ENERGY MANAGEMENT

Definition & Objectives of Energy Management

The fundamental goal of energy management is to produce goods and provide services with the
least cost and least environmental effect.
The term energy management means many things to many people. One definition of energy
management is:

"The judicious and effective use of energy to maximize profits (minimize

costs) and enhance competitive positions"
(Cape Hart, Turner and Kennedy, Guide to Energy Management Fairmont press inc. 1997)

Another comprehensive definition is

"The strategy of adjusting and optimizing energy, using systems and procedures so as to
reduce energy requirements per unit of output while holding constant or reducing total
costs of producing the output from these systems"

The objective of Energy Management is to achieve and maintain optimum energy procurement
and utilisation, throughout the organization and:

• To minimise energy costs / waste without affecting production & quality

• To minimise environmental effects.

Energy Audit: Types and Methodology

Energy Audit is the key to a systematic approach for decision-making in the area of energy man-
agement. It attempts to balance the total energy inputs with its use, and serves to identify all
the energy streams in a facility. It quantifies energy usage according to its discrete functions.
Industrial energy audit is an effective tool in defining and pursuing comprehensive energy man-
agement programme.
As per the Energy Conservation Act, 2001, Energy Audit is defined as "the verification, mon-
itoring and analysis of use of energy including submission of technical report containing rec-
ommendations for improving energy efficiency with cost benefit analysis and an action plan to
reduce energy consumption".

Need for Energy Audit

In any industry, the three top operating expenses are often found to be energy (both electrical
and thermal), labour and materials. If one were to relate to the manageability of the cost or
potential cost savings in each of the above components, energy would invariably emerge as a
top ranker, and thus energy management function constitutes a strategic area for cost reduction.
Energy Audit will help to understand more about the ways energy and fuel are used in any
industry, and help in identifying the areas where waste can occur and where scope for improve-
ment exists.
The Energy Audit would give a positive orientation to the energy cost reduction, preventive
maintenance and quality control programmes which are vital for production and utility activi-
ties. Such an audit programme will help to keep focus on variations which occur in the energy
costs, availability and reliability of supply of energy, decide on appropriate energy mix, identi-
fy energy conservation technologies, retrofit for energy conservation equipment etc.
In general, Energy Audit is the translation of conservation ideas into realities, by lending
technically feasible solutions with economic and other organizational considerations within a
specified time frame.
The primary objective of Energy Audit is to determine ways to reduce energy consumption
per unit of product output or to lower operating costs. Energy Audit provides a " bench-mark"
(Reference point) for managing energy in the organization and also provides the basis for plan-
ning a more effective use of energy throughout the organization.

Type of Energy Audit

The type of Energy Audit to be performed depends on:
- Function and type of industry
- Depth to which final audit is needed, and
- Potential and magnitude of cost reduction desired
Thus Energy Audit can be classified into the following two types.
i) Preliminary Audit
ii) Detailed Audit

Preliminary Energy Audit Methodology

Preliminary energy audit is a relatively quick exercise to:
• Establish energy consumption in the organization
• Estimate the scope for saving
• Identify the most likely (and the easiest areas for attention
• Identify immediate (especially no-/low-cost) improvements/ savings
• Set a 'reference point'
• Identify areas for more detailed study/measurement
• Preliminary energy audit uses existing, or easily obtained data
Detailed Energy Audit Methodology
A comprehensive audit provides a detailed energy project implementation plan for a facility,
since it evaluates all major energy using systems.
This type of audit offers the most accurate estimate of energy savings and cost. It considers
the interactive effects of all projects, accounts for the energy use of all major equipment, and
includes detailed energy cost saving calculations and project cost.
In a comprehensive audit, one of the key elements is the energy balance. This is based on an
inventory of energy using systems, assumptions of current operating conditions and calculations
of energy use. This estimated use is then compared to utility bill charges.
Detailed energy auditing is carried out in three phases: Phase I, II and III.

Phase I - Pre Audit Phase

Phase II - Audit Phase
Phase III - Post Audit Phase

A Guide for Conducting Energy Audit at a Glance

Industry-to-industry, the methodology of Energy Audits needs to be flexible.
A comprehensive ten-step methodology for conduct of Energy Audit at field level is pre-
sented below. Energy Manager and Energy Auditor may follow these steps to start with and
add/change as per their needs and industry types.
Ten Steps Methodology for Detailed Energy Audit
Phase I -Pre Audit Phase Activities
A structured methodology to carry out an energy audit is necessary for efficient working. An
initial study of the site should always be carried out, as the planning of the procedures neces-
sary for an audit is most important.

Initial Site Visit and Preparation Required for Detailed Auditing

An initial site visit may take one day and gives the Energy Auditor/Engineer an opportunity to
meet the personnel concerned, to familiarize him with the site and to assess the procedures nec-
essary to carry out the energy audit.
During the initial site visit the Energy Auditor/Engineer should carry out the following
actions: -
• Discuss with the site's senior management the aims of the energy audit.
• Discuss economic guidelines associated with the recommendations of the audit.
• Analyse the major energy consumption data with the relevant personnel.
• Obtain site drawings where available - building layout, steam distribution, compressed air
distribution, electricity distribution etc.
• Tour the site accompanied by engineering/production

The main aims of this visit are: -

• To finalise Energy Audit team
• To identify the main energy consuming areas/plant items to be surveyed during the audit.
• To identify any existing instrumentation/ additional metering required.
• To decide whether any meters will have to be installed prior to the audit eg. kWh, steam,
oil or gas meters.
• To identify the instrumentation required for carrying out the audit.
• To plan with time frame
• To collect macro data on plant energy resources, major energy consuming centers
• To create awareness through meetings/ programme

Phase II- Detailed Energy Audit Activities

Depending on the nature and complexity of the site, a comprehensive audit can take from sev-
eral weeks to several months to complete. Detailed studies to establish, and investigate, energy
and material balances for specific plant departments or items of process equipment are carried
out. Whenever possible, checks of plant operations are carried out over extended periods of time,
at nights and at weekends as well as during normal daytime working hours, to ensure that nothing
is overlooked.
The audit report will include a description of energy inputs and product outputs by major
department or by major processing function, and will evaluate the efficiency of each step of the
manufacturing process. Means of improving these efficiencies will be listed, and at least a pre-
liminary assessment of the cost of the improvements will be made to indicate the expected pay-
back on any capital investment needed. The audit report should conclude with specific recom-
mendations for detailed engineering studies and feasibility analyses, which must then be per-
formed to justify the implementation of those conservation measures that require investments.
The information to be collected during the detailed audit includes: -
1. Energy consumption by type of energy, by department, by major items of process equip
ment, by end-use
2. Material balance data (raw materials, intermediate and final products, recycled
materials, use of scrap or waste products, production of by-products for re-use in other
industries, etc.)
3. Energy cost and tariff data
4. Process and material flow diagrams
5. Generation and distribution of site services (eg.compressed air, steam).
6. Sources of energy supply (e.g. electricity from the grid or self-generation)
7. Potential for fuel substitution, process modifications, and the use of co-generation
systems (combined heat and power generation).
8. Energy Management procedures and energy awareness training programs within the
establishment.
Existing baseline information and reports are useful to get consumption pattern, production cost
and productivity levels in terms of product per raw material inputs. The audit team should col-
lect the following baseline data:
- Technology, processes used and equipment details
- Capacity utilisation
- Amount & type of input materials used
- Water consumption
- Fuel Consumption
- Electrical energy consumption
- Steam consumption
- Other inputs such as compressed air, cooling water etc
- Quantity & type of wastes generated
- Percentage rejection / reprocessing
- Efficiencies / yield

DATA COLLECTION HINTS

It is important to plan additional data gathering carefully. Here are some basic tips to avoid wasting
time and effort:
• measurement systems should be easy to use and provide the information to the accuracy
that is needed, not the accuracy that is technically possible
• measurement equipment can be inexpensive (flow rates using a bucket and stopwatch)
• the quality of the data must be such that the correct conclusions are drawn (what grade of
prod uct is on, is the production normal etc)
• define how frequent data collection should be to account for process variations.
• measurement exercises over abnormal workload periods (such as startup and shutdowns)
design values can be taken where measurements are difficult (cooling water through heat
exchang er
Draw process flow diagram and list process steps; identify waste streams and obvious
energy wastage
An overview of unit operations, important process steps, areas of material and energy use and
sources of waste generation should be gathered and should be represented in a flowchart as
shown in the figure below. Existing drawings, records and shop floor walk through will help in
making this flow chart. Simultaneously the team should identify the various inputs & output
streams at each process step.

Example: A flowchart of Penicillin-G manufacturing is given in the figure below. Note that
waste stream (Mycelium) and obvious energy wastes such as condensate drained and steam
leakages have been identified in this flow chart

The audit focus area depends on several issues like consumption of input resources, energy
efficiency potential, impact of process step on entire process or intensity of waste generation /
energy consumption. In the above process, the unit operations such as germinator, pre-fermen-
tor, fermentor, and extraction are the major conservation potential areas identified.
Identification of Energy Conservation Opportunities
Fuel substitution: Identifying the appropriate fuel for efficient energy conversion
Energy generation :Identifying Efficiency opportunities in energy conversion equipment/util-
ity such as captive power generation, steam generation in boilers, thermic fluid heating, optimal
loading of DG sets, minimum excess air combustion with boilers/thermic fluid heating, opti-
mising existing efficiencies, efficienct energy conversion equipment, biomass gasifiers,
Cogeneration, high efficiency DG sets, etc.
Energy distribution: Identifying Efficiency opportunities network such as transformers,
cables, switchgears and power factor improvement in electrical systems and chilled water, cool-
ing water, hot water, compressed air, Etc.
Energy usage by processes: This is where the major opportunity for improvement and many
of them are hidden. Process analysis is useful tool for process integration measures.

Technical and Economic feasibility

The technical feasibility should address the following issues

• Technology availability, space, skilled manpower, reliability, service etc

• The impact of energy efficiency measure on safety, quality, production or process.
• The maintenance requirements and spares availability

The Economic viability often becomes the key parameter for the management acceptance. The
economic analysis can be conducted by using a variety of methods. Example: Pay back method,
Internal Rate of Return method, Net Present Value method etc. For low investment short dura-
tion measures, which have attractive economic viability, simplest of the methods, payback is
usually sufficient. A sample worksheet for assessing economic feasibility is provided below:

Classification of Energy Conservation Measures

Based on energy audit and analyses of the plant, a number of potential energy saving projects
may be identified. These may be classified into three categories:
 1. Low cost - high return;
2. Medium cost - medium return;
3. High cost - high return
Normally the low cost - high return projects receive priority. Other projects have to be analyzed,
engineered and budgeted for implementation in a phased manner. Projects relating to energy
cascading and process changes almost always involve high costs coupled with high returns, and
may require careful scrutiny before funds can be committed. These projects are generally com-
plex and may require long lead times before they can be implemented. Refer Table 3.1 for pro-
ject priority guidelines.

Understanding Energy Costs

Understanding energy cost is vital factor for awareness creation and saving calculation. In
many industries sufficient meters may not be available to measure all the energy used. In such
cases, invoices for fuels and electricity will be useful. The annual company balance sheet is the
other sources where fuel cost and power are given with production related information.
Energy invoices can be used for the following purposes:

• They provide a record of energy purchased in a given year, which gives a base-line for
future reference
• Energy invoices may indicate the potential for savings when related to production
requirements or to air conditioning requirements/space heating etc.
• When electricity is purchased on the basis of maximum demand tariff
• They can suggest where savings are most likely to be made.
• In later years invoices can be used to quantify the energy and cost savings made through
energy conservation measures
Fuel Costs
A wide variety of fuels are available for
thermal energy supply. Few are listed
below:
• Fuel oil
• Low Sulphur Heavy Stock (LSHS)
• Light Diesel Oil (LDO)
• Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)
• COAL
• LIGNITE
• WOOD ETC.

Understanding fuel cost is fairly simple and it is purchased in Tons or Kiloliters. Availability, cost
and quality are the mainthree factors that should be considered
while purchasing. The following factors should be taken into account during procurement of
fuels for energy efficiency and economics.

• Price at source, transport charge, type of transport

• Quality of fuel (contaminations, moisture etc)
• Energy content (calorific value)

Power Costs
Electricity price in India not only varies from State to State, but also city to city and consumer
to consumer though it does the same work everywhere. Many factors are involved in deciding
final cost of purchased electricity such as:
• Maximum demand charges, kVA
(i.e. How fast the electricity is used? )
• Energy Charges, kWh
(i.e., How much electricity is consumed? )
• TOD Charges, Peak/Non-peak period
(i.e. When electricity is utilized ?)
• Power factor Charge, P.F
(i.e., Real power use versus Apparent power use factor )
• Other incentives and penalties applied from time to time
• High tension tariff and low tension tariff rate changes
• Slab rate cost and its variation
• Type of tariff clause and rate for various categories such as commercial, residential,
industrial, Government, agricultural, etc.
• Tariff rate for developed and underdeveloped area/States
• Tax holiday for new projects
 Example: Purchased energy Bill
A typical summary of energy purchased in an industry based on the invoices

TABLE 3.4

Type of energy Original units Unit Cost Monthly Bill Rs.

Electricity 5,00,000 kWh Rs.4.00/kWh 20,00,000
Fuel oil 200 kL Rs.10,000/ kL 20,00,000
Coal 1000 tons Rs.2,000/ton 20,00,000
Total 60,00,000

Unfortunately the different forms of energy are sold in different units e.g. kWh of electricity,
liters of fuel oil, tonne of coal. To allow comparison of energy quantities these must be con-
verted to a common unit of energy such as kWh, Giga joules, kCals etc.

Electricity (1 kWh) = 860 kCal/kWh (0.0036 GJ)

Heavy fuel oil (Gross calorific value, GCV) =10000 kCal/litre ( 0.0411 GJ/litre)
Coal (Gross calorific value, GCV) =4000 kCal/kg ( 28 GJ/ton)

Benchmarking and Energy Performance

Benchmarking of energy consumption internally (historical / trend analysis) and externally
(across similar industries) are two powerful tools for performance assessment and logical evo-
lution of avenues for improvement. Historical data well documented helps to bring out energy
consumption and cost trends month-wise / day-wise. Trend analysis of energy consumption,
cost, relevant production features, specific energy consumption, help to understand effects of
capacity utilization on energy use efficiency and costs on a broader scale.
External benchmarking relates to inter-unit comparison across a group of similar units.
However, it would be important to ascertain similarities, as otherwise findings can be grossly
misleading. Few comparative factors, which need to be looked into while benchmarking exter-
nally are:
• Scale of operation
• Vintage of technology
• Raw material specifications and quality
• Product specifications and quality
Benchmarking energy performance permits
• Quantification of fixed and variable energy consumption trends vis-à-vis production
levels
• Comparison of the industry energy performance with respect to various production
levels (capacity utilization)
• Identification of best practices (based on the external benchmarking data)
• Scope and margin available for energy consumption and cost reduction
• Basis for monitoring and target setting exercises.
The benchmark parameters can be:
• Gross production related
 e.g. kWh/MT clinker or cement produced (cement plant)
e.g. kWh/kg yarn produced (Textile unit)
e.g. kWh/MT, kCal/kg, paper produced (Paper plant)
e.g. kCal/kWh Power produced (Heat rate of a power plant)
e.g. Million kilocals/MT Urea or Ammonia (Fertilizer plant)
e.g. kWh/MT of liquid metal output (in a foundry)

• Equipment / utility related

e.g. kW/ton of refrigeration (on Air conditioning plant)
e.g. % thermal efficiency of a boiler plant
e.g. % cooling tower effectiveness in a cooling tower
e.g. kWh/NM3 of compressed air generated
e.g. kWh /litre in a diesel power generation plant.
While such benchmarks are referred to, related crucial process parameters need mentioning for
meaningful comparison among peers. For instance, in the above case:
• For a cement plant - type of cement, blaine number (fineness) i.e. Portland and process
used (wet/dry) are to be reported alongside kWh/MT figure.
• For a textile unit - average count, type of yarn i.e. polyester/cotton, is to be reported
along side kWh/square meter.
• For a paper plant - paper type, raw material (recycling extent), GSM quality is some
important factors to be reported along with kWh/MT, kCal/Kg figures.
• For a power plant / cogeneration plant - plant % loading, condenser vacuum, inlet cool
ing water temperature, would be important factors to be mentioned alongside heat rate
(kCal/kWh).
• For a fertilizer plant - capacity utilization(%) and on-stream factor are two inputs worth
comparing while mentioning specific energy consumption
• For a foundry unit - melt output, furnace type, composition (mild steel, high carbon
steel/cast iron etc.) raw material mix, number or power trips could be some useful
operating parameters to be reported while mentioning specific energy consumption data.
• For an Air conditioning (A/c) plant - Chilled water temperature level and refrigeration
load (TR) are crucial for comparing kW/TR.
• For a boiler plant - fuel quality, type, steam pressure, temperature, flow, are useful com
parators alongside thermal efficiency and more importantly, whether thermal efficiency
is on gross calorific value basis or net calorific value basis or whether the computation
is by direct method or indirect heat loss method, may mean a lot in benchmarking exer
cise for meaningful comparison.
• Cooling tower effectiveness - ambient air wet/dry bulb temperature, relative humidity,
air and circulating water flows are required to be reported to make meaningful sense.
• Compressed air specific power consumption - is to be compared at similar inlet air tem
perature and pressure of generation.
• Diesel power plant performance - is to be compared at similar loading %, steady run
condition etc.

Plant Energy Performance

Plant energy performance (PEP) is the measure of whether a plant is now using more or less
energy to manufacture its products than it did in the past: a measure of how well the energy
management programme is doing. It compares the change in energy consumption from one
 year to the other considering production output. Plant energy performance monitoring compares
plant energy use at a reference year with the subsequent years to determine the improvement
that has been made.
However, a plant production output may vary from year to year and the output has a sig-
nificant bearing on plant energy use. For a meaningful comparison, it is necessary to determine
the energy that would have been required to produce this year production output, if the plant
had operated in the same way as it did during the reference year. This calculated value can then
be compared with the actual value to determine the improvement or deterioration that has taken
place since the reference year.

Production factor
Production factor is used to determine the energy that would have been required to produce this
year's production output if the plant had operated in the same way as it did in the reference year.
It is the ratio of production in the current year to that in the reference year.
Current year' s production
Production factor 
Reference year's production

Reference Year Equivalent Energy Use

The reference year's energy use that would have been used to produce the current year's pro-
duction output may be called the "reference year energy use equivalent" or "reference year
equivalent" for short. The reference year equivalent is obtained by multiplying the reference
year energy use by the production factor (obtained above)
Reference year equivalent = Reference year energy use x Production factor
The improvement or deterioration from the reference year is called "energy performance" and
is a measure of the plant's energy management progress. It is the reduction or increase in the
current year's energy use over the reference, and is calculated by subtracting the current year's
energy use from the reference years equivalent. The result is divided by the reference year
equivalent and multiplied by 100 to obtain a percentage.

Reference year equivalent - Current year's energy

Plant energy performance  x 100
Reference year equivalent
 The energy performance is the percentage of energy saved at the current rate of use compared
to the reference year rate of use. The greater the improvement, the higher the number will be.

Monthly Energy Performance

Experience however, has shown that once a plant has started measuring yearly energy perfor-
mance, management wants more frequent performance information in order to monitor and
control energy use on an on-going basis. PEP can just as easily be used for monthly reporting
as yearly reporting.

Matching Energy Usage to Requirement

Mismatch between equipment capacity and user requirement often leads to inefficiencies due to
part load operations, wastages etc. Worst case design, is a designer's characteristic, while opti-
mization is the energy manager's mandate and many situations present themselves towards an
exercise involving graceful matching of energy equipment capacity to end-use needs. Some
examples being:
• Eliminate throttling of a pump by impeller trimming, resizing pump, installing variable
speed drives
• Eliminate damper operations in fans by impeller trimming, installing variable speed dri
ves, pulley diameter modification for belt drives, fan resizing for better efficiency.
• Moderation of chilled water temperature for process chilling needs
• Recovery of energy lost in control valve pressure drops by back pressure/turbine adop
tion
• Adoption of task lighting in place of less effective area lighting

Maximising System Efficiency

Once the energy usage and sources are matched properly, the next step is to operate the equip-
ment efficiently through best practices in operation and maintenance as well as judicious tech-
nology adoption. Some illustrations in this context are:
• Eliminate steam leakages by trap improvements
• Maximise condensate recovery
• Adopt combustion controls for maximizing combustion efficiency
• Replace pumps, fans, air compressors, refrigeration compressors, boilers, furnaces,
heaters and other energy consuming equipment, wherever significant energy efficiency
margins exist.

Optimising the Input Energy Requirements

Consequent upon fine-tuning the energy use practices, attention is accorded to considerations
for minimizing energy input requirements. The range of measures could include:

• Shuffling of compressors to match needs.

• Periodic review of insulation thickness
• Identify potential for heat exchanger networking and process integration.
• Optimisation of transformer operation with respect to load.
 Fuel and Energy Substitution
Fuel substitution: Substituting existing fossil fuel with more efficient and less cost/less pol-
luting fuel such as natural gas, biogas and locally available agro-residues.
Energy is an important input in the production. There are two ways to reduce energy depen-
dency; energy conservation and substitution.
Fuel substitution has taken place in all the major sectors of the Indian economy. Kerosene
and Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) have substituted soft coke in residential use.
Few examples of fuel substitution

• Natural gas is increasingly the fuel of choice as fuel and feedstock in the fertilizer, petro
chemicals, power and sponge iron industries.
• Replacement of coal by coconut shells, rice husk etc.
• Replacement of LDO by LSHS
Few examples of energy substitution
✓ Replacement of electric heaters by steam heaters
✓ Replacement of steam based hotwater by solar systems
Case Study : Example on Fuel Substitution
A textile process industry replaced old fuel oil fired thermic fluid heater with agro fuel fired
heater. The economics of the project are given below:
A: Title of Recommendation : Use of Agro Fuel (coconut chips) in place of Furnace
oil in a Boiler
B: Description of Existing System
and its operation : A thermic fluid heater with furnace oil currently.
In the same plant a coconut chip fired boiler is
operating continuously with good performance.
C: Description of Proposed system
and its operation : It was suggested to replace the oil fired thermic
fluid heater with coconut chip fired boiler as the
company has the facilities for handling coconut
chip fired system.

D: Energy Saving Calculations

Old System
Type of fuel Firing : Furnace Oil fired heater
GCV : 10,200 kCal/kg
Avg. Thermal Efficiency : 82%
Heat Duty : 15 lakh kCal / hour
Operating Hours : 25 days x 12 month x 24 hours = 7,200 hrs.
Annual Fuel Cost : Rs.130 lakh (7200 x 1800 Rs./hr.)

Modified System
Type of fuel saving = Coconut chips fired Heater
GCV = 4200 kCal/kg
Average Thermal Efficiency = 72 %
Heat Duty = 15 lakh kCal / hour
Annual Operating Cost = 7200 x 700 Rs./hr = 50 lakh
Annual Savings = 130 - 50 = Rs.80 lakh .
Additional Auxiliary Power +
Manpower Cost = Rs. 10 lakh
Net Annual Saving = Rs. 70 lakh
Investment for New Coconut Fired heater = Rs. 35 lakh
Simple pay back period = 6 months

Energy Audit Instruments

The requirement for an energy audit such as identification and quantification of energy neces-
sitates measurements; these measurements require the use of instruments. These instruments
must be portable, durable, easy to operate and relatively inexpensive. The parameters generally
monitored during energy audit may include the following:
Basic Electrical Parameters in AC &DC systems - Voltage (V), Current (I), Power factor, Active
power (kW), apparent power (demand) (kVA), Reactive power (kVAr), Energy consumption
(kWh), Frequency (Hz), Harmonics, etc.
Parameters of importance other than electrical such as temperature & heat flow, radiation, air
and gas flow, liquid flow, revolutions per minute (RPM), air velocity, noise and vibration, dust
concentration, Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), pH, moisture content, relative humidity, flue gas
analysis - CO2, O2, CO, SOx, NOx, combustion efficiency etc.
Key instruments for energy audit are listed below.

The operating instructions for all instruments must be understood and staff should familiarize
themselves with the instruments and their operation prior to actual audit use.
Electrical Measuring Instruments:
These are instruments for measuring major
electrical parameters such as kVA, kW, PF,
Hertz, kVAr, Amps and Volts. In addition
some of these instruments also measure
harmonics.

These instruments are applied on-line i.e

on running motors without any need to
stop the motor. Instant measurements can
be taken with hand-held meters, while
more advanced ones facilitates cumulative
readings with print outs at specified
intervals.

Combustion analyzer:
This instrument has in-built chemical cells
which measure various gases such as O2, CO,
NOX and SOX.

Fuel Efficiency Monitor:

This measures oxygen and temperature of the
flue gas. Calorific values of common fuels
are fed into the microprocessor which calcu-
lates the combustion efficiency.

Fyrite:
A hand bellow pump draws the flue gas
sample into the solution inside the fyrite. A
chemical reaction changes the liquid volume
revealing the amount of gas. A separate fyrite
can be used for O2 and CO2 measurement.
Contact thermometer:
These are thermocouples which measures for
example flue gas, hot air, hot water tempera-
tures by insertion of probe into the stream.

For surface temperature, a leaf type probe is

used with the same instrument.

Infrared Thermometer:
This is a non-contact type measurement
which when directed at a heat source directly
gives the temperature read out. This instru-
ment is useful for measuring hot spots in
furnaces, surface temperatures etc.

Pitot Tube and manometer:

Air velocity in ducts can be measured using
a pitot tube and inclined manometer for fur-
ther calculation of flows.

Water flow meter:

This non-contact flow measuring device
using Doppler effect / Ultra sonic principle.
There is a transmitter and receiver which are
positioned on opposite sides of the pipe. The
meter directly gives the flow. Water and other
fluid flows can be easily measured with this
meter.
 Speed Measurements:
In any audit exercise speed measurements are
critical as thay may change with frequency,
belt slip and loading.

A simple tachometer is a contact type instru-

ment which can be used where direct access
is possible.

More sophisticated and safer ones are non

contact instruments such as stroboscopes.

Tachometer Stroboscope

Leak Detectors:
Ultrasonic instruments are available which
can be used to detect leaks of compressed air
and other gases which are normally not pos-
sible to detect with human abilities.

Lux meters:
Illumination levels are measured with a lux
meter. It consists of a photo cell which sens-
es the light output, converts to electrical
impulses which are calibrated as lux.
Material and Energy Balance

Components of Material and Energy Balance

Classification Processes
Energy Balance
Facility as an energy system
Material and Energy Balance Diagram