AMOUNT OF SUBSTANCE AND THE MOLE

Carbon – 12 Scale:
− the atom is a very small particle with an insignificant mass.
− Hence it is only possible to determine the mass of one atom relative to another (C – 12)
experimentally.
− Carbon – 12 scale is a mass reference scale in which one atom of C – 12 isotope is taken to
have 12 atomic mass unit.
Atomic mass or atomic weight
− It is the mass of the atom in atomic mass unit (amu) e.g., atomic mass unit of H = 1 u.
− One atomic mass unit (u) is defined as a mass exactly equal to one – twelfth (1/12) the mass
of one carbon – 12 atom.
Relative Atomic Mass (Ar)
− It is the average mass of one atom of the element compared to one – twelfth (1/12) of the
mass of one atom of Carbon – 12.
− Mathematically,
Average mass of one atom of element
Ar =
1
12 mass of one Carbon - 12 atom
It has no unit. e.g., Ar of O = 16
Molecular Weight or Mass
− It is the sum of the atomic mass of a molecule of that substance, expressed in atomic
mass unit. e.g., MW (H2O) is 18 amu i.e., (2*1 amu) from two H + 16 amu from O.
Formular Weight or Mass
− It is the sum of the atomic weight of all atoms in a formula unit of the compound. e.g., FW
(NaCl) = 58.44 amu.
Formula Unit
− It is the group of atoms or ions explicitly symbolized in the formular. e.g., Formular Unit of
sodium chloride is NaCl.
Relative Molecular Mass (Mr)
− It is the average mass of one molecule compared with 1/12 the mass of an atom of C – 12.
Average mass of one molecule of substance
Mr =
1
12 of the mass of one atom of Carbon - 12
It has no unit. e.g.,
The Mr of H2O = 2×Ar (H) + Ar (O)
= (2×1) + 16
=18
Where Ar (H) = 1 Ar (O) = 16
Question 1
Calculate the Mr of the following ions and molecules.
a) NH3 b) C6H12O6 c) ClO3 −
R. A. M (Ar) of H = 1.0, O = 16, Cl = 35.5, N = 14, C = 12 )

Question 2
An oxide YO2 has a relative molecular mass of 94. What is the relative atomic mass of Y?
Ans: 62
Question 3
If the molar mass of Y(HCO3)2 is 162 g/mol. Determine the relative atomic mass of Y.
[H = 1, C = 12, O = 16]
ans: 40
The Mole (Amount of substance)
− The mole (symbol mol) is the amount of a substance that contains as many elementary
entities (atoms, molecules or other particles) as there are atoms in exactly 12 g (or 0.012
kg) of the carbon 12 isotope.
− This means 1 mole of ethanol will contain the same number of ethanol molecules as there
are C atoms in 12 g of Carbon – 12.
− The number of atoms (entities) in a 12 g sample of carbon – 12 is called Avogadro’s
number (NA). i.e., NA = 6.0221367*1023
NA or L = 6.02*1023 (3 significant figures).
NB:
1 mole of element X = gram atomic mass of X
1 mole of molecule X = gram molecule mas of X
− Particles in 1 mole ≡ number of atoms in 12 g of C – 12 ≡ Avogadro’s constant ≡
6.02*1023 entities
− 1 mole of Na atom contains 6.02*1023 Na atoms
− A mole of oxygen molecules (O2) contains 6.02*1023 O2 molecules i.e., 2*6.02*1023 O
atoms.
Question 1
The atomic mass unit of C – 12 is 1.6603*10-24 g. If the mass of an atom is 5.313*10-23 g,
determine its relative mass.
Answer
the mass of the atom
Ar = atomic mass unit of C-12

5.313*10-23
Ar =
1.6603*10-24

Ar = 32
Question 2
A vessel contains 1.6 moles of oxygen gas. Calculate the number of molecules of the gas.
[Avogadro’s constant = 6.023*1023]
Answer
N = n * NA
n = mole
N = Number of entities
NA = Avogadro’s number
n = 1.60 mol
NA = 6.023 × 1023
N=?
N = 1.6 × 6.0223 × 1023
= 9.64 × 1023 oxygen molecules
Alternate answer
If 1 mole of O2 ≡ 6.023 × 1023
1.6
therefore, 1.69 mol of O2 ≡ 1 × 6.023 × 1023
= 9.64×1023 O2 molecules

Question 3
How many atoms are there in 0.3 mol of an element?
[NA = 6.0 * 1023 mol-]
Question 4
Determine the number of moles present in 1.5 * 1020 electrons.
[Avogadro’s constant = 6.0 * 1023]
Answer
n=?
N = 1.5 * 1023 electrons
NA = 6.0 * 1023
From N = n * NA
1.5*1020
n=
6.0*1023
n = 2.5 * 10-4 mol.

Question 5
How many moles of oxygen would contain 1.204 ×1023 molecules?
[NA = 6.02 × 1023]
answer: 2 mol.
Question 6
Calculate the number of atoms of hydrogen in 0.2 mol of methane gas (CH4).
[NA = 6.02 × 1023]

Answer
𝐶𝐻4 → 𝐶 + 4𝐻
1 mol 1 mol 4 mol
0.2 mol 0.2 mol 4×0.2 mol
= 0.8 mol

therefore, N (H) = n × NA
= 0.8 × 6.02 × 1023
= 4.816 × 1023 atoms
Question 7
Calculate the number of atoms of oxygen in 0.2 mol of oxygen. [NA = 6.02×1023]
Answer: 2.408×1023 atoms.
Question 8
How many atoms of Cobalt (Co) atoms are there in 6.00×109 Co atoms.
Question 9
Which of the following has a greater mass: 2 atoms of lead or 5.1×10-23 moles of helium?
Molar Mass, M
− It is defined as the mass (in g or kg) of one mole of a substance.
− Its unit is gmol-1 or g/mol.
− For all substances, the molar mass in grams per mole is numerically = formula mass = or
relative atomic mass.
NB:
mass
mole = molar mass
m
n= M

Question 1
Helium (He) is a valuable gas used in industry, low temperature research deep sea driving tanks
and balloons. How many moles of the atoms are 6.46 g of He? [He = 4.003]

Answer
From the equality 1 mol He ≡ 4.003 g He
6.46 g He
thus, 6.46 g of He ≡ 4.003 g He × 1 mol 𝐻𝑒

= 1.61 mol He
Alternative method
m
n= M
M (He) = 4.003 g/mol
m (He) = 6.46 g
6.46
n= 4.003
n = 1.61 mol
Question 2
Zinc is a silvery metal that is used in making brass and in plating iron to prevent corrosion.
How many grams of Zn are in 0.356 mol of Zn? [Zn = 65.39]
Answer
From the equality 1 mol Zn ≡ 65.39 g
0.356 mol of Zn
0.356 mol of Zn ≡ 1 mol of Zn
* 65.39 g of Zn

= 23.3 g of Zn
Alternative method
M (Zn) = 65.39 g/mol
n (Zn) = 0.356 mol
m
from n = M
m = n*M
m = 0.356 * 65.39
m (Zn) = 23.3 g
Question 3
What is the molar mass of substance Y if 0.30 mol of Y has a mass of 13.0 g?
Ans: 43.30 gmol-1
Question 4
What mass of lithium is contained in 53 g of Li2CO3? [Li = 7, O = 16, C = 12]
Question 5
Methane (CH4) is a principal compound of natural gas. How many moles of CH4 are present in
6.07 g of CH4? [C = 12, H = 1]
Answer
m = 6.07 g
M (CH4) = 12 + (4*1)
= 16 g/mol
m
n= M
6.07 g
n= 16 g/mol
n = 0.379 mol
Question 6
What mass of O is contained in 25 g of CO2?
Answer
M (CO2) = 12 + (2×16)
= 44 g/mol
25 g
n (CO2) = 44 g/mol
n (CO2) = 0.568 mol

CO2 ≡ C + 2O
1 mol 1 mol 2 mol
0.568 mol 0.568 mol 2×0.568
= 1.136 mol
m (O)
from n (O) = M (O)

m (O) = 𝑛 × 𝑀
M (O) = 16 g/mol
therefore, m (O) = 1.136 × 16
 = 18.176 g
Question 7
What is the number of oxygen molecules present in 16.0 g of oxygen gas? [NA = 6.02*1023]
Answer
m (O2) = 16.0 g
NA = 6.02*1023
M of oxygen molecule (O2) = 2*16
= 32 gmol-1
Number of Oxygen molecule (N) = ?
from N = n * NA
m
but, n = M
m
therefore, N = M  NA
16.0
N=  6.021023 = 3.01x1023 oxygen molecules
32

Question 8
How many atoms of Na are present in 0.25 mols of Na3PO4?
[NA = 6.01023]
Ans: 4.5151023 atoms

Question 9
Calculate the number of molecules in 400 g of oxygen.
[O = 16, L = 6.021023]
Answer
Molar mass of O2 = 162 = 32 g/mol
m (O2) = 400 g
N (number of molecules) = ?
m
from N = M  NA
400
N=  6.021023
32
=7.5251024 molecules

Question 10
Calculate the number of chlorine atoms contains in 0.2 g of DDT (C14H9Cl5).
[C = 12, H = 1, Cl = 35.5, Avogadro’s number = 6.021023 particles mol-1]
Answer
MDDT = (1412) + (91) + (35.55)
= 354.5 g/mol
n (DDT) = m⁄M
0.20 mol
= 35.5 g/mol
= 5.64110-4 mol.
from the formula of DDT,
C14H9Cl5 → 14C + 9H + 5Cl
1 mol 14 mol 9 mol 5 mol
-4
5.64110 mol 55.64110-4

 n (Cl) = 55.64110-4
= 2.82×10-3 mol
NCl = n (Cl) × NA
= 2.82×10-3 × 6.02×1023
= 1.6976×1021 atoms.
Question 11
A small crystal of CaCl2 that weighs 0.12 g contains 6.5×1020 formula unit of CaCl2. What is
the total number of ions that make up this crystal?
Question 12
Chlorophyll, the green pigment in leaves has the formula C55H72MgN4O5. If 0.0011 g of Mg is
available to a plant for chlorophyll synthesis, how many grams of carbon will be required to
completely use up the magnesium?
Ans: 0.030 g of carbon

Molar Volume, Vm
− It’s the volume of 1 mol of a gas at standard temperature and pressure (STP).

− Vm = 22.4 dm3mol-1
= 22.4 Lmol-1
− Avogadro’s principle is commonly expressed in terms of the molar volume (Vm, the volume
occupied per mole of gas).

Volume
Molar Volume = amount of substance
V
Vm = n

Question 1
A helium weather balloon was filled at -20 °C and a volume of 2.5×104 L with 1.2×103 mol
He. What is the molar volume of helium under standard conditions?
Answer
n = 1.2×1023 mol
V = 2.5×104 L
Vm = ?
V
Vm = n
2.5×104 L
Vm =
1.2×103 mol

= 21 Lmol-1
Question 2
Calculate the amount of substance in 4480 cm3 of O2.
[Vm = 22.4 dm3mol-1]
Ans: 0.2 mol

Question 3
Calculate the volume (dm3) occupied by 7.40 g of NH3 gas at STP. [Vm = 22.4 dm3mol-1]
Answer
M (NH3) = 17 gmol-1
m (NH3) = 7.40 g
m
n= M
7.4
= 17
= 0.435 mol
V = n × Vm
= 0.435×22.4
V = 9.74 dm3
Question 4
A gas X2O3 occupied a volume of 5.6 dm3 at STP. Calculate the molar mass and hence the
atomic mass of X if the mass of the gas was found to be 16 g. [Vm = 22.4 dm3, O = 16]
Answer
V = 5.6 dm3
Vm = 22.4 dm3mol-1
m = 16 g
V
n= 𝑉𝑚
5.6
= 22.4
n = 0.25 mol.
m
but n = M
16
M= 0.25
M = 64 gmol-1
M(X2O3) = 2×Ar(X) + 3×Ar(O)
= 2Ar(X) + 3(16)
64 = 2Ar(X) + 48
Ar (X) = 8
FARADAY’S CONSTANT
− It is the total charge carried by one mole of electron or one mole of monovalent ion.
− Monovalent ion has single charge e.g., Na+, Cl-
− It is the total charge carried by 6.02×1023 electrons.
− The quantity of electric charge (Q) is measured in Coulomb (C).
− A coulomb (C) is a current (I) of 1 ampere flowing for 1 second.
− Q=I×t
− Faraday = L × charge on electron (e), where e = 1.6×10-19 C
− 1 F = 96500 Cmol-1
NB
1 mol e- ≡ 6.02×1023 e- ≡ 1 F ≡ 96500 Cmol-1 ≡ Atomic mass
Question 1
Calculate the total charge when a current of 5 amperes flows for 2 hours.
Answer
I=5A
t = 2 hrs
t = 2×60×60
= 7200 s
Q=I×t
= 5×7200
Total charge = 36, 000 C
Question 2
Calculate the charge in coulomb carried by 3.01×1023 electrons. [1 F = 96500 Cmol-1]
Answer
If 6.02×1023 e- = 96500 Cmol-1
3.01×1023
then 3.01×1023 e- = × 96500
6.02×1023
= 482500 C
Therefore, charge in coulomb is 482500
Question 3
Calculate the total charge carried by 2 moles of electron. [1 F = 96500 Cmol-1]
Ans = 193000 C
Question 4
0.25 mol of electrons passed through an electrical wire using a current of 0.25 A.
Calculate the
a) total charge in coulombs carried by the electrons
b) time taken for the electrons to pass
Ans: a) 24125 C
b) 96500 s

Question 5
Calculate the number of moles 2.7 g of Al (Al = 27)
Answer
27 g of Al = 1 mol Al
2.7 g
∴2.7 g = 27 g × 1 mol
= 0.1 mol
 Therefore, number of moles of Al = 0.1
Question 6
How many electrons found in 10000 C.
Ans: 6.24×1022 electrons

SOLUTIONS
− A solution is a homogenous mixture of two or more substance.
− Solute: It is the substance present in a smaller amount.
− It is the substance that dissolves or disappears in another to form solution.
− Solvent: It is the substance present in a large amount.
− It is the substance in which other substance dissolves to form a solution.
NB
A solution may be gaseous (air), solid (alloy), liquid (seawater).

− Aqueous solution: It is the one in which the solute initially is a liquid or a solid and the
solvent is water.
− Water can dissolve almost all substances hence referred to as a universal solvent.
− The advantages of water as a solvent are:
• it is non flammable
• it is non toxic
• It is cheap

− Tincture: It is a solution in which the solvent is alcohol. e.g., methyl orange in alcohol.
− Miscible Liquids: Liquids which dissolves in each other. e.g., water and alcohol.
− Immiscible Liquids: Liquids which do not dissolve in each other. e.g., oil and water.
− Concentrated solution: A solution with relatively high amount of solute per solution.
− Saturated solution: It is a solution which cannot dissolve any more of the solute at that
temperature.
− Supersaturated solution: A solution which contains excess solute than it can dissolve at
that temperature.
− Unsaturated solution: A solution which contain a relatively large amount of solvent or
relatively small amount of solute per solution.
− Normality: A concentration unit (N), it is the number of equivalents of solute per liter of
solution (e.g., 1M H2SO4 = 2N H2SO4).
NB
Concentration is the proportion of a substance in a mixture.
− Concentration of solution: It is the quantity of solute per unit quantity of solution.

− Concentration can be expressed in four different forms

• Amount of substance concentration or Molarity (C)
• Mass concentration (ρ)
• Molal concentration or Molality
• Mole fraction

Molarity or Molar or Molar Concentration (C)

It is defined as the moles of solute dissolved in one liter (cubic decimeter) of solution.

moles of solute
Molarity (C) = liters of solution

SI unit is mol/dm3 or Molar (M) or mol/L

NB
1 liter = 1 dm3
1 dm3 = 1000 cm3
1 cm3 = 1 ml
e.g., An aqueous solution that is 0.15 M or 0.15 mol/dm3 NH3 is dissolved in 1 dm3 or 1 L of
solution.
n
C=V
m
from n = M
m
C = MV

Question 1
4.47×10-3 mol of NaNO3 is placed in a 5.0×10-2 dm3 volumetric flask. The flask is then filled
with water to the mark on the neck, dissolving the solid. What is the molarity of the resulting
solution?
Answer
n = 4.47×10-3 mol
V = 5.0×10-2 dm3
C=?
n
C=V

4.47×10-3
C= 5.0×10-2
C = 0.089 moldm-3 or 0.089 M
Question 2
A sample of sodium chloride, NaCl, weighing 0.0678 g is placed in a 250 cm3 volumetric flask.
Enough water is added to dissolve the NaCl and the flask is filled to the mark. What is the
molarity of the resulting solution?
[Na = 23, Cl = 35.5]
Answer
mass (m) = 0.0678 g
Molar mass (M) = 23 + 35.5 = 53.5 g/mol
250
V = 250 cm3 = 1000 = 0.25 dm3

C=?
m
But C = MV
0.0678
= 53.5×0.25
C = 5.07×10-3 M
Question 3
What mass of Na2CO3 will be required to prepare 100 cm3 of a 0.30 mol/dm3 solution? [Na2CO3
= 106]
Answer
V = 100 cm3 = 0.1 dm3
C = 0.30 mol/dm3
M(Na2CO3) = 106 g/mol
m=?
m
from C = MV
m = C×M×V
 m = 0.3 × 106 × 0.1
mass = 3.18 g
Therefore, mass of Na2CO3 required is 3.18 g.

Question 4
What is the concentration of 14.63 g of salt Y in 250 cm3 of solution? [Y = 58.5 gmol-1]
Ans: 1.0 moldm-3
Question 5
If the molar mass of Y(HCO3)2 is 16.2 gmol-1, determine the relative atomic mass of Y.
[H = 1 C = 12 O = 16]
Ans: 40

Question 6
What volume 0.2 M solution of sodium hydroxide will on evaporation yield 5.0 g of solid
NaOH? [Na = 23, O = 16, H = 1]
Answer
C = 0.2 M
M = 23+16+1 = 40 gmol-1
m = 5.0 g
V=?
m
from C = MV
m
V = CM
5.0
V = 0.2×40
V = 0.625 dm3 or 625 cm3

Question 7
100 cm3 of 0.1M H2SO4 is mixed with 100 cm3 of 0.15 M H2SO4. Calculate the concentration
of the resulting solution in mole per cubic decimeter.
Ans: 0.125 moldm-3

Mass Concentration (ρ)

It is the mass of substance dissolved in 1 dm3 of solution.
Unit of mass concentration is g/dm3 or gdm-3.
It is also known as mass density (gcm-3)
m
From definition ρ =
V(dm3 )

ρ = mass concentration
m = mass of solute
V = volume of solution in dm3
Relation between ρ and C
m
from C = MV
1 m
C = M×V
m
But ρ = V
1
 C = M ×ρ
Therefore, ρ = C × M

Concentration in (gdm-3 )
Concentration in moldm-3 =
Molar mass (gmol-1 )

Question 1
A sample of NaNO3 weighing 0.38 g is placed in a 50.0 ml volumetric flask, The flask is then
filled with water to the mark on the neck. What is the molarity of the resulting solution? [Na =
23, N = 14, O = 16]
Ans: 0.0894 moldm-3
Question 2
Calculate the concentration in gdm-3 of 0.75 M Na2CO3 solution. [Na = 23, N = 14, O = 16]
Answer
M(Na2CO3) = (23×2) + 12 + (16×3)
= 106 gmol-1
ρ=C×M
= 0.75 × 106
= 79.5 gdm-3
Question 3
Calculate the mass concentration of 15.4 g of H2SO4 dissolved in 250 cm3 of solution.
Answer
m (H2SO4) = 15.4 g
V (H2SO4) = 250 cm3 = 0.25 dm3
m
ρ=V
15.4 g
=
0.25 dm3

= 61.6 gdm-3

Question 4
In an experiment involving the hydrated salt Na2CO3.XH2O, where x is the number of
molecules of water of crystallization, the mass concentration of its solution is 5.72 gdm-3 and
from experiment the concentration was found to be 0.02 moldm-3. Calculate:
i. The molar mass of Na2CO3.XH2O in terms of x;
ii. The molar mass of Na2CO3.XH2O;
iii. The number of molecules of water of crystallization x of the hydrated salt and hence its
chemical formula
[Na= 23.0, O = 16.0, C = 12.0]

Answer
i. M(Na2CO3.XH2O) = (2×23) + 12 + (3×16) + x[(2×1)+16]
= 106 + 18x
ii. ρ = C × M
ρ
M=C
5.72
M = 0.02

= 286 gmol-1
iii. 286 = 106 + 18x
 x = 10

Hence the chemical formula is Na2CO3.10H2O

Question 5
10 g of a hydrated carbonate (X2CO3.10H2O) was dissolved in 250 cm3 of distilled water to
obtain a concentration of 0.14 M. Calculate
i. The molar mass of X2CO3.10H2O
ii. The relative atomic mass of X
iii. Identify element X
[Na= 23, O = 16, C = 12]
Answer
i. 285 g/mol
ii. 23
iii. X is sodium (Na)

Question 6
A mass of 100 g of lansfordite (MgCO3.XH2O) was dissolved in 500 cm3 solution to obtain a
concentration of 1.15 M. Calculate
a. The concentration in gdm-3
b. The molar mass of the compound
c. The value of X
[Mg = 24, C = 12, O = 16, H = 1]
Answer
a. 200 g/dm3
b. 174 g/mol
c. x = 5

Mass concentration can be expressed in terms of percentages i.e.,

a) Percentage weight per volume of solution (%w/v) i.e., mass of substance (g) in 100 cm 3 of
the solution.
e.g., 25% w/v of NaOH means 25 g of NaOH in 100 cm3 of the solution
b) Percentage weight per weight of solution (%w/w)
e.g., 2% w/w of NaCl means 2 g NaCl in 100 g of solution.
c) Percentage volume per volume (%V/V) of solution.
e.g., the concentration of N2 in air is 78% v/v; means 100 cm3 of air contains 78 cm3 of N2(g).
Question 1
A bottled wine is labelled 14% v/v ethanol. Calculate
i. The volume of ethanol in 1 dm3
ii. The mass of ethanol in 1 dm3 given that the density of ethanol is 0.8 gcm-3
iii. The concentration of ethanol in the wine in moldm-3
[ethanol (C2H5OH); C = 12, H = 1, O = 16]
Answer
i. 14% v/v means 100 cm3 of wine contains 14 cm3 of ethanol
i.e., 100 cm3 ≡ 14 cm3 of ethanol

14cm3
∴ 1000 cm3 ≡ 100 cm3×1000 cm3

≡ 140 cm3

∴ Volume of ethanol in 1 dm3 is 0.140 dm3

m
ii. ρ = V

ρ = 0.80 gcm-3
V = 140 cm3
m=ρ×V
m = 0.80 × 140
m = 112 g
hence, the mass of ethanol in 1 dm3 of wine is 112g.
iii. mole of ethanol in 1 dm3 of wine is given by;
m
n (ethanol) = M
112 g
=
146 gmol-1

= 2.43 mol
Since this is the mole contained in 1dm3 of wine, the concentration of ethanol in the wine is
2.43 mol/dm3.
NB:
Very small quantities of solutes in solution can be expressed in part per million (ppm)
mass of component
i) ppm = total volume of solution × 106
W
i.e., × 106
V
 mass of component
ii) ppm = total mass of solution × 106
W
i.e., W × 106

volume of component
iii) ppm = total volume of solution × 106
V
i.e., V × 106

Question 2
An aqueous solution contains 0.004 % v/v NaCl, find its ppm equivalent.
Answer
0.004 cm3 of NaCl in 100 cm3 of solution
0.004
ppm = × 106
100

= 40 ppm.
Question 3
A concentration of 500 ppm is same as what percentage?
Answer
conc. in ppm
% Conc. = 106 × 100
500
= 106 × 100

= 0.05%
Molal Concentration or Molality (m)
− It is the number of moles of solute dissolved in one kilogram or 100 g of solvent.
moles of solute
− molality (m) = mass of solvent (kg)

− Its unit is molkg-1

Question 1
Calculate the molality of a sulfuric acid solution containing 24.4 g of sulfuric acid in 198 g of
water. (The molar mass of sulfuric acid is 98.09 g/mol)
Answer
moles of solute
m = mass of solvent (kg)

mass
n(sulfuric acid) = molar mass

24.4
n = 98.09

= 0.249 mol
the mass of water is 198g or 0.198 kg

0.249 mol
m = 0.198 𝑘𝑔

= 1.26 mol/kg

Question 2
Calculate the number of moles of solute in 2.5 molg-1 solution containing 0.60 kg of solvent.
Ans: 1.5 mol

Percent by Mass or Weight

− It is the ratio of the mass of a solute to the mass of the solution multiplied by 100%:
mass of solute
% by mass = mass of solute +mass of solvent×100

Question 1
A sample of 0.892 g of KCl is dissolved in 54.6 of water. What is the percent by mass of KCl
in the solution?

Ans: 1.61%

Mole Fraction (X)

It is a dimensionless quantity that expresses the ratio of the number of moles of one component
to the number of moles of all components present.
𝑛
Xi = 𝑛 𝑖
𝑇

For a mixture of two components of solute A and solvent B,

nA
XA = n
A +nB
nB
XB = n
A +nB

where;
XA and XB are the mole fractions of A and B respectively
𝑛𝐴 and 𝑛𝐵 are the moles of A and B respectively.

Question 1
A mixture of gases contains 4.46 moles of neon (Ne), 0.74 mole of argon (Ar) and 2.15 moles
of Xenon (Xe). Calculate the mole fraction of each gas.
Answer
n
Xi = n i
T
nNe = 4.46 mols,

nAr = 0,74 mols,

nXe = 2.15 mols

𝑛𝑇 = 4.46 + 0.74 + 2.15

= 7.35 mols
nNe
XNe = nT

4.46
= 7.35

XNe = 0.61

nAr
XAr = nT

0.74
XAr = 7.35

= 0.10
nXe
XXe = nT

2.15
XXe = 7.35

= 0.29

∴The mole fractions of Neon, Argon and Xenon are 0.61, 0.1 and 0.29 respectively.
Preparation of Solutions
A solution of known concentration can be prepared either by:
Dissolving a known mass of solute in a solvent to a desired final volume or
By diluting the appropriate volume of a more concentrated solution (stock solution) to the
desired final volume.
Apparatus used for preparation of solutions
− Volumetric flask
− Beaker
− Stirrer or stirring rod
− Funnel
− Wash bottle
− Spatula
− Chemical balance
− Measuring cylinder
Definition of terms
Standard Solution: It is the solution whose concentration is accurately known.
Stock Solution: It is the concentrated solution in which a dilute solution is prepared from.
Assay: It is the full list of the experimentally determined purity of a chemical substance
including its impurities. It includes: % purity of chemical, density and molar mass.
Dilution of Solution
During dilution, the volume of solvent increases, but the amount of substance remains
constant.
i.e., n (concentrated solution) = n (diluted solution)
n=C×V
∴ Cconc × Vconc = Cdil × Vdil
Vdil = Vconc + VH2 O
Dilution Factor (D. F)
It is the number of times the volume of the more concentrated solution is diluted.
Cconc
D.F = or
Cdil

Vdil
D.F =
Vconc

NB: Dilution is the procedure for preparing a less concentrated solution from a more
concentrated one.
Question 1
100 cm3 of 4.0 M HCl is diluted to 500 cm3. Calculate
i. the concentration of the dilute solution.
ii. the volume of water to added to prepare the above solution
iii. the dilution factor
Answer
i. Cconc = 4.0 M
Cdil = ?
Vconc = 100 cm3
Vdil = 500 cm3
Cconc × Vconc = Cdil × Vdil

 4.0 M × 100 cm3 = Cdil × 500 cm3

4.0×100
Cdil = 500

= 0.8 M

ii. Vdil = Vconc + VH2O

VH2O = Vdil - Vconc

 = 500 – 400

= 400 cm3

∴ the volume of water added = 400 cm3

V
iii. Dilution factor = V dil
conc

500
= 400

= 1.25

Question 2
You are given a solution of 14.8 M NH3. How many milliliters (ml) of this solution do you
require to give 100 ml of 1.00 M NH3 when diluted?
Answer
Cconc = 14.8 M

Cdil = 1.0 M

Vconc = ?

Vdil = 100 ml

Cconc × Vconc = Cdil × Vdil

 14.8 M × Vconc = 1.0 × 100 ml

1.0×100
Vconc = 14.8

= 6.76 ml

∴ volume of solution required is 6.76 ml

Question 3
Water is added to 25.0 cm3 of a 0.866 M KNO3 solution until the volume of the solution is
exactly 500 cm3. What is the concentration of the final solution?
Question 4
A 750 cm3 of 0.12 moldm-3 HCl is to be prepared from 12 moldm-3 concentrated HCl. Calculate
the volume of the concentrated acid required for the preparation.
Answer
CiVi = CfVf
Cf Vf
Vi = Ci
 0.12×750
Vi = 12

= 7.5 cm3
Question 5
You have a 500 cm3 of a 0.125 M HCl solution and you want to dilute it to exactly 0.100 M.
How much water should you add? Assume volumes are additive.
Answer
Ci = 0.125 M
Vi = 500 cm3
Cf = 0.100 M
Vf = ?
CiVi = CfVf
Ci Vi
Vf = Cf
0.125×500
Vf = 0.1
= 625 cm3
But
Vf = Vi + VH2 O
VH2O = Vf – Vi
= 625 – 500
VH2O = 125 cm3
∴ The volume of water added is 125 cm3

Question 6
A 35.2 cm3 1.66 M KMnO4 solution is mixed with 16.7 cm3 of 0.892 M KMnO4 solution.
Calculate the concentration of the final solution.
Question 7
a) Calculate the concentration of stock tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid (H2SO4) which has mass
density of 2.50 gcm-3 and has purity of 98%
b) What volume of the stock acid should be taken to prepare 250 cm3 of 2 M of the acid solution.
[H=1, S = 32, O = 16]
Answer
a) %purity (P) = 98%
Density (D) = 2.5 gcm-3
M(H2SO4)=(2×1)+32+ (4×16)
= 98 gmol-1
From the assay,
D×P×1000
Conc of acid (moldm-3)= M×100
 2.5×98×1000
= 98×100

Conc of acid (moldm-3) = 25 M

b) Ci = 25 M

Vi = ?

Cf = 0.100 M

Vf = 250 cm3

from CiVi = CfVf

Cf Vf
Vi = Ci

2×250
= 25

= 20 cm3

Question 8
The following information was on a label of stock solution of trioxonitrate (V) acid (HNO3);
70% w/w
Density = 1.42 gcm-3
Molar mass = 63
Calculate;
i) Concentration of the stock solution in moldm-3
ii) Volume of the stock solution required to prepare 1000 cm3 of 0.10 M solution and outline
how will prepare it.
Answer
i) CHNO3 = 15.8 M
ii) Volume = 6.33 cm3
− Using a measuring cylinder, measure 6.33 cm3 of the acid (stock).
− Add small amount of distilled water into 1000 cm3 volumetric flask.
− With the help of funnel transfer the 6.33 cm3 of the acid into the flask.
− Rinse the measuring cylinder about 3 times and transfer the content into the flask.
− Add more distilled water until it reaches the 1000 cm3 mark.

Question 9
How would you prepare 2.00×102 ml of 0.866 M HNO3 solution, starting with a 5.07 M stock
solution?
Answer
Calculating the required volume to be measured;
CiVi = CfVf
Cf Vf
Vi = Ci

0.566×200
= 5.07

Vi = 34.16 ml
− Measure accurately 34.16 ml of the HNO3 using measuring cylinder.
− Pour small amount of distilled water in a 200 ml volumetric flask.
− Transfer the measured acid into the flask with the help of a funnel.
− Rinse the cylinder about 3 times and transfer the content into the flask.
− Top the flask up with distilled water till it reaches the mark.

Question 10
How will you prepare a solution of 500 cm3 HCl (2.0 M) from 36.5% stock solution which has
a density of 1.20 gcm-3? NB: Vi = 83 cm3
Answer
Preparing 1dm3 of 0.1 M Na2CO3;

− Calculate the mass of Na2CO3 required as;

m=C×M×V
= 0.1 M × 106 gmol-1 × 1 dm3
= 10.6 g
− Weigh 10.6 g of Na2CO3 in a beaker on a balance.
− Dissolve the Na2CO3 in the beaker with small amount of distilled water.
− Transfer the content into a 1 dm3 standard flask.
− Rinse the beaker with distilled water about 3 times and transfer the content into the flask.
− Close the flask tightly, swirl, and shake well to dissolve all solute.
− Carefully add distilled water till it reaches the 1 dm3 mark.
− Stopper and label the flask.
Question 11
How will you prepare a 250 cm3 of K2Cr2O4 solution whose concentration is 2.16 M?
[K2Cr2O4 = 294. 2 gmol-1]
NB: m (K2Cr2O4) = 159 g
Question 12
What is the final concentration of 0.6 M NaCl solution if its volume is doubled and the number
of moles of solution is tripled?
Question 13
Describe how you or your teacher prepared 0.1 M NaOH solution in the laboratory and how
0.01 M solution was prepared from the 0.1 M NaOH?
[Na = 23, O = 16, H = 1]
Answer
Step 1.
Calculate the mass of 0.1M NaOH required as:
m=C×M×V
= 0.1 × 40 × 1
= 4.0 g
Weigh accurately 4.0g of NaOH in a beaker using weighing balance.
Refer to procedure above to obtain the 0.1M NaOH solution.
NB: Use a 1000cm3 volumetric flask
Step 2.
Using the formula;
Cconc×Vconc = Cdil×Vdil
Cconc = 0.1 M
Cdil = 0.01 M
Vdil = 1000 cm3
Vconc = ?
Cdil Vdil
Vconc = Cconc

1000×0.01
Vconc = 0.1

= 100 cm3

Repeat the above the procedure to obtain the 0.01 M NaOH solution.
NB: Use 1000 cm3 volumetric flask.

Question 14
Describe briefly how you or your teacher obtained pure crystals of NaCl from a mixture of
NaCl and activated carbon powder.
Answer
The mixture was dissolved in water using a beaker and stirrer.
The dissolved mixture was passed through filter paper to filter it.
The activated carbon remained in the filter paper as residue and the salt in the water as
filtrate.
The residue was washed thoroughly and left to dry.
The filtrate was evaporated to dryness to obtain the salt.