that storytelling could be
beneficial to those that were lonely or isolated if they had a way to share their stories and connect
with others.
Summary of Reponses to Specific Research Questions
1. What is the experience of storytelling among older adults, specifically those in the later
age groupings of 70s, 80s, and 90s?
The storytelling experience was a unique experience that profoundly affected a few of the
participants. Benefits included meaning-making, new perspectives, and new connections.
The group is motivated to create more stories.
2. How does storytelling impact the feeling of connectedness among older adults?
The participants stated that they felt better connected to the other participants, even if
they had known them previously. Connection was fostered by shared experience, insight
and understanding of others, and support and validation. Several have started a
storytelling group, so the connection will be ongoing.
3. When allowed to choose any story to share, what themes are most prominent in
storytelling among those in their 70s, 80s, and 90s? What is the prevalence of connection
themes?
The most predominant theme was connection. Stories were created about people and
events to remember, preserve, and share. This helped connect with others in the group
and was a springboard for connecting with future generations.
4. Does the shared experience or feeling of connectedness extend beyond the individual
or group with which the story was shared?
Yes. There were specific examples given where the stories acted as springboards to aid in
connection with other family members and inspired the development of stories for
children and grandchildren. Other examples were shown where the stories helped connect
the past to the present as well.

5. What are the views of technology among the group, that is, why did they choose the
selected media? Is it an asset to connection, or is it not seen as necessary?
All participants selected oral storytelling because it was viewed as an easier and more
comfortable way to share one's story. Most of the participants are enthusiastic about
technology and may be interested in using it more to aid in pairing photos with their
stories. Although it was not seen as beneficial for sharing their stories at this point, a few
of the participants may be primed to consider digital options in the future.
6. Which aspect of storytelling, developing, or sharing a personal story, has the most
impact on one's feeling of connectedness?
Creating and sharing were both important. Participants felt connected to the past when
creating their stories about loved ones. Those that preferred telling stories liked being
able to entertain or make people happy. All participants appreciated being heard, and all
mentioned that they enjoyed hearing others. The majority mentioned that sharing and
listening were both part of feeling more connected with others.
Recommendations
Researched benefits of storytelling include meaning-making and connectedness, which
contribute to positive emotions, feeling heard, valued, and appreciated. Connectedness was a
fundamental component of storytelling for the participants in this study. There are still existing
gaps in the literature due to a few limitations of this study, and further research is needed. The
experience was also enjoyable and would be an easy creative program to offer to older adults to
help them with later stage goals and build connections. Recommendations for future research and
programs are below.

Future Research
Longitudinal Research. A short-term view indicates that the connection from this
project is durable, and the feelings of being heard and appreciated will continue, but longevity is
unknown. The participants created a storytelling group, so the connection endures outside of the
initial 4-week study. Nine of the 12 storytelling participants meet once a month and have met for
4 months at this writing.
There is a theme or prompt for each month, but the standing rule is that the story can be
anything as long as it is important to them to create and share. The group is finding that the
stories can traverse multiple themes so that stories can fit any time. Connections springboard
among the group at each gathering with discovery and connection between individuals based on
someone’s story. How long will this group last, and are the feelings of connection ongoing?
Further research is needed.
Longitudinal data in storytelling are lacking, and the long-term effects of connections are
unknown. Is there a short period of excitement and enthusiasm, and then it wanes? Is it “life-
changing,” as one participant reported? Only time can answer some of the lingering questions.
Further research is needed to see if other storytelling groups can be similarly sticky and see if the
connections last longer than the research period. In addition, the nature of the connection is
unknown. Is it the group or are individuals more connected?
Storytelling gives us a meaningful connection, and the group keeps it going. Even though
not everyone in the group was interviewed, this could be a good group to watch longitudinally
and follow up with at 6 months, 12 months, or later. The initial research questions can be
expanded to ask
• What has been the experience of the storytelling group for you? Has it changed
from when it started?
• How are the connections with the group similar and different when compared to
the initial storytelling lessons?
• How has the ongoing storytelling group impacted your life?
• What are any benefits you perceive from the ongoing group?
Differences Between Media Choices. This study could not compare the impact of
different storytelling media because all of the participants chose to use oral tradition to share
their stories. All but one person wrote their story out before sharing. It would be insightful to
undertake more studies to compare media differences to see how older adults' storytelling
experience may differ between mediums and formats (i.e., video-based multi-media story, an
audio-based format, and in-person storytelling groups).
Oldest of the Old. Hausknecht and fellow researchers (2019) suggested that future
research should include age breakouts, specifically looking at those in their 70s, 80s, and 90s.
The pandemic altered this study in some regards and reduced the number of participants from
what was initially expected. As a result, there were no participants in their 90s. In addition, due
to the sample size, comparisons were not feasible amongst age groups.
Erikson discusses a “transcendent” stage for older adults, which may be more
predominant in an older age group (Erikson & Erikson, 1998). This research group fell within
Erikson's later developmental stages, but it is difficult to ascertain if any group members were
transcendent. The over-90 group's elusive quality highlights the necessity for further targeted
research of this age group. Depending on health and other factors, they may be struggling with
later life stage goals, needs, and end-of-life issues. Storytelling may be an added enhancement
for those in their final years to feel heard, understood, and that they lived a life worth sharing and
preserving. The suggestion for age breakouts and participants in their 90s continues for further
research.
Loneliness. It is feasible that storytelling would be beneficial to those that are alone and
isolated. Many of the participants may have been drawn to this in-person series as a way to get
out to meet others and ease their loneliness. This study also provided insight into the loneliness
and isolation that many face even without a pandemic. COVID brought questions to the forefront
that may not have seemed a priority at first; however, loneliness is significant for older adults
even without a pandemic. More research is needed to explore how storytelling can help those
that are lonely and isolated.
Social Connectedness Scale. Larger scale quantitative research is needed to help confirm
emerging new theories and refine existing theory. Connection was dominant in the subjective
storytelling experience of this group. A connectedness scale may help quantify the type and
depth of connection that storytelling enables and can be utilized before, after, and then at regular
intervals to ascertain lingering benefits. However, one caution is that scales may not be nuanced
enough to express the full range of connection feelings or experiences. The following are a few
potential options.
The Social Connectedness Scale may be an excellent scale to quantify the connection that
older adults desire in later life stages and may feel after sharing their stories (Lee & Robbins,
1995). This scale was developed on the premise that if someone does not feel connected, they
will feel different than others and feel distant from them. The scale covers three aspects of
belongingness: connectedness, affiliation, and companionship (Lee & Robbins, 1995).
Aggregated, the scale would indicate an emotional distance between oneself and others, even
friends and family. Even though developed with a population of college students, the scale has
been used in numerous studies focusing on older adults and in storytelling research.
Two other scales may be useful as well. Cornwell and Waite (2009) developed the Social
Disconnectedness Scale and the Perceived Isolation Scale, specifically for older adults. These
scales take into consideration external factors such as number of friends, as well as subjective
items such as feeling left out. These scales could be incorporated in a study to gain an overall
better understanding of connection correlated to storytelling.
Applications of Research
Ultimately, studying older adults' storytelling experience is done to determine which
actionable factors may enrich lives and enhance wellbeing. We know connection is essential, and
storytelling can be beneficial. Meaningful connection for older adults is one of the most essential
needs for older adults. Unfortunately, older adults are often more isolated or have diminished
social circles. If one lives in a senior community, there may not be much exposure to outside
visitors, especially in a pandemic. Older adults may have limited technology and may not be able
to use social media and other connecting mediums to feel less alone. Storytelling can be social
and can also meet meaning-making and connectedness goals of adult life. It is necessary to turn
research into action. How do we do this? We do this best by providing interest, occasion, and
encouragement.
Family Activity. Storytelling as a family activity would be beneficial to all parties.
Families can help initiate the interest in sharing stories and can facilitate preserving them before
they are lost. Many "grandparent" books are out there, but an anecdotal survey of this group
indicates they are frequently unused. This study suggests that older adults prefer an audience to
share their stories and that an upcoming event or encouragement from others is motivating. If a
family member were to ask and write, similar to the StoryCorps interview, it might be more
motivating and meaningful.
Older Adults’ Group Activity. Numerous activities can help those that live alone or in
community housing stay busy. Senior living environments and community centers are full of
activities. However, storytelling is a useful activity that utilizes beneficial reflection and
appreciation skills and helps people bond and connect. Older adults need meaningful activities in
their later years that speak to their later life goals. Storytelling provides this. It provides
introspection and fulfills the need and desire to be heard, feel valued, teach, and learn.
Storytelling can be incorporated in many ways through community centers or community
living as a fun activity and as a way for older adults to build connections. The positive benefits
can aid in enhanced wellbeing, but care needs to be taken that the experience does not become
frustrating, thus negating the positive benefits. One way to ensure a positive process is to
recognize potential challenges, address them upfront, normalize the difficulty, and provide
assistance without focusing on them. Story challenges include
• Getting started and formulating one's thoughts.
• Finding the right words.
• Hard to talk off the top of one's head.
Important takeaways include
• Allow the individual to express themselves in written form if they are most
comfortable this way.
• Provide the occasion to story tell while making it comfortable not to be perfect.
• Provide a learning-focused atmosphere where the individuals can learn and help
each other.
• Ensure there will be a good reaction of encouragement and support.
• Ask the group to provide positive feedback and look for linkages with which they
can relate.
Conclusions
Our population is getting older, and aging has its challenges; however, it does not need to
be defined by loss or loneliness. According to Erikson (Erikson & Erikson, 1998), most people in
the later stages of life want to feel connected, accomplished, have meaningful relationships, and
desire to be more focused on the present. Most importantly, people want to be connected. As the
older population grows, it will be imperative to discover and create meaningful activities that can
enhance older adults' lives and are easily implementable. Storytelling is the way to make this
happen.
This research study aimed to expand the knowledge and understanding of storytelling,
meaning-making, and connectedness among older adults and examine how stories and
storytelling can impact later life stages goals and needs. There has been research on reminiscing
and life review benefits, and similar activities, such as storytelling, warranted similar scrutiny.
This study provided a unique look at older adults that are not frequently studied.
Insightful data were gleaned from in-depth interviews of older adults who had participated in a
series of storytelling lessons and had created and shared a personal story. The majority of the
participants were over 80, and all but two were over 70. For this group of people, storytelling
was a fun, engaging, and meaningful activity that helped them feel valued and connected. Their
personal stories were powerful, effective, changeable, and transformative.
Narrative theory and a few of the participants reiterated that "life is made up of stories."
We connect through our stories, and the connection is preferably in-person. There is power in a
group for connection, and storytelling is the perfect vehicle for others to meet new people, get to
know friends on a deeper level, create a legacy for future generations, and enjoy an activity that
is ultimately beneficial to the self.
Implications of this research can lay the foundation for storytelling awareness and
programs that may enrich older adults' lives. This study supports and emphasizes the need for
later-stage adult development research. In addition, encouraging older adults' voices to be heard
through their stories and sharing these within the community may have implications for the
challenging ageism and stereotyping.

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Appendix A
Table A1
Erikson’s Stages of Development
Stage: General Conflict Focus Positive Outcomes Negative Outcomes
age ranges
Mid Adulthood: Generativity (Work & Parenting) Caring for the next May not feel they are
40-65 yrs. vs. Productive, generation, giving contributing. Social
Stagnation Creative, & back, and leaving a identity is difficult and
Nurturing. legacy. may feel disconnected.
Feel useful &
accomplished.
Later Adulthood: Ego Integrity Reflection on life. Look back on a Regret, bitterness, &
65-85 yrs. vs. Despair Meaning-making. meaningful life. despair.
Sense of fulfillment
& wisdom.
Transcendence: Transcendent Introspective and Transcendence of Not achieved-not
85 years and older vs. not encompasses past fear of death, time, everyone realizes this
achieved stages. Creativity and ego. state.
peaks for many.
Appendix B
Lessons on Narrative & Storytelling
We think and live our stories and our enjoyment of stories covers our entire lifespan. We are
all storytellers and it’s important that older adults tell their personal stories! Do you have a
story to tell to or are you interested in learning more about narrative, stories, and how they
impact our lives? If so, please join me for a 4-part series!
We will discuss the art of storytelling and you will learn how to develop and create a story
about something you would like to share; current or past. Everyone has a story to tell and you
do not need any previous experience! You will have the option to tell your story through a
multimedia digital clip, through an audio recording, or follow oral tradition and tell your
story in-person. You will be assisted along the way with story creation and with whichever
media you chose to tell your story.
August 6th 11:00 in-person or 7:00 via Zoom What is narrative and what makes a good story
August 13th 11:00 in-person or 7:00 via Zoom The Art of Storytelling
August 20th 11:00 in-person or 7:00 via Zoom Create and develop your own story. This is a hands-
on day to craft a story you would like to share.
August 27th: 11:00 in-person or 7:00 via Zoom Share your story!
As part of Elizabeth Murphy’s Ph.D. program with Fielding Graduate University and research
for her dissertation, she would like to interview participants of this series. Please note: you do
not need to participate in the interview to attend. Being interviewed is voluntary. Your
participation in the in-depth interview will be confidential; however, the storytelling series
and sharing event are group events and the details of your story will not be confidential.
You do not need to share anything you do not want to. If you would be willing to talk with
Elizabeth during a 1-hour in-depth interview or would like more information, please contact her
at 614.738.5271 or emurphy@email.fielding.edu.
Appendix C
Lambert Interview Guidelines (2006, p. 4)
1) Study the questions so that you are not reading from the page, and feel free to ad lib.
Being able to sustain eye contact assists the interviewee in relaxing and responding in a
natural way.
2) Allow the interviewee to complete his or her thoughts. Unlike a radio or TV

interviewer that is concerned with “dead air” in the conversation, give the interviewee all
the time desired to think through and restate something that is a bit difficult to articulate.
Interruptions can cause people to lose their train of thought or become self-aware and
steer away from important, but perhaps emotionally difficult information. Let the
interviewee tell you when he or she has finished a question before moving on to the next.
3) When appropriate, use your own intuition when asking questions to get more detailed
responses. Often, a person’s initial thoughts about a question only retrieves a broad
outline of a memory. Feel free to request specifics or details that would clarify or expand
upon a general response.
4) If the story is about information that is specifically painful or traumatic in the person’s
life, carefully assess how far you will allow the respondent to delve into these memories.
In many situations where the interviewer is not a spouse or a loved one, you may cross
into territory that is much better approached in a therapeutic environment with
experienced guides or professionally trained advisors. We have come perilously close in
interviews to taking people into an emotional state from which they cannot return at the
session. This is embarrassing for the respondent, and an emotionally inconsiderate act on
the part of the interviewer, as the interviewee may not have the therapeutic support to
cope with these issues in the hours and days after the interview. Don’t feel you need to
hunt for emotionally charged material to make the interview effective. If it comes
naturally and comfortably, so be it.
Finally, along with ensuring privacy in the interview, make sure everyone is comfortable:
comfortable chairs, water at hand, and the microphone positioned so as not to disrupt ease
of movement. (A lavaliere, or pin-on microphone, is the best).
Appendix D
In-Depth Interview Protocol

Protocol Outline
Hello, I’m Elizabeth, thank you for meeting with me and participating in my research project.
I’m working on my dissertation through Fielding Graduate University. With this study I am
trying to understand the experience of storytelling and digital storytelling. I will ask you
several broad questions and let you talk. I will ask you follow-up and clarification questions.
I may take notes to remind me to ask you something without interrupting. You may talk as
little or as much as you like.
Your answers are confidential. I will aggregate all the responses, and your answers will be
used for my dissertation only. Any identifying information will be blocked from the results
or reporting
I would like to record our discussion today if that is ok with you so that I do not forget or
misinterpret what you tell me. No identifying information is collected with this recording.
The recording will be deleted from my computer and any notes I take will be shredded in
three years. My computer is fingerprint protected and I am the only person that has access.
With your permission, I may use a quote of something you say but your name would not be
used,. A pseudonym or made up name would be used. The information will only be used for
my dissertation.
Would you be willing to help out and participate?

Is it ok to record? You may say yes or no. It is up to you.
Would it be ok to use a quote? You may say yes or no. It is up to you.
With this study I am trying to understand what it is was like to create and share your own
story. Feel free to ask any questions, take a break or let me know if you do not want to
answer a specific questions. You may end this interview at any time.
Do you have any questions to begin with?

Let’s review the consent form before you sign-do you have any questions?
Ok-we’ll get started!

Appendix E
Interview Guide:
1. Please tell me a bit about yourself.
Follow up: Would you share your age?
I’d like to ask you about your experience with storytelling
2. Tell me what it was like to create and make a story.

Follow up: Can you describe how you felt going through this exercise?
Was there some part of it you enjoyed the most?
Were there any challenges?
3. What was it like when you shared your story?

Follow up: Can you say more about that-Why?
What did you enjoy the most when you shared your story?
What aspect did you like the most-hearing others or sharing your story?
Do you think this was helpful or did anything good come out of it for you?
4. Tell me about anything that seemed particularly meaningful while you were
creating your story.
Follow up: Think about the creating, preparing, and sharing your story.
If digital-Or gathering pictures for the story?
Can you say more about telling and sharing your story?
If not asked previously: Do you think it was helpful in any way?
5. Does creating a story let you feel like you’re leaving something for the people
you care about? Some people may call that a legacy.
Follow up: Does storytelling feel like a legacy?
Is that (legacy) something important to you?
Do you have any other thoughts on leaving a legacy?
6. You had your choices of a bunch of different ways to tell your story. Can you
tell me about what you chose and why?
Follow up: What drew you to an audio recording, audio/visual clip, or
storytelling group?
What would you choose for your next story? Can you say more?
Is there anything you would change?
7. How did you choose the story you told?

Follow up: Why was this particular story the one you wanted to share?
What does this story mean to you?
Why was this important to you?
Who would you most like to hear it?
Would you like to go through this again and create more stories?
If they suggest technology is a problem ask again and state-you could use any
method that you would like.
8. Think of a time in your life when you felt disconnected, alone or lonely. Do
you think storytelling would help make you feel less lonely or less connected?
Would sharing stories give you a way of connecting with people?
Follow up: Do you think storytelling could help?
Would it help you feel less lonely or help with connecting with others?
9. What are your thoughts on technology?

Follow up: Is it helpful?
Does it seem daunting or scary?
10.Did the pandemic or stay at home rules people put in place to keep you safe,
impact how this storytelling thing impacted your mood?
Follow up: Did you look forward to it?
Did it help you feel better connected?
That is all of the questions I have. Is there anything else you would like to tell me or share, or do
you have any questions for me?
Thank you so much for participating.

Appendix F
IRB Approval
FGU Institutional Review Board | (805) 898-4034 | IRB@Fielding.edu
June 30, 2020
Elizabeth Murphy
Cc: Jerri Lynn Hogg, Pamela Rutledge
RE: IRB No. 20-0603 (Dissertation) "Meaning Making, Connectedness, and Legacy: Examining the
Benefits of Digital Storytelling for Older Adults" by Elizabeth Murphy.
Dear Elizabeth,
Congratulations! On behalf of the Fielding Institutional Review Board, it is my pleasure to confirm that the
IRB documents received for the June 2020 IRB review cycle have been APPROVED.
STUDY ID: 20-0603 MURPHY Elizabeth (PSY-MED June 2020)
TYPE: Dissertation *
CATEGORY: Minimal Risk (Expedited)
DETERMINATION: APPROVED (6/30/2020)
EXPIRATION: 6/29/2021
This study is subject to continuing review by 6/29/2021 unless closed before this date.
* This approval only applies to the study type(s) listed. If this is an HOD Pilot study, you must upgrade
your study to dissertation-status via the Revision Request process before beginning your dissertation
work. Revision Request instructions can be downloaded from the IRB website. All other pilots must
submit a new IRB application for their dissertation study.
This approval does not replace any other permissions or approvals required of students, faculty, or other
researchers. If committee or other approvals are required to conduct your study, all approvals must be
received by the researcher before recruitment, enrollment, or data collection begins. Each school has
very specific requirements for approvals to be obtained and the IRB requests that you ensure that all
requirements have been met. If institutional/organizational approvals are required, retain a copy of the
approval(s) with your study documents.
The following information is provided to help you comply with human subjects protection requirements:
1. You must adhere to the Belmont Commission’s ethical principles of respect, beneficence, and justice.
2. You must use the final IRB approved study documents to conduct your study.
3. All recruitment materials must receive IRB approval prior to utilization.
4. You must submit reports on unexpected or serious adverse events experienced by participants.
5. Federal guidelines require that projects undergo continuing review at least once a year.
You will receive a communication approximately 4 weeks prior to the expiration date noted above.
Complete and return the required documents prior to the expiration date to avoid a lapse of
approval.
6. After you complete your study, go to http://web.fielding.edu/private/research/IRB_Forms.asp and
download the Status Report form. Email the completed form to irb@fielding.edu.
7. Documentation of informed consent and a written research summary for your project must be
maintained for at least three years following the date of completion. Documentation may be in
hard copy, electronic, or other media formats. The IRB may review your records relating to this
project.
Any proposed changes or modifications to your approved study must be submitted to the IRB for review
and approval. Some changes may be approved by expedited review; others may require full board
review. Revision Request Instructions can be downloaded from the IRB website.
Once your study has completed, you must submit an IRB Status Report form to the IRB office.
Submitting this form will initiate the formal closure of your study OR allow you to request an extension of
your approval expiration. This form may be submitted at any time during your approval period but must be
Appendix G
Table G1
Popular 1930s Names
Ranking Female-Oriented Names Male-Oriented Names
1 Robert Mary
2 James Betty
3 John Barbara
4 William Shirley
5 Richard Patricia
6 Charles Dorothy
7 Donald Joan
8 George Margaret
9 Thomas Nancy
10 Joseph Helen
Social Security Administration (2020, March). Popular names of the period 1930s.Top names
of the1930s. https://www.ssa.gov/oact/babynames/decades/names1930s.html
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MEANING-MAKING, CONNECTEDNESS, AND LEGACY:

EXAMINING THE BENEFITS OF STORTYELLING IN AN AGING POPULATION

FIELDING GRADUATE UNIVERSITY

in partial fulfillment of the

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN PSYCHOLOGY

This dissertation has been accepted for

Jerri Lynn Hogg, PhD, Faculty Research Specialist

MEANING-MAKING, CONNECTEDNESS, AND LEGACY:

EXAMINING THE BENEFITS OF STORTYELLING IN AN AGING POPULATION

provides insight into storytelling, technology, and their perceptions of meaning-making,

recommendations for future research are discussed.

been immensely supportive. Thank you, friends.

Before I embarked on a path to my PhD, I needed the immense support of my family.

I am grateful for my husband, Brian, who supports my dreams and endeavors. He

your love, support, and of course, the Diet Coke.

they have been modeled for me.

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................... 1

Ongoing Meaning-Making ................................................................................................ 68

Reflection ........................................................................................................................... 111

List of Table and Figures

Table 1 Coding Summaries…………………………………………………55

views could improve older adults’ health and be cost-effective.

challenges older adults may experience.

at different age segments within this population.

negative aspects of aging by offering reflection, deeper understanding, shared experiences,

meaningful connections, and the ability to leave a legacy (Hausknecht, Vanchu-Orosco,

Digital storytelling (DST) brings an added dimension to traditional storytelling. Broadly

investigated in tandem with connectedness. Broad research questions covered an exploration of

Narrative theory, lifespan development theory, and social-emotional selectivity theory

satisfaction, and benefit the later stages of life.

People organize knowledge to understand the information they receive (Polkinghorne,

specific narrative framework (McAdams, 1995).

individual’s reality is developed instead of a list of past events and experiences.

which are key for later stages of the lifespan.

part of how people connect with others and remember.

provides linkages that provide meaning, it is a meaning-making activity (Gubrium, 2001).

purpose throughout the entire lifespan, including among older adults.

in helping people connect.

Narrative components can be seen in many developmental theories (McAdams, 2001).

development, please refer to Appendix A.

things that will outlive them.

The opposite of Erikson’s concept of generativity is stagnation. In a stagnation state,

may be fostered through this connectedness as well.

1998). Creativity peaks for many at this stage.

my life” (p. 64).

Socioemotional Selectivity Theory

Socioemotional selectivity theory suggests that older adults value meaningfulness,

social connections (Trentham, 2007).

highlight positive memories to enhance life satisfaction and well-being.

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

Overview of Narrative and Storytelling

life (Erikson & Erikson, 1998).

Reminiscence vs. Life Review

experience. It is important to differentiate these terms for research purposes.

Reminiscence. Butler viewed reminiscence as recalling personal memories, a naturally

developed, and satisfying reflection and resolution can occur.

positive memories to improve one’s mood.

Additionally, memory is shown to be functionally different across different life stages

boredom, problem-solve, or develop their identity.

making of their lives, and achieving transcendence.