KAUTILYA SR.SEC.

SCHOOL
NAYAGAON, KOTA

(2024-25)
Biology Lab Manual

Class - XII
(a)
Vege@tive cell

Generative cell

(b)

Generative nucleus

Tube nucleus

(c)

Male gametes

Tube nucleus
 .EXPERIMENT - 1.

AIM:- To study pollen germination on a slide.

Materials required: - Flower, needles, Safranine stain, glycerin, coverslips, microscope.

Theory:-

Pollen grain:-pollen grain are microspores which produces male gametophyte on germination. Pollen grains
are transferred from anther to stigma by air, Water or insects. This process of transfer of pollen grains is
called pollination. After pollination, pollen grains This process of transfer of pollen grains is called
pollination. After pollination, pollen grains minate on reaching to stigma.

Procedure:

(1) Take out the pistil from a Portulaca flower.

(2) Stain the isolated pistil and mount in glycerin, Press gently, observe under dissecting microscope.

(3) Take out carefully each germinated pollen and count.

(4) Mount a pollen in glycerin and observe under compound microscope.

Observations: (1) Observe many pollen grains germinating over stigma. The growth of the pollen tube is
stimulated by sugary substances secreted by the stigma.

(2) Pollen tube carrying with it tube nucleus and the generative nucleus.

(3) The generative nucleus divides forming two male gametes.

(4) Count the number of germinated pollen grains.

Precautions:

(i) Mounting should be free from air bubbles.

(ii) Material should be moderately stained.

(iii) Use the clean slide.

 QUADRAT SAMPLING
Study Area

Quadrat Sample

Quadrat I Quadrat II Species NO. ñ

Quadrat III Quadrat IV

1m Plants ats<Ie the quadrat

Figure: A plot Figure Occurrance of plant species in a quadrat

 EXPERIMENT - 2 .

AIM :- To study the plant population density by quadrat method.

Requirement:- Wooden scale, page, rope, practical file, nail hammer, etc.

Theory:-The number of individuals in a population never remains constant. It may increase or decrease due
to many factors like birth rate, death rate, migration, etc. The number of individuals of a species presents
per unit area or space of a given time is called population density.

Population density:- A population density means number of individuals present in given area at given time.
Total number individuals of a species in all quadrates
Density = Total number of studies quadrates

Procedure:- 1. Select the site to be studies.

2. Lay a quadrat in given site and count the number of plants.

3. Note down the names of different species occurring in the quadrat.

4. Count the number of individuals of each species and note down in note book.

5. Collect and preserve the specimens of plants occurring in a particular quadrat.

6. Repeat the experiment by laying at least 10 quadrates.

Observation:-

S. Name Number of quadrat

Total Total Total Population
No. of plant number number of quadrat density
species of species studies D=N/A
plants occurrence (A)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
(N) (B)
1 A 2 3 0 0 5 2 6 0 0 0 18 5 10 D= 18/10
2 B 5 0 2 3 3 4 1 2 5 0 25 8 10 D= 25/10
3 C 4 5 2 0 2 1 3 6 4 3 30 9 10 D= 30/10
4 D 3 4 0 3 2 0 1 1 3 4 21 8 10 D= 21/10
5 E 2 6 2 4 6 5 5 0 3 0 33 8 10 D= 33/10
6 F 2 6 3 4 2 2 5 1 5 0 30 9 10 D= 30/10

Precaution:-1. Number of plants should be carefully counted.

2. Quadrat represents the vegetation of the field so quadrat should be chosen where vegetation
is uniformly distributed.
3. Collect and preserve plants to be studies.
 Speoes No. 2 V Species f'lo. 4
Quadrat I Quadrat II

Quadrat III Quadrat IV

Im
Figure: A plot Figure Occurrance of plant species in a quadrat

QUADRAT SAMPLING
Study Area

Quadrat Sample
 .EXPERIMENT - 3.

Aim :- To study the plant population frequency by quadrat method.

Requirement:- Wooden scale, page, rope, practical file, nail hammer, etc.

Theory:-The number of individuals in a population never remains constant. It may increase or decrease due
to many factors like birth rate, death rate, migration, etc. The number of individuals of a species presents
per unit area or space of a given time is called population frequency.

Population frequency:- A population frequency to the number of particular species present in given area at
given time.

Total number of quadrates in species occurrence

Frequency = Total number of studies quadrates x 100
Procedure:- 1. Select the site to be studies.

2. Lay a quadrat in given site and count the number of plants.

3. Note down the names of different species occurring in the quadrat.

4. Count the number of individuals of each species and note down in note book.

5. Collect and preserve the specimens of plants occurring in a particular quadrat.

6. Repeat the experiment by laying at least 10 quadrates.

Observation:-

S. Name Number of quadrat

Total Total Total %
No. of plant number number of quadrat Population
species of species studies Frequency
plants occurrence (A) F=B/A×100
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
(N) (B)
1 A 2 3 0 0 5 2 6 0 0 0 18 5 10 50 %
2 B 3 4 4 2 2 0 3 0 3 6 27 8 10 50 %
3 C 2 2 3 1 1 5 5 0 0 3 22 8 10 80 %
4 D 3 6 3 0 2 2 0 3 3 1 23 8 10 80 %
5 E 1 0 5 5 4 3 2 2 0 1 23 8 10 80 %
6 F 1 3 6 6 0 2 3 2 4 3 30 9 10 90 %

Precaution:-1. Number of plants should be carefully counted.

2. Quadrat represents the vegetation of the field so quadrat should be chosen where vegetation
is uniformly distributed.
3. Collect and preserve plants to be studies.
 Roots

Rapidly growinjj
root tips
 .EXPERIMENT - 4.

Aim:- To study mitosis by preparing a temporary mount of an onion root tip.

Requirement:- Onion, Watch, glass ,glass slide, Filter paper , Acetocarmine, alcohol, Coverslip, Water, N/10
Hydrochloric acid, Acetocarmine Stain, Burner, Forceps, Dropper, Blade, Needle, Compound microscope.

Theory:- All organisms are made of cells. For an organism to grow, mature and maintain tissue, new cells
must be made. All cells are produced by division of pre-existing cells. Continuity of life depends on cell
division. There are two main methods of cell division: mitosis and meiosis. In this tutorial we will learn about
mitosis

Study of Mitosis in onion root tip:-

(Procedure).

(1) Take an onion and place it on the tile.

(2) Carefully remove the dry roots present using a sharp blade.

(3) Grow root tips by placing the bulbs in a beaker filled with water.

(4) New roots may take 3–6 days to grow.

(5) Cut off 2–3 cm of freshly grown roots and let them drop into a watch glass.

(6) Using a forceps, transfer them to the vial containing freshly prepared fixative of aceto-alcohol (1:3: glacial
acetic acid: ethanol).

(7) Keep the root tips in the fixative for 24 hours.

(8) Using a forceps, take one root and place it on a clean glass slide.

(9) Using a dropper, place one drop of N/10 HCl on the root tip followed by 2–3 drops of acetocarmine stain.

(10) Warm it slightly on burner. Care should be taken that the stain is not dried up.

(11) Carefully blot the excess stain using filter paper.

(12) Using a blade, cut the comparatively more stained tip portion of the root, retain it on the slide and
discard the remaining portion.
Telophase
(13) After that, put one drop of water on the root tip.

(14) Mount a cover slip on it using a needle.

(15) Now, slowly tap the cover slip using the blunt end of a needle so that the meristematic tissue of the
root tip below the cover slip is properly squashed and spread as a thin layer of cells.

(16) This preparation of onion root tip cells is now ready for the study of mitosis

(17) Place the slide under the compound microscope and observe the different stages of mitosis.

(18) Various stages of mitosis are prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase.
observation:-
Interphase:-
1. Cell is bounded by a cell wall and a cell membrane.
2. Thread like chromatin material is scattered in nucleus.
3. Complete and distinct nuclear membrane is present.
4. Duplication of chromosomes has started by thickening and shortening.
5. Nucleus present.
Prophase:-
1. Thick and short chromosomes can be observed.
2. Each chromosome is made up of two chromatids joined to each other at centromere.
3. Nuclear membrane has started disappearing.
4. Nucleolus has disappeared.
Metaphase:-
1. Protein aceous threads known as fibers constitute a spindle.
2. Chromosomes align at center of spindle making a metaphasic plate or equatorial plate.
3. No nuclear membrane is visible.
Anaphase:-
1. Two chromatid of each pair separate from centromere.
2. Daughter chromosomes behave asthey repel each other.
3. Cell shape changed as the cytoplasmic division begins.
4. Number of countable fragments become double.
5. Daughter chromosomes appear as V, J, L, I shaped depending on centromere.
Telophase:-
1. Two set of chromosomes have reached opposite poles.
2. Nucleoli reappears.
3. Chromosomes start uncolling.
4. Cytokinesis takes plae.
5. A cell plate is formed between two daughter cells.
Precaution:-
1. Root tips should be fixed in morning between 8 to 1 a.m.
2. Slide should only be gently much above the flame care should be taken not to boil the stain.
3. Carefully identify the stages of mitosis.
Isolation of DNA
 .EXPERIMENT - 5.

Aim:- To isolate DNA from plant materials such as spinach, green peas, papaya and any other available plant
material.

Requirement:- Any available plant materials, Mortar and pestle, Test tubes, Beaker, Ethanol,
Spool,Enzymes, (Cellulose, ribonuclease, lipases, protease)

Theory:-Recombinant DNA technology has allowed breeders to introduce foreign DNA in other organisms
including bacteria, yeast, plants and animals. Such organisms are called Genetically Modified Organisms
(GMOs). Thus rDNA technology involves isolation of DNA from a variety of sources and formation of new
combination of DNA.

Procedure:-

1. Take the available plant material and grind it in the mortar.

2. Treat the material with cellulose to break down the cell wall of the plant cells.
3. Next, treat it with protease to hydrolyze the peptide bonds of proteins in the plant material. In other
words, the enzyme removes the histone proteins which are intertwined with the DNA.
4. Dissolve RNA with ribonuclease
5. Use lipase to dissolve lipids.
6. Add chilled ethanol to enable the precipitation of the DNA. It essentially increases DNA
concentration.
7. Use spooling to extract the precipitated DNA. Spooling involves winding the fine threads of DNA on
to a reel.

Observation:- The DNA appears as white precipitates of fine thread on the spool.
Precaution:-

1. All the glass wares must be thoroughly cleaned and dried.

2. The chemicals used for the experiments must be of standard quality.

3. If ordinary ethanol is used, the time duration for obtaining precipitated DNA may extend further.
 STlGf IAS

MALE STAfJEN
FLOWERS
TASSEL

POLLEN
OVARY
GRAINS
LODICULE

‘― *ELONGATED
STYLES
A wheat flower
POLLEN GRAINS
FROM OTHER STIGMAS
PLANT STIGMA
ANTHER

FILAMENT

OVARY

Anemophily in Maize

Single wind-pollinated
flower of grass
 .SPOTTING - 1

Aim: To Study the flowers adapted to pollination by different agencies (wind, Insect).

Requirement:- Flower, dissection microscope, blade, forceps, filter paper.

Theory:- (A) Self pollination—It is the transfer of pollen grain from anther to stigma of same flower.

(B) Cross pollination—It is transfer of pollen grains from anther of one flower to stigma of other
flower borne on same plant.

(1) Maize flowers (Anemophilous or wind pollinated flowers)

(A) The maize plant is monoecism and bears unisexual flowers. The male flowers are born in terminal
inflorescence while the female flowers are born in axillary inflorescence.

(B) The flowers are colourless, odourless and nectarless.

(C) Flowers are small and inconscipicous.

(D) Both the stigmas and anthers are exerted.

(E) Anthers are versatile, and pollen grains are light, small and dusty.

(F) Stigma is hairy, feathery or branched to catch wind born pollen grains.

(G) The pollen grains are produced in very large numbers.

(2) Salvia flowers ( Entomophilous or Insect pollinated flowers.)

(A) The flowers are showy or brightly coloured for attracting pollinating Insects.

(B) Flowers secrete nectar to feed visiting insects. Nectar glands are placed in such a position that an
insect must touch both the anthers and stigmas.

(C) The flowers have landing platform for the insects

(D) The flowers are protandrous with bilipped corolla and have turn pipe or lever mechanism.

(E) Each stamen has long connective which bears a fertile anther lobe at the upper end and sterile plate
like anther lobe at the lower end.
tierminating StigmA
Pollen Grain Pollen Tubes

Style
Stigma
POUenTube
ntipodol
ells
Secondary
Nucleus

Slsle

Styls
FeRilizofion : A••C9rmindIion of pollen f0lRS OF Sri ;

A-cells
 .SPOTTING - 2

Aim:-To study the pollen germination on stigma through a permanent slide.

Requirement:- Permanent slide on stigma.

Comments:

(1) Pollen grain or microspore is the first cell of male gametophyte.

(2) Each pollen grain of a flowering plant (angiosperm) possesses two cells.

(i) Vegetative cell

(ii) Generative cell

(3) On the stigma, the pollen grain absorbs water and nutrients from the stigmatic secretion through its
germ pores.

(4) The tube cell gives rise to a pollen tube, the generative cell also descends into the pollen tube and divides
in to two male gametes.

(5) There is only one pollen tube from one pollen. (6) Certain pollen grain do not germinate and are referred
assterile pollens.
T.S. of ovary
 SPOTTING - 3

Aim:- To identify the stage of gamete development T.S. testis and T.S. ovary through permanent slide.

Identification: T.S of Testis:-

(1) The mammalian testis is covered by a thick fibrous tissue called tunica albugenia.

(2) The testis consists of numerous seminiferous tubules embedded in the interstitial tissue.

(3) Various types of germinal cells are present from outside towards lumen in the following sequence.
Spermatogonia Spermatocytes Spermatids Spermatozoa Sperms.

(4) Between the germinal cells, pyramid shaped cells called sertoli cells are present.

(5) The interstitial cells or leydig cells are present in between the tubules they secrete the male sex
hormone, testosterone.

Identification: T.S of ovary:-

(1) A mammalian ovary is a solid structure bounded by germinal epithelium followed by a thick layer of
fibrous tissue, the tunica albuginia.

(2) The ovary consists of outer cortex and inner medulla.

(3) In the stroma, graffian follicles in various stages of development like primary oocytes and secondary
oocytes are found.

(4) A graffian follicle consists of an ovum, surrounded by a group of follicular cells.

(5) A Mature follicle ruptures and releases the ovum out of the ovary. At the point of rupture corpus luteum
is formed which secretes the hormone progesterone.

(6) The cortex may also contain a large mass of yellow cells termed corpus luteum, formed in an empty
graffian follicle after the release of its ovum.
 ZY GOTENE PA CHYTE NE

DIPLOTENE METAP HASE I

PROPHASE II
( TWO OAUGH1ER CELLS)

METAP HASE II TELOPHASE II

 SPOTTING - 4

Aim:- To study meiosis in onion bud cell through permanent slide.

Requirement:- Permanent slide of meiosis.
Observation:- MEIOSIS-I
(1) Prophase : It is slightly of longer duration and is different from prophase of mitosis. It can further be
subdivided into the following five sub stages.
(a) Leptotene:
(i) Chromatin fibres condense and form thick thread like structures called chromosomes.
(ii) Nuclear envelope and nucleolus are distinct
(iii) The nucleus increases in size and volume by absorbing water.
(b) Zygotene
(i) The two homologous chromosomes lie side by side. This is known as pairing or synapsis.
(ii) Each pair of chromosome is known as bivalent.
(c) Pachytene
(i) Each chromosome of a bivalent splits - longitudinally into two sister chromatids so that the bivalent
becomes a tetrad.
(ii) Crossing over occur in a homologs pair.
(iii) The points of crossing over are known as chiasmata.
(d) Diplotene:
(i) As the chromosomes are showing gradual condensation. So there is a tendency that chiasmata tend to
slip out of the chromosomes. This is known as terminalisation of chiasmata.
(ii) Chromosomes start separating out but the separation is not complete.
(iii) Nuc1ear Membrane and nucleolus start degenerating.
(e) Diakinesis : (i) Homologous chromosomes appear thick and ring shaped.
(ii) Nucleolus and nuclear envelope disappear and spindle begins to be formed.
(2) Metaphase – I
(i) The bivalent arrange themselves at the equator of the spindle
(ii) The spindle get attached to the centromere of the chromosome.
(3) Anapbase – I

(i) The two chromosomes of each bivalent move to the opposite pole.

(ii) Each pole has half the number of chromosomes with two chromatids each

(4) Telopbase – I

(i) The Chromosome at each pole uncoil, and nucleolus and nuclear envelope reappear.

(ii) Cytokinesis occurs to form two haploid daughter cells.

MEIOSIS-II:- It includes following four stages.

(a) Prophase II

(i) The chromosomes of daughter cell begin to condense and become thick.

(ii) Nuclear envelope and nucleolus begin to disappear.

( b) Metaphase II

(i) The chromosomes are arranged on the equator of the spindle

(ii) Nucleolus and nuclear membrane disappear.

(c) Anaphase II

(i) The sister chromatids of each chromosomes separate and migrate towards the opposite ph

(ii) Each pole thus receives haploid number of chromosomes.

(d) Telophase II

(i) The chromosomes begin to uncoil and become thin.

(ii) The nuclear envelope and nucleolus are reconstituted.

Precaution:- 1. Fix the floral during morning hours.

2. Anther should be squashed gently.

3. Do not overheat the slide, only warm it.

(T.S. of blastula)
 .SPOTTING - 5

Aim:-To study the T.S. of blastula through permanent slide.

Requirement:-Permanent slide of T.S. blastula.

Observation:-

(1) It is a spherical mass of about 32 or 64 cells.

(2) It is composed of an outer envelope of cells, the trophoblast or trophoectoderm and

inner cell mass (embryo blast).

(3) Within the envelope there is a fluid filled cavity called blastocoel.

(4) The side of the blastocyst to which the inner cell mass is attached is called the
embryonic or animal pole, while the opposite side is the embryonic pole.

(5) The inner cell mass is the precursor of the embryo.

(6) In this state it forms the connection with mother's uterus wall which is called implantation.
PUF9 bf99tlillg
rovnd, yellow
RY
R AYY Rr YY R AYE A r Yy

RRYY Rovnd, yellow

g0llII1âtl0fI

Pure breeding
wrinkled, green
RRYy Rr Yy RRyy

RrYy rrYy Rryy rryy

First generation (Fi) Y T9i i0\'/, r0Ul1â 3 YPIIO'«, \ I I 0hlPO

feccnd generation (F )
 SPOTTING - 6

Aim: Study of Mendelian inheritance using seeds of different color size of any plant

Requirements : Seeds of any plant (like pea), pencil, eraser, note book.

Procedure:- (i) Place 100 pea seeds in an enamel tray. (ii) Separate the seeds into round and wrinkled and
place them in two separate Petri dishes. (iii) Note down the number of round and wrinkled seeds. Also,
calculate their ratio. (iv) Repeat the procedure mentioned above for other contrasting traits such as the
colour of the seed.

Observation:- (i) Collect the seeds of any plant (pea plant).(ii) Now count the number of seeds which are
yellow and green in colour.(iii) The ratio were analysed on the basis of law of probability. (iv) Monohybrid
cross can be shown by following cross.

Create a table showing the characteristics of the seed along with the total number observed, number of
seeds with contrasting characters and the ratio.

Serial Total number Seeds showing

Number Characteristics of seeds contrasting characters Ratio

(X) round seeds; (Y) wrinkled

1 Shape of the seed xxx X: Y
seeds
Colour of the (X) green seeds; (Y) yellow
2 xxx X: Y
seed seeds

Result:- Ratio of seed colour in plant in Fl generation is -----------------

Ratio of seed colour in plant in F2 generation is ---
Color blindness

Blood group
 .SPOTTING - 7

Aim- Study and analyse the given pedigree chart for genetic trait such as rolling of tongue, blood group,
widow peak, color blindness.

Requirement:- Permanent chart of pedigree, practical file, pencil,etc.

Theory:-

1. Heredity:- Transmission of characters, resemblences as well as variation from one generation to next
is called heredity.
2. Phenotype:- It is the expression of genes as externally visible character. It does not include the
unexpressed charecters due to recessive genes.
3. Pedigree:- It is record of phenotype pattern of inheritance of a particular trait in a particular family
over the generations. Pedigree analysis is represented in family tree over generations.

Observation:-

1. Color blindness:-
(i) The given pedigree chart shown that phenotypically normal parent
for colour blindness produces four children three daughter and
one son. Only son is colour blind.
(ii) Marriage between colour blind male and phenotypically normal
female produces four children. Two sons and two daughters. None
of the offsprings exhibits the trait of colour blindness.
(iii) Colour blindness is related to sex.
(iv) colour blindness is related with ―X‖ chromosomes and is
homozygous recessive trait, hence female is either normal, carrier
or colour blind whereas male is either sufferer or normal but never
a carrier.
(v) Female parent in this chart is a carrier for colour blindness trait.
2. Blood group:-
(i) The given pedigree chart shows that a male having blood group ‗A‘ marries a normal female
with any other blood group. They have four children-three sons and one daughter. Only
daughter is born having blood group ‗A‘.
(ii) Marries between a female having blood group ‗A‘ with a male without blood group ‗A‘ and
produces three sons and one daughter. None of the offsprings is having blood group ‗A‘.
(iii) Inheritance of blood group is not related to sex.
(iv) Male parent with blood group ‗A‘ is heterozygous (IAI0).
(v) Daughter parent with blood group ‗A‘ is heterozygous (IAI0).
Widow peak
3. Rolling tongue:-
(i) The given pedigree chart shows that a male parent as tongue roller marries a normal female.
They have four children—three sons and one daughter. Only daughter is born as tongue
roller.
(ii) Marries between tongue roller female with non roller male produces three sons and one
daughter. None of the offspring is tongue roller.
(iii) Tongue rolling is not related to sex.
(iv) Male parent as tongue roller is heterozygous (R,r).
(v) Female parent is non roller (r,r).
4. Widow peak:-
(i) The given pedigree chart shows that a female parent with a widow peak trait marries a
normal male. They have four children—three sons and one daughter. Only son is born with
widow peak.
(ii) Marries between a normal female with a male having widow peak produces three sons and
one daughter. None of the offspring is having widow peak.
(iii) Widow peak hair lines is not related to sex.
(iv) female parent or widow peak hair line to heterozygous (W,w).
 I or«yx

Anther

Flower bud 8ud opened

Emasculatlon (Forceps method)

 .SPOTTING - 8

Aim:- Exercise on controlled pollination-Emasculation, tagging and bagging.

Requirement:- Pea seeds, pots or garden, forceps, polythene, thread, brush.

Theory:-(A) Self pollination—In bisexual flower, pollen grain fall on stigma of same flower.

(B) Cross pollination — When flower may or may not be bisexual pollen grains fall on stigma of some other
flower of same species.

(C) Artificial pollination—To get desired artificial pollination is done in which pollen of desired character are
spread on the stigma of another flower. For the controlled pollination following steps are followed:

(i) Emasculation—Removal of stamens from the flowers.

(ii) Tagging---Labels of the varieties used as pollen and pistil must be mentioned on the tags.
(iii) Bagging—After dusting and tagging flower is covered by polythene bag to avoid cross pollination
with pollen grain of other flower floating in air.
(iv) Dusting—Pollen grain of desired type are dusted on the stigma of emasculated flower.

Procedure :- 1. Select 5 round seeds and 5 wrinkled seeds of pea.

2. Sow them in separate pots and let them grow until floral nbuds appear.

3. Label the pots immediately after sowing the seeds.

4. Select at least 10 flower on the plant for emasculation.

5. Cover the emasculation flower (A) with polythene bag immediately after emasculation so
that self pollination and undesired cross-pollination is avoid.

6. After some days flower grow in full size and anthers become mature. Take out mature
pollens from anther of second parent plant (B) and artificially transfer them to stigma
of emasculated flower.

7. Cover the flower after artificial pollination and tag them.

8. Collect the pods and seeds by the (i) Pea plant raised from round seed (ii) Emasculated
flowers on wrinkled seeds plant. (iii) Other flower on wrinkled seed plant.
 Observation:- (A) Emasculation:
(i) In this process anthers are removed from the flowers before their maturation .
(ii) The anthers are cut with the help of sterilized forceps or scissors.
(iii) The Instrument used in this method - Include Pocket lens, forceps, needle, scissors, scalpel etc.
(iv) Method of emasculation is·employed to the crops having smallflowers like paddy.

(B) Bagging and tagging:

(i) After emasculation, the flowers are covered with small bags to prevent pollination with undesired
pollen grains.

(ii) These bags are made up ofpolythene, paper,muslin cloth or parchment paper.

(iii) The flowers of male parents are also protected in bagsto prevent mixing of their pollen grain with
foreign pollens.

(iv) After dusting of the desired pollen grains on the emasculated flowers. The bags are retagged.

(v) A label of paper istagged on the plant which displays the date of emasculation, crossing and brief
account of the parents
Ascaris:-
 .SPOTTING - 9

Aim:- To identify common disease causing organisms like Ascaris , Entamoeba , Plasmodium, Ringworm
through permanent slides or specimen. Comment on symptoms of diseases that they cause.

Requirement:- Specimen and permanent slides of above organisms.

Procedure:- 1. Collect the specimen and slides of above from various sources
2. Identify the structural features.
3. Draw well labeled diagram of each.
4. Tabulate the disease caused and their symptoms.

Identification: Ascaris Comments (Round worm)

(1) It is an endo parasite of the small Intestine of human beings and is more common in children
(2) The animal shows sexual dimorphism with separate male and female individuals.
(3) The life history is simple and without any intermediate host. The infection occurs through contaminated
food and water
(4) Ascaris causes abdominal discomfort and colic pain.
(5) The patient may also suffer from impaired digestion, diarrhea and vomiting.
(6) In children mental efficiency is affected and body growth is retarded.
(7) Ascaris moved by contractions of dorsolateral muscles.

Identification: Entamoeba
(l) It is a human parasite that resides in the upper part of the large Intestine.

(2) It causes the disease called amoebic dysentery or amoebias is.

(3) The symptoms of the diseases Include abdominal pain, repeated motions with blood and mucus.

(4) The parasite is unicellular and has a blunt pseudopodium.

(5) There is a single nucleus and a number of food vacuoles.

(6) It feeds on red blood corpuscles by damaging the wall of large intestine and reaching the blood
capillaries.

(7) It produces ulcers and can also reach other body organs.
Ring worm
Identification: Plasmodium
(I) It is a protozoan digenic endoparasite ofman.

(2) Its primary host is man and female anopheles is itssecondary host.

(3) Plasmodium enters human body in sporozoite stage by the bites of female anopheles.

(4) The sporozoite is spindle shaped and uninucleate organism capable of wriggling movement.

(5) The sporozoites infect liver cell and produce meta-cryptomerozoites.

(6) The metacryptomerozoites enter RBCs, and passes trophozoite signet ring stage and amoeboid stage
and produce schizont and merozoites.

(7) The merozoites enter fresh RBCs and produce gametocytes.

Identification: Ringworm:

Symptoms:
1. It forms lesions on hairy parts of smooth skin.
2. It also infects the nails of the hands and feet.
3. Some species of these fungi cause ringworm of the scalp found chiefly in children.
4. Mostly they infect the skin so this fungi and disease are called dermato mycoses.
5. Skin becomes dry and whitish in color with keratin substances.
 Root
nodules

Orobanche
Host stem
Flower

Parasite
 .SPOTTING - 10 .

Aim:- Study symbiotic association in root nodules of leguminous plant, cuscuta on host and lichens through
model /specimen/chart .

Requirements:- Model/specimen/chart showing symbiotic association in root nodules of leguminous plant

(pea plant), cuscuta on host and lichen.

Theory:-
1. In nature animals , plants and microbes do not and cannot live in isolation but interact in various
ways.
2. When two different species interact with each other (interspecific interaction) and are in close
association.
With each other in such a way that at beast one species is benefited while for other species the
relationship may be positive, negative as neutral such association is called symbiotic relationship.

3. There are three basic types at symbiotic relationship.

(i) Mutualism(both are)

(ii) Commensalism (one species is benefited while other is neither benefited nor harmed).
(iii) Parasitism(one species benefited and other is).

Observation:-

[1] Rhizoium in root (nodules of leguminous plant pea plant)

1. Rhizobium bacteria are present in root nodules of leguminous plant and from a symbiotic
relationship, mutualism, where both are benefited from each other.
2. Rhizobium can convert atmospheric nitrogen to ammonia that can be used by pea plant for growth
and development.
3. Bacteria receive nutrients and suitable place to grow from plant.

[2].cuscuta with host:-

1. Cuscuta commonly called dodder or amerbel and live as stem ectoparasite on other plants.
2. Cuscuta has no fully expended from of leaves (scale like leaves are present) and has no chlorophyll.
3. Stem of cuscuta is thin and slender shaped.
4. And it winds around the stem of host plant.
5. Stem of cuscuta fine itself to the stem of host plant with special structures called haustoria.
6. Haustoria forms direct connection to the vascular bundles of the host and withdraw water,
carbohydrates and other solutes.
7. Roots of cuscuta are temporary and die as soon as it makes connection with host plant.
8. Cuscuta can weaken or kill plant and reduce crop yield.
[3] Lichens:-
1. Lichens are composite organisms representing a symbiotic association(mutualism) between fungus
and algae.
2. The algal component is known as phycobiont and fungal component is known as mycobiont.
3. Algae prepare food for fungi and fungi provide shelter and absorb mineral, nutrients and water for
its partner.
4. They grow on lands, rocks , tree trunks and walls of houses, like dry vegetation.
 .SPOTTING - 11 .

Aim:- To study homology and analogy with the help of model/charts/specimens of either animals or plants.
Requirement:- 1. Preserved specimens
Animal -- Limbs of frog, lizard and bat. Wings of insect,bat and bird.
Plant ---- Pitcher plant, venus fly trap and cactus plants with tendrils
Pea plant - Leaf tendril
Grape plant - Stem tendril
Smilax----Stipular tendril
Theory:- Homologous organs:- The organ which perform different function in different species but have
similar embryonic origin are called homologous organs.
Homology:- Similar in characteristics resulting from shared ancestry.
Homology in plant:- Leaves
Analogous organs:- The organ which are quiet different in fundamental structure and embryonic origin but
perform same function and may superficially look alike are called analogous organs.
Analogy:-The organism showing analogy do not share common ancestors. Analogous feature arise when two
unrelated species adapt themselves to similar climate and environment condition.
Analogy in plant:- Thoms and spines are modified organs seen in plants are analogous structures.Thom is
modification of stem and spine is modification of leaf.
(A). TO STUDY HOMOLOGY IN ANIMAL
Procedure:-
1. Observe carefully the preserved specimens of limbs frog, limbs of lizard and limbs of bat.
2. Draw diagrams and record your observation.
Observation:-
1. The limbs of frog, lizard and birds are similar in structure.
2. Each limb has humerus, ulna, radius, carpal and five sets of digits.
Conclusion:-The similarity in structure but difference in function proves that all these homologous organs
are evolved from common ancestor.
(B) TO STUDY HOMOLOGY IN PLANTS
Procedure:-
1. Observe carefully the given bspecimen of pitcher plant, venus fly trap and cactus plant.
2. Record your observation to study the homologous oregans and draw diagrams.
Observation:-
1. The leaves are modified for different function, but the structure is similar.
2. In pitcher plant, the leaves are modified into pitchers to trap insects.
3. In venus fly trap plant the leaves are modified into jaws to trap insects.
4. In cactus plant, the leaves are modified into spines to reduce water loss through transpiration.
Conclusion:- The modification of leaves in different plants showing similar origin but different functions
shows the homology in plants.
 Bats Birds Insects

Loaflot
dfil
Stem
Tendril

Passlfiora Cucurb"ra
Pea
(C) TO STUDY ANALOGY IN ANIMAL
Procedure:-

1. Observe carefully the preserved specimens of wings of insect, bat and bird.
2. Draw diagrams and record your observation.

Observation:-

1. The function of wings in all the three specimens is same but the structure is different.
2. The wings of insect has no limbs.
3. The wings of bat has limbs with five digits whereas the wins of bird has only three digits.

Conclusion:- The wings of birds, insects and bats has common use, i.e., flying but the structure is different.
These organs are called analogous organs.

(D) TO STUDY ANALOGY IN PLANT

Procedure:-

1. Observe the specimen of plants showing leaf tendril, stem tendril and stipular tendril.
2. Record your observations with the help of diagram.

Observation:-

1. The function of all the three types of tendrils is same.

2. The structure of each tendril and its origin is different.

Conclusion:- The types of tendril in plants show the analogy in plants and all these tendrils are analogous
organs seen in plants.
 Biology Project Topics
(Will be prepared in stick file any one)

1. Pollination

2. Sexual Reproduction in Plant

3. Human Fertilization

4. Disease (Any one) AIDS, Cancer, Malaria

5. DNA Fingerprinting

6. Operon Model

7. Biogas plant

8. Air Pollution

9. Water Pollution

10. HGP

11. Gene Therapy

12. Microbes in Human Welfare

13. Ozone Depletion