Module 1 EME

ELEMENTS OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING MODULE1
MODULE – 1
Introduction to Mechanical Engineering (Overview only):

Role of Mechanical Engineering in Industries and Society- Emerging Trends and
Technologies in different sectors such as Energy, Manufacturing, Automotive, Aerospace,
and Marine sectors.
Steam Formation and Application:
Modes of heat transfer, Steam formation, Types of steam, Steam properties and applications of
steam (simple numerical problems).
Energy Sources and Power Plants:
Basic working principles of Hydel power plant, Thermal power plant, nuclear power plant,
Solar power plant, Tidal power plant and Wind power plant.
Introduction to Mechanical Engineering

Mechanical Engineering is considered to be the oldest branch of engineering, which has
contributed to several innovations. There is a wide scope after completion of this course.
Mechanical Engineers are instrumental in designing efficient motor vehicles, aircrafts,
manufacturing units and industrial machinery. They also contribute towards the development of
complex machinery systems, engines and power equipment. Their job responsibility includes
the designing, manufacturing, maintenance and testing of this equipment.
What is Mechanical Engineering?
Mechanical Engineering is that branch of engineering which combines physics, mathematics,

engineering principles with materials science. This field aims at designing, analysing,
manufacturing and maintaining mechanical systems. Mechanical Engineering is considered to
be the broadest and the oldest of the engineering disciplines. This branch focuses on the core
areas that include thermodynamics, mechanics, dynamics, structural analysis, electricity and
materials science.
These core principles are combined with tools such as CAD (computer aided design) and
CAM (computer aided manufacturing) and product life cycle management for the design and
analysis of industrial equipment, machinery manufacturing plants, transport systems,
robotics, medical devices, heating and cooling systems and so on. This branch of engineering
is primarily concerned with the design, production and operation of machinery.
Mr. RAJESH S C, Dept. ME SKIT Page 1

This field emerged in the 18th century during the Industrial Revolution and has been
continuously developing and advancing since then.
Mechanical Engineering is important because it introduces and helps implement useful

technology in our day to day lives and in modern society. It has a very crucial role to play in
manufactured technologies, right form refrigerators to cars to aeroplanes and much more.
ROLE OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS IN INDUSTRIES AND SOCIETY

Role of Mechanical Engineers in Industries
Mechanical Engineer in the industry do the following
 Analyze problems to see how mechanical and thermal devices might help solve a
particular problem
 Design or redesign mechanical and thermal devices or subsystems, using analysis
and computer-aided design
 Investigate equipment failures or difficulties to diagnose faulty operation and to
recommend remedies
 Develop and test prototypes of devices they design
 Analyze the test results and change the design or system as needed
 Oversee the manufacturing process for the device
Mechanical engineering is one of the broadest engineering fields. Mechanical engineers

design and oversee the manufacture of many products ranging from medical devices to new
batteries.
Mechanical engineers design power-producing machines, such as electric generators, internal

combustion engines, and steam and gas turbines, as well as power-using machines, such as
refrigeration and air-conditioning systems.
Mechanical engineers design other machines inside buildings, such as elevators and
escalators. They also design material-handling systems, such as conveyor systems and
automated transfer stations.
Like other engineers, mechanical engineers use computers extensively. Mechanical engineers
are routinely responsible for the integration of sensors, controllers, and machinery. Computer
technology helps mechanical engineers create and analyze designs, run simulations and test
how a machine is likely to work, interact with connected systems, and generate specifications
for parts.

The following are examples of types of mechanical engineers:
Auto research engineers seek to improve the performance of cars. These engineers work to
improve traditional features of cars such as suspension, and they also work on aerodynamics
and new possible fuels.
Heating and cooling systems engineers work to create and maintain environmental systems
wherever temperatures and humidity must be kept within certain limits. They develop such
systems for airplanes, trains, cars, schools, and even computer rooms.
Robotic engineers plan, build, and maintain robots. These engineers plan how robots will
use sensors for detecting things based on light or smell, and they design how these sensors
will fit into the designs of the robots.
Role of Mechanical Engineers in Society

 Transportation
 Medical
 Agricultural
 Defense
 Power generation
Transportation
Mechanical engineering is largely concerned with road transportation, and networks, rail and
subway systems, airports, and shipping ports.
Medical
A mechanical engineer specialized in medical science can be called as 'medical engineer'.
Engineer's responsibilities in medicine can include research, development, testing and
evaluation of medical devices, advisement on new biomedical purchases for hospitals and
medical centers.
Agricultural
The graduates are trained professionals who understand technology and are capable of
solving problems in the areas of agricultural production and managementof rural areas with a
special focus on machinery.
Defense
Manage the teams of skilled technicians that monitor, maintain and repair formidable
military hardware such as tanks, artillery guns and armoured logistic vehicles. Not all types
of entry are open for this job.

Power generation
When working in thermal power plants, mechanical engineers make sure heavy machinery
like boilers and turbines, are working in optimal condition and power is continually
generated. Mechanical engineers also work with the operations of the plant.
EMERGING TRENDS AND TECHNOLOGIES IN DIFFERENT SECTOR.
 Energy sector - Mechanical engineers in the energy industry design and operate fossil
fuel, hydroelectric, conventional, nuclear, and cogeneration power plants. They are
involved in all aspects of the production and conversion of energy from one form to
another. Mechanical engineers are also involved in exciting projects such as
developing alternatives to thermal energy, power cycle devices, fuel cells, gas
turbines, and innovative uses of coal, wind, and tidal flow.
 Aerospace industry – This industry has witnessed a lot of innovations and
discoveries. Flying cars to reusable satellites, rockets are now not unheard of as
technology is progressing so is the demand for newer inventions. The requirement for
skilled mechanical engineers with knowledge and expertise is growing day by day.
Numerous job roles are being offered here ranging from design, to manufacture to
testing to R&D. The mechanical engineers get a chance to employ the principles of
physics to aeromodelling and dynamics to improve the design and efficiency in
systems.
 Automobile Industry – This industry is one of the fastest growing and has therefore
opened up numerous job opportunities. The role of a mechanical engineer spans the
design, manufacturing and maintenance of motor vehicles. With the advancement in
technology when breakthrough ideas like driverless cars, pod-based transportation
systems, bullet trains, are being considered. Top companies and automobile brands
are investing a lot on research and recruiting skilled and passionate mechanical
engineers.
 Chemical industry – The main function of mechanical engineers in the chemicals
industry is to deliver improvements in reliability, offer technical support that include a
variety of automated production equipment such as conveyors, pipework, robotics,
pumps, industrial ovens, valves and so on.
 Construction industry- The role of mechanical engineers in this sector is the designing
of the ventilation, smoke ventilation systems, heating, and air conditioning systems
that are installed in buildings. The range of their projects can include offices, shopping
malls, universities, railway stations and hospitals. They take on additional technical
discipline responsibilities in coordination with the requirements of the clients.
 Manufacturing industry- A majority of the roles in this sector are focused on supply
network logistics/operations or manufacturing/ engineering. The jobs in this sector are
not demarcated in different compartments. The jobs here are a mix of different
engineering disciplines.
 Defense industry – The complex mechanical systems are designed, developed and
tested by the mechanical engineers in this sector. This is done through the use of 3D

modelling and a variety of analysis tools, that ensure that the thermal properties,
manufacture, mass, structural integrity, cost of the equipment and its’ assembly are in
accordance with the operating environments of land, air and sea.
 Marine industry – Mechanical engineers in this industry design and build or operate
and maintain equipment and marine vessels. These engineers design, install, or
maintain engines, shafts, boilers and propellers. They could be a part of the team that
enforces regulations for air and sea pollution or be a part of designing futuristic
cleaner ships.
 Materials and metals industry – This job role demands the design, development and
testing of a wide variety of complex mechanical system. This will include the entire life
cycle maintenance of the mechanical items that are used in the plant. A few of those
are gas and steam turbines, pipework, valves, fans, coals mills and so on.
 Rail industry – The overhead line systems need specifications to be written, designs
to be reviewed and technical queries to be answered which falls in the purview of
mechanical engineers. Some of them diversify and become track engineers which
entails the same functions, but the focus shifts to the track systems.
STEAM FORMATION AND APPLICATIONS

Modes of Heat Transfer
Heat is transferred via solid material (conduction), liquids and gases (convection), and
electromagnetic waves (radiation). Heat is usually transferred in a combination of these three
types and seldom occurs on its own. For example, the thermal environment of a building is
influenced by heat fluxes through the ground (conduction), and the building envelope (mostly
convection and radiation).
Figure 1.1: Example of modes of heat transfer

The three types of heat transfer

● Conduction
● Convection
● Radiation
CONDUCTION:
Heat conduction is a process in which heat is transferred from the hotter part to the colder
part in a body without involving any actual movement of the molecules of the body. Heat
transfer takes place from one molecule to another molecule as a result of the vibratory motion
of the molecules. Heat transfer through the process of conduction occurs in substances which
are in direct contact with each other. It generally takes place in solids.
Based on the conductivity of heat, substances can be classified as conductors and insulators.
Substances that conduct heat easily are known as conductors and those that do not conduct
heat are known as insulators.
Conduction example: When frying vegetables in a pan. Heat transfer takes place from flame
to the pan and then to the vegetables.
● Touching a hot cup of coffee
● Thermal influences in precision instruments. Learn more
● Measurement of heat output from chemical reactors.

CONVECTION:
In this process, heat is transferred in the liquid and gases from a region of higher temperature to
a region of lower temperature. Convection heat transfer occurs partly due to the actual
movement of molecules or due to the mass transfer.
Convection is heat flux through liquids and gases. Heat Flux Sensors can measure convective
heat flux
For example.
● Feeling much colder when it is windy.
● Heating of milk in a pan.
● Feeling much colder in water of 25°C than in air of 25°C.
● Sensing principle in heat flux based mass flow sensors

RADIATION:
It is the process in which heat is transferred from one body to another body without involving
the molecules of the medium. Radiation heat transfer does not depend on the medium.
Radiation is heat flux through electromagnetic waves. Heat Flux Sensors can measure
radiative heat flux (see picture on the left).
For example: In a microwave, the substances are heated directly without any heating
medium.
● Feeling hot when standing close to fire.
● Measurement of solar power.
STEAM FORMATION
Definition of Steam: Steam can be defined as it is a mixture of water and air or it can also be
defined as vapour of water.
FORMATION OF STEAM AT CONSTANT PRESSURE:
Figure. 1.2 Formation of Steam

Figure. 1.3 Temperature-Enthalpy (T-H) diagram
𝒉𝒇 = 𝑺𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕 (kJ/kg)

𝒉𝒇𝒈 = 𝑳𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕 (kJ/kg)
𝒉𝒔𝒖𝒑 = 𝑺𝒖𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕 (kJ/kg)
𝒕𝒔 = Saturation temperature ˚𝑪
𝒕𝒔𝒖𝒑 = Superheated temperature ˚𝑪
𝑪𝒑𝒔 = 𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕 (kJ/kgK.)
• Consider 1 kg of water at 0C taken in a freely moving piston. A weight W is placed over

the piston as shown in figure 1. (a). The weight of the piston and the weight W placed
over the piston exerts a constant pressure p on the water.
• Let V be the volume occupied by the water in the cylinder. The condition of water at 0˚C
is represented by a point A on the temperature enthalpy (T-H) diagram as shown in
figure 2.
• When water is heated at constant pressure, it is converted to steam. The various stages
involved in this process are,
• On heating, the temperature of water rises and at a certain temperature water begins to
boil (evaporate).

• The temperature at which water starts boiling is known as saturation temperature and is
denoted by ts.
• The heating of water from 0˚C to the saturation temperature (ts) is shown by the line AB
on T-H diagram. At this temperature, there is a slight increase in the volume of water
(vf ) as shown in figure.1(b)
• When water is heated beyond the saturation temperature, there will be no rise in
temperature, but evaporation of water takes place .
• In other words, water starts converting into steam. At this stage, water exists as a two-
phase mixture containing saturated liquid and water vapour occupying volume (vfg) as
shown in figure. 1(c). The steam in this condition is called wet steam.
• Evaporation of water continues at the same saturation temperature until the whole of the
water is completely converted into steam. This process is shown by the line BC on T-H
diagram.
• At point C, the steam formed does not contain water vapour (water particles in
suspension) and hence the steam in this state is called dry steam or dry saturated
steam. The volume occupied by the dry steam (v ) is shown in figure.1(d).
g
• If heating is further continued at point C, the temperature of the steam increases above
the saturation temperature and this temperature denoted by t . The steam in this
sup
condition is called superheated steam.
• The process of heating the dry steam is called superheating and is shown by the line CD
on T-H diagram. The volume occupied by the superheated steam (v ) is shown in
sup
figure 2.(e)
Definition of terms used in Formation of Steam

• Saturation Temperature(𝒕𝒔): is the temperature at which the water begin to boil at stated
pressure.
• Sensible Heat: is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1kg of water
from 0ºC to the saturation temperature at a given constant pressure. It is also called heat
of the liquid or enthalpy of the liquid and denoted as hf
• Latent heat of Evaporation: is the amount of heat required to evaporate 1kg of water at
saturation temperature to 1kg of dry steam at the same saturation temperature at given
constant pressure. It is also called enthalpy of evaporation and denoted as hfg
• Amount of Superheat: is the amount of heat required to increase the temperature of dry
steam from its saturation temperature to any desired higher temperature at given constant
pressure. Its is also called enthalpy of superheat (hsup)
DIFFERENT STATES OF STEAM

 WET STEAM

 DRY SATURATED STEAM

 SUPERHEATED STEAM
WET STEAM
It is a 2-phase mixture of entrained water molecules and steam in thermal equilibrium at the
saturation temperature corresponding to a given pressure
Dryness fraction (𝒙):

 A wet steam can be different qualities, i.e., having different proportions of water
molecules and dry steam.
 Therefore it is necessary to state the quality of the wet steam. The quality of the wet
steam is specified by the dryness fraction which indicates the amount of dry steam
present in the given quantity of wet steam and is denoted as 𝒙
 The dryness fraction of the wet steam will be less than 1.
 The dryness fraction of a steam is defined as the ratio of mass of the actual dry steam
present in a known quantity of wet steam to the total mass of the wet steam.
Let 𝒎𝒈 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑒𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚
𝒎𝒇 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑒𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑒𝑡

𝐷𝑟𝑦𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝒙 = 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑒𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚
𝒎𝒈
𝒙=
𝒎𝒇 + 𝒎𝒈
DRY SATURATED STEAM
It is a saturated steam at the saturation temperature corresponding to a given pressure having no

water molecules entrained in it
SUPERHEATED STEAM
It is defined as the steam which is heated beyond its dry saturated state to temperatures higher
than its saturated temperature at given pressure

Difference between dry steam and Superheated steam
STEAM PROPERTIES:
The important properties of steam are
1. Enthalpy of Steam
2. Specific volume
3. Internal energy
4. Pressure
5. Temperature
6. Entropy
ENTHALPY OF STEAM
• Enthalpy is defined as the sum of the internal energy and the product of the pressure
and volume.
• It is denoted as ‘h’ and expressed in (kJ/kg)
h = u + pv (kJ/kg)
• For constant pressure steam generation process

• The amount of heat supplied to water to convert into steam is equal to change in
enthalpy

Enthalpy of Dry saturated steam – is defined as the total amount of heat supplied at a given
constant pressure to convert 1kg of water into 1kg of dry saturated steam at its saturation
temperature.
𝒉𝒈 = 𝒉𝒇 + 𝒉𝒇𝒈 (kJ/kg)
Enthalpy of Wet steam – is defined as the total amount of heat supplied at a given constant
pressure to convert 1kg of water at 0ºC to 1kg of wet steam at specified dryness fraction
𝒉 = 𝒉𝒇 + 𝒙 𝒉𝒇𝒈 (kJ/kg)
Enthalpy of Superheated steam – is defined as the total amount of heat supplied at a given
constant pressure to convert 1kg of water at 0ºC into 1kg of superheated steam at stated
superheated temperature. It is equal to sum of enthalpy of dry saturated steam and
amount of superheat.
𝒉𝒔𝒖𝒑 = 𝒉𝒈 + 𝑪𝒑𝒔(𝒕𝒔𝒖𝒑 − 𝒕𝒔) (kJ/kg)
OR 𝒉𝒔𝒖𝒑 = 𝒉𝒇 + 𝒉𝒇𝒈 + 𝑪𝒑𝒔(𝒕𝒔𝒖𝒑 − 𝒕𝒔) (kJ/kg)

Specific Volume (m3/kg): It is the volume occupied by the unit mass of a substance.
It is express in m3/kg
Specific volume of Saturated Water (𝒗𝒇) : is the volume occupied by 1kg of water at the
saturation temperature at a given pressure
Specific volume of Dry Saturated Steam (𝒗𝒈): is the volume occupied by 1kg of dry
saturated steam at a given pressure
Specific volume of Wet Steam (𝒗) : is the sum of the volume occupied by the dried up
portion of the steam in 1kg of wet steam and the volume occupied by the entrained water
molecules in the same 1kg of wet steam.
𝒗 = 𝒙 𝒗𝒈 + (𝟏 − 𝒙)𝒗𝒇 (m3/kg)
Generally (𝟏 − 𝒙)𝒗𝒇 is very low and is often neglected

Therefore, 𝒗 = 𝒙 𝒗𝒈 (m3/kg)
Specific volume of superheated steam

It is defined as the volume occupied by 1kg of superheated steam at a given pressure
and superheated temperature. It is denoted by 𝒗𝒔𝒖𝒑
By Charles law,

𝒗𝒈 𝒗𝒔𝒖𝒑
=
𝒕𝒔 𝒕𝒔𝒖𝒑
𝒕𝒔𝒖𝒑
𝒗𝒔𝒖𝒑 = 𝒗𝒈
𝒕𝒔
External work of Evaporation

The fraction of the latent heat of vaporization which does an external work is called external
work of evaporation.
External work of evaporation per kg of dry saturated steam = = 𝒑(𝒗𝒈 − 𝒗𝒇) kJ/kg
At low pressures 𝒗𝒇 is very small and hence can be neglected
External work of evaporation per kg of dry saturated steam = 𝒑𝒗𝒈 kJ/kg
External work of evaporation per kg of wet steam = 𝒑 𝒙𝒗𝒈 kJ/kg

External work of evaporation per kg of superheated steam = 𝒑 𝒗𝒔𝒖𝒑 kJ/kg
Internal Latent heat

The energy required to change the phase is called true latent heat or internal latent heat
Internal latent heat of dry saturated steam = (𝒉𝒇𝒈 − 𝒑𝒗𝒈) kJ/kg
Internal Energy of Steam

 The total heat energy of a dry saturated steam at a constant pressure is the sum of the
sensible heat and latent heat.
 But in latent heat a portion is used for external work. Therefore, the actual energy stored
in the steam is the sensible heat and the internal latent heat. This actual energy stored
in the steam is called internal energy of steam.
 It is defined as the difference between the enthalpy of the steam and the external
work of evaporation
Internal energy of dry steam :

𝒖𝒈 = 𝒉𝒈 − 𝒑 𝒗𝒈 kJ/kg
Internal energy of wet steam :

𝒖 = 𝒉𝒇 + 𝒙𝒉𝒇𝒈 − 𝒑 𝒙𝒗𝒈 kJ/kg
Internal energy of superheated steam :

𝒖𝒔𝒖𝒑 = 𝒉𝒔𝒖𝒑 − 𝒑 𝒗𝒔𝒖𝒑 kJ/kg
EXAMPLE 1 :
Find the enthalpy of 1 kg of steam at 12 bar when, (a) steam is dry saturated, (b) steam is 22%
wet and (c)superheated to 250°C. Use the steam table. Assume the specific heat of the
superheated steam as 2.25 kJ/kgK.
Given data:
Find the enthalpy 1 kg of steam at 12 bar; specific heat of the superheated steam as C =2.25
ps
kJ/kgK.
To find : enthalpy 1 kg of steam at 12 bar
(a) steam is dry saturated 𝒉𝒈 = 𝒉𝒇 + 𝒉𝒇𝒈 (kJ/kg) ;
(b) steam is 22% wet , 𝒉 = 𝒉𝒇 + 𝒙 𝒉𝒇𝒈
(c) superheated to 𝒕𝒔𝒖𝒑 =250°C, 𝒉𝒔𝒖𝒑 = 𝒉𝒇 + 𝒉𝒇𝒈 + 𝑪𝒑𝒔(𝒕𝒔𝒖𝒑 − 𝒕𝒔)
Solution:
From the steam tables at 12 bar, the following values are noted.
𝒕𝒔 = 188°C ; 𝒉𝒇 = 798.4 kJ/kg 𝒉𝒇𝒈 = 1984.3 kJ/kg

(a) Enthalpy of Dry saturated Steam
𝒉𝒈 = 𝟕𝟗𝟖. 𝟒 + 𝟏𝟗𝟖𝟒. 𝟑
𝒉𝒈 = 2782.7 kJ/kg
b)Enthalpy of Wet Steam:

When the steam is 22% wet,
it will be 78% dry.
Therefore the dryness fraction x = 0.78
h = 798.4 + (0.78*1984.3)
h = 2346.154 kJ/kg

(c) Enthalpy of Superheated Steam

superheated to 𝒕𝒔𝒖𝒑 =250°C,
𝒉𝒔𝒖𝒑 = 𝒉𝒇 + 𝒉𝒇𝒈 + 𝑪𝒑𝒔(𝒕𝒔𝒖𝒑 − 𝒕𝒔) (kJ/kg)
h = 798.4 + 1984.3 + 2.25 (250 – 188)
sup
h = 2922.2 kJ/kg
sup
EXAMPLE 2 :
A steam at 10 bar and dryness 0.98 receives 140 kJ/kg at the same pressure. What is the final
state of the steam ?
Given data:
A steam at 10 bar and dryness x = 0.98 receives 140 kJ/kg at the same pressure.
To find : What is the final state of the steam ? [Dry saturated Steam, Superheated Steam,
Wet Steam]
Solution:
From the steam tables, at 10 bar, the following values are noted
𝒕𝒔 = 179.9°C ; hf = 762.6 kJ/kg hfg = 2013.6 kJ/kg
Enthalpy of wet steam at dryness fraction 0.98 is found out.

Enthalpy of Wet Steam:
Therefore the dryness fraction x = 0.98
h = 762.6 + ( 0.98* 2013.6 )

h = 2735.9 kJ/kg
When 140 kJ/kg of heat is added at the constant pressure its enthalpy will increase,
There fore,
Enthalpy of heat addition = 𝟐𝟕𝟑𝟓. 𝟗 + 𝟏𝟒𝟎
Enthalpy of heat addition = 𝟐𝟖𝟕𝟓. 𝟗 kJ/kg
At 10 bar the enthalpy of dry saturated steam,

𝒉𝒈 = 𝟕𝟔𝟐. 𝟔𝟏 + 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟑. 𝟔
𝒉𝒈 = 𝟐𝟕𝟕𝟔. 𝟐 kJ/kg
Since the enthalpy of steam after heat addition ( 𝟐𝟖𝟕𝟓. 𝟗 kJ/kg) is greater than the
enthalpy of dry saturated steam (𝒉𝒈 = 𝟐𝟕𝟕𝟔. 𝟐 kJ/kg) at the same pressure, the steam is
superheated.
There fore, 𝒉𝒔𝒖𝒑 = 𝟐𝟖𝟕𝟓. 𝟗 kJ/kg
The superheated temperature of the steam is found as follows. (Assume 𝑪𝒑𝒔=2.25 kJ/kgK., if
not given according to 10 bar )
𝟐𝟖𝟕𝟓. 𝟗 = 𝟐𝟕𝟕𝟔. 𝟐 + 𝟐. 𝟐𝟓(𝒕𝒔𝒖𝒑 − 179.9°C)

𝟐𝟖𝟕𝟓.𝟗 −𝟐𝟕𝟕𝟔.𝟐
𝒕𝒔𝒖𝒑 = 𝟐.𝟐𝟓
+ 179.9°C
𝒕𝒔𝒖𝒑 = 224.2°C
EXAMPLE 3 :
Find the specific volume and enthalpy of 1kg of steam at 0.8 MPa : (a)when the dryness
fraction is 0.9 and (b) when the steam is superheated to a temperature of 300°C. The specific
heat of superheated steam is 2.25 kJ/kgK.
Given data:
1kg of steam at pressure p = 0.8 MPa
p = 8 bar
To find : specific volume 𝒗 =? and enthalpy 𝒉 =? of 1kg of steam at pressure p = 8 bar

(a) when the dryness fraction is x = 0.9
(b) when the steam is superheated to a temperature of 𝒕𝒔𝒖𝒑 = 300°C. 𝑪𝒑𝒔 = 2.25 kJ/kgK
Solution:
From the steam tables at p = 0.8 MPa = 8 bar, the following values are noted.
𝒕𝒔 = 170.4°C ; 𝒉𝒇 = 720.9 kJ/kg 𝒉𝒇𝒈= 2046.5 kJ/kg
𝒉𝒈 = 𝟐𝟕𝟔𝟕. 𝟓 kJ/kg 𝒗𝒇 = 0.001115 m3/kg 𝒗𝒈= 0.240 m3/kg
(a) Specific volume of Wet Steam (𝒗):

𝒗 = 𝒙 𝒗𝒈 (m3/kg)
𝒗 = 𝟎. 𝟗 ∗ 𝟎. 𝟐𝟒𝟎
𝒗 = 0.216 m3/kg
(b) Specific volume of superheated steam (𝒗𝒔𝒖𝒑):
𝒕𝒔𝒖𝒑
𝒗𝒔𝒖𝒑 = 𝒗𝒈 (m3/kg)
𝒕𝒔
(𝟑𝟎𝟎+𝟐𝟕𝟑)
𝒗𝒔𝒖𝒑 = (𝟎. 𝟐𝟒𝟎) (𝟏𝟕𝟎.𝟒+𝟐𝟕𝟑)
𝒗𝒔𝒖𝒑 = 0.3101 m3/kg
(c) Enthalpy of Wet steam (𝒉)
𝒉 = 𝟕𝟐𝟎. 𝟗𝟒 + (𝟎. 𝟗 ∗ 𝟐𝟎𝟒𝟔. 𝟓)
𝒉 = 𝟐𝟓𝟔𝟐. 𝟕𝟗 kJ/kg
(d) Enthalpy of Superheated Steam (𝒉𝒔𝒖𝒑)
𝒉𝒔𝒖𝒑 = 𝟐𝟕𝟔𝟕. 𝟓 + 𝟐. 𝟐𝟓 (𝟑𝟎𝟎 − 𝟏𝟕𝟎. 𝟒)
𝒉𝒔𝒖𝒑 = 3059.1 kJ/kg
EXAMPLE 4:
The enthalpy of 1 kg of a steam at 70 bar is 2680 kJ. What is the condition of the steam ?
Given data:
1kg of steam at pressure p = 70 bar, 𝒉 = 2680 kJ/kgTo
find : What is the condition of the steam ?
Solution:
From the steam tables at p = 70 bar, the following values are noted.

𝒕𝒔 = 285.8°C ; 𝒉𝒇 = 1267.4 kJ/kg 𝒉𝒇𝒈= 1506 kJ/kg
𝒉𝒈 = 𝟐𝟕𝟕𝟑. 𝟓 kJ/kg
Since the given enthalpy of the steam ( 2680 kJ/kg ) is less than the enthalpy of the dry
saturated steam 𝒉𝒈 = 𝟐𝟕𝟕𝟑. 𝟓 kJ/kg at the given pressure, the given steam must be a wet
steam.
Therefore its dryness fraction must be found.
Enthalpy of Wet steam (𝒉)
𝟐𝟔𝟖𝟎 = 𝟏𝟐𝟔𝟕. 𝟒 + (𝒙 ∗ 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟔)
𝒙 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟑𝟖
EXAMPLE 5:
6 kg of wet steam contains 0.56 kg of water particles in it. What is the dryness fraction of the
steam?
Given data:
Mass of the Wet steam = 6 kg
Mass of the water particles = 0.56 kg
To find : What is the dryness fraction of the steam? (𝒙 =?)

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑒𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝒎𝒈
𝒙= =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑒𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝒎𝒇+𝒎𝒈
Solution:
Mass of the water particles = 0.56 kg
Mass of dry steam present in wet steam = Mass of the Wet steam − Mass of the water particles
Mass of dry steam present in wet steam = 6 kg − 0.56 kgMass
of dry steam present in wet steam = 5.44 kg
Mass of dry steam present in wet steam

𝑫𝒓𝒚𝒏𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝑺𝒕𝒆𝒂𝒎(𝒙) =
Mass of the Wet steam

𝟓. 𝟒𝟒
𝑫𝒓𝒚𝒏𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝑺𝒕𝒆𝒂𝒎(𝒙) =
𝟔
𝑫𝒓𝒚𝒏𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝑺𝒕𝒆𝒂𝒎(𝒙) = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟎𝟔
EXAMPLE 6:
A mixture of saturated water and saturated steam at a temperature of 250.3°C is contained in

a closed vessel of 0.1 m3 capacity: If the mass of the saturated water is 2 kg, find the mass of
the steam in the vessel. Also find the pressure, specific volume, dryness fraction and the
enthalpy of the mixture.
Given data:
A mixture of saturated water and saturated steam at a temperature of 𝒕𝒔 = 250.3°C
Volume of closed vessel = 0.1 𝑚3 capacity = 𝒎𝒇𝒗𝒇 + 𝒎𝒈𝒗𝒈
(Since vessel contains saturated water and steam)

Mass of the saturated water 𝒎𝒇 = 2 kg
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑒𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝒎𝒈 =?
To find :
a) Pressure p = ? from steam table 𝒕𝒔 = 250.3°C
b) Mass of steam in the vessel = ?
Total mass of the mixture = 𝒎𝒇 + 𝒎𝒈

𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒗𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒍
c) Specific volume of the mixture = ? , 𝒗𝒎𝒊𝒙𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 = 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒊𝒙𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆
𝒎𝒈
d) Dryness fraction 𝒙 =? 𝒙=
𝒎𝒇+𝒎𝒈
e) Enthalpy of the mixture = ? 𝒉 = 𝒉𝒇 + 𝒙 𝒉𝒇𝒈 (kJ/kg)
Solution:
(a) Pressure of Steam
Since the mixture in the vessel contains saturated water and saturated steam, it will be a wet
steam. The pressure of the steam is found from the steam tables corresponding to
𝒕𝒔 =250.3°C is p = 40 bar
At p = 40 bar
𝒉𝒇 = 1087.4 kJ/kg 𝒉𝒇𝒈= 1712.9 kJ/kg

𝒉𝒈 = 𝟐𝟖𝟎𝟎. 𝟑 kJ/kg 𝒗𝒇 = 0.001252 m3/kg 𝒗𝒈= 0.0497 m3/kg
(b) Mass of steam in the vessel
Since the vessel contains saturated water and stearn
Volume of the vessel = 𝒎𝒇𝒗𝒇 + 𝒎𝒈𝒗𝒈
0.1 = (2 𝑥 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟐𝟓𝟐) + 𝒎𝒈 𝐱 (𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝟗𝟕)
𝒎𝒈 = 𝟏. 𝟗𝟔 𝒌𝒈
Total mass of the mixture = 𝒎𝒇 + 𝒎𝒈
Total mass of the mixture = 𝟐 + 𝟏. 𝟗𝟔
Total mass of the mixture = 𝟑. 𝟗𝟔 𝒌𝒈
c) Specific volume of the mixture = ?

𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒗𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒍
𝒗𝒎𝒊𝒙𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 =
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒊𝒙𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆
𝟎. 𝟏
𝒗𝒎𝒊𝒙𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 =
𝟑. 𝟗𝟔
𝒗𝒎𝒊𝒙𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟓 m3/kg
d) Dryness fraction 𝒙 =?
𝒎𝒈
𝒙=
𝒎𝒇+𝒎𝒈
𝟏. 𝟗𝟔
𝒙=
𝟐 + 𝟏. 𝟗𝟔
𝒙 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟗𝟓
e) Enthalpy of the mixture = ?
𝒉 = 𝟏𝟎𝟖𝟕. 𝟒 + (𝟎. 𝟒𝟗𝟓 ∗ 𝟏𝟕𝟏𝟐. 𝟗)
𝒉 = 𝟏𝟗𝟑𝟓. 𝟐𝟗 𝐤𝐉/𝐤𝐠
For More Numerical Problems, Refer Module 1 PPT Shared in GCR and Question Papper
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Applications of steam in industries

Syllabus : Applications of steam in industries namely, Sugar industry, Dairy industry, Paper
industry, Food processing industry for Heating/Sterilization, Propulsion/Drive, Motive,
Atomization, Cleaning, Moisturization, Humidification
APPLICATION OF STEAM IN SUGAR INDUSTRY

Process Stages in a Sugar Mill:
Sugar cane or sugar beet undergoes several stages of processing before sending it to
markets and shops. The process stages in the sugar industry shown in figure below.
Role of Steam Boilers in Sugar Processing:
 Steam boilers are pivotal in the processing operations of crystallization and drying in
sugar mills.
 Boilers in sugar industry primarily use bagasse, coal, and biomass as fuel.
 Boilers with traveling grates can ensure proper combustion with fuels like coal and
biomass, thus saving excess fuel costs.
 Additionally, boilers in sugar industry also generate electricity through cogeneration
plants.
 Steam boilers are pivotal in the processing operations of crystallization and drying in
sugar mills.
 Boilers in sugar industry primarily use bagasse, coal, and biomass as fuel.
 Boilers with traveling grates can ensure proper combustion with fuels like coal and
biomass, thus saving excess fuel costs.
 Additionally, boilers in sugar industry also generate electricity through cogeneration
plants.

Figure 1.4.: Sugar process steam requirements
APPLICATION OF STEAM IN DAIRY INDUSTRY

 Steam Boilers play a major part in any processing industry and an unarguable fact is
that they are the backbone of the dairy and milk processing industries and require to be;
highly efficient, resilient, and preferably compact for seamless operations.
 Boilers in the dairy industries mainly perform the processes of milk
pasteurization and Ultra Heat Temperature (UHT) to ensure that the milk is safe for
consumption and freefrom harmful bacteria for optimal shelf life.
 The milk processing plants utilize steam for processing and pasteurizing raw milk and
dairy products under heat treatment. It leads to the process and production of various
dairy products such as milk powder, yogurt, cheese, condensed milk, skimmed milk,
butter, ghee, and cream.
 Steam Boilers play a major part in any processing industry and an unarguable fact is
that they are the backbone of the dairy and milk processing industries and require to be;
highly efficient, resilient, and preferably compact for seamless operations.
 Boilers in the dairy industries mainly perform the processes of milk
pasteurization and Ultra Heat Temperature (UHT) to ensure that the milk is safe for
consumption and freefrom harmful bacteria for optimal shelf life.
 The milk processing plants utilize steam for processing and pasteurizing raw milk and
dairy products under heat treatment. It leads to the process and production of various
dairy products such as milk powder, yogurt, cheese, condensed milk, skimmed milk,
butter, ghee, and cream.

Raw milk processing takes place through the following procedures:

Pasteurization:
 Pasteurization is a process where the temperature of the raw milk is increased to
around 212 degrees Fahrenheit to assure that all the harmful bacteria that may cause
harm to the milk are neutralized
Ultra Heat Temperature or UHT

 UHT is the process that increases the milk temperature and sterilizes it over 275
degrees Fahrenheit for around 5 seconds.
 The process ascertains the complete removal of the bacterial spores.
 Apart from these, boiler for milk dairy generate steam for the purpose of sterilizing
the boiler and equipment involved during the processing operation and heating the
dairy plant itself to ensure that there are not any bacteria present in the processing
operation.

APPLICATION OF STEAM IN PAPER INDUSTRY

From Forest to Finished Product
 The manufacturing process of paper is fascinating. The raw materials required for
making paper include water, energy, chemicals, and wood chips (cellulose).
 Wood fiber often comes to the paper mill in the form of chips or logs. The logs need
to be debarked before being sent to a chipper to form wood chips.
Making pulp
 The wood chips are cooked in a chemical solution in huge vats called a digester (a
high-pressure vessel).
 The chips are boiled with chemicals and are dissolved to form a pulp. The pulp is
filtered and may be bleached, if required. This pulp is then sent for further processing.

Beating
 The next process in manufacturing is called beating. The pulp is pounded and
squeezed.
 Other filler materials, additives, and sizing are added to the pulp.
 Each material influences the property of the paper
Pulp to paper
 The pulp is fed into automated machines where the paper is squeezed through a series
of rollers.
 The paper then moves to the press section where it is pressed between rollers.
 Steam heated cylinders help to remove the remaining water from the paper.
Finishing
 The dried paper is wound into large reels where further processing depends on the
ultimate application.
 Paper mills require steam for energy requirement, to dry the paper, and cook the wood
chips in the digester.
Paper and Pulp Industry Boilers

 Boilers in the paper industry are used to generate steam for power and process system.
 The high-pressure steam is used in steam turbines to produce electricity for the paper
mill.
 Paper mill requires medium and low-pressure steam for various process applications
such as heating and cooking the wood chips to make wood pulp.
 Boilers in the paper industry are used to generate steam for power and process system.
 The high-pressure steam is used in steam turbines to produce electricity for the paper
mill.
 Paper mill requires medium and low-pressure steam for various process applications
such as heating and cooking the wood chips to make wood pulp.

APPLICATION OF STEAM IN FOOD PROCESSING INDUSTRY

 Steam is an integral part of the manufacturing and process industries throughout the
world.
 With the ever-increasing global consumption and developments in the manufacturing
sector, steam boilers have proved to be an essential asset for high-quality
manufacturing and optimal productivity.
 Cogeneration plants are an ideal example of generating steam and electricity for
saving resources and releasing less emission.
 It uses external mechanical energy to convert into electrical energy. Steam generated
in steam boilers produces electricity through a turbine.
 Therefore, steam is an important factor in the processing operations as well as for
power generation.
 Heat is a heart of industrial food processes. The food industry needs heat at every
stage of the process. Direct heat or heat from the hot water is an essential factor of the
food processing industry.
 Inside the beverage business, steam is used for cooking, drying, and warming, and for
general utilize-cleaning. Steam is also used to eliminate microbiological risk in food.
Fig 1.5. Use of Steam Boilers in Food Processing & Beverage industry
Steam Boiler in the Food Industry

 Hot Water Generation for Sanitation
 Hot Water for Facilities
 Steam Power for Machinery
 Heating Requirement for Facility
 Steam for Batching

 Steam for Processing

 Steam for Cooking
 Reducing Microbiological Risks in Food
 Steam for Drying Food
 Steam & Heat for Packaging
Fuel used in Food Boilers

These food industry boilers generally used fossil fuels to produce heat & hot water for
cleaning and cooking purpose.
 Coal
 Natural gas
 Fuel oil
 Biomass
APPLICATIONS OF STEAM IN PROCESSING PLANTS:

 Steam boilers generate steam for multiple purposes such as heating, drying,
sterilizing, power generation, etc.
 Therefore, steam plays a crucial role in the process operations and for producing
electricity. Here are some of the commonly found applications of the steam
Principal Applications for Steam
Steam is used in a wide range of industries. Common applications for steam are, for example,
steam heated processes in plants and factories and steam driven turbines in electric power
plants, but the uses of steam in industry extend far beyond this.

Here are some typical applications for steam in industry:
 Heating/Sterilization
 Propulsion/Drive
 Motive
 Atomization
 Cleaning
 Moisturization
 Humidification
STEAM FOR HEATING
Positive Pressure Steam

 Steam is typically generated and distributed at a positive pressure. In most cases, this
means that it is supplied to equipment at pressures above 0 MPa and temperatures
higher than 100°C (212°F).
 Heating applications for positive pressure steam can be found in food processing
factories, refineries, and chemical plants to name a few.
 Saturated steam is used as the heating source for process fluid heat exchangers,
reboilers, reactors, combustion air preheaters, and other types of heat transfer
equipment.
 In a heat exchanger, steam raises the temperature of the product by heat transfer, after
which it turns into condensate and is discharged through a steam trap
Fig 1.6. Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger
 Process heating is one of the major applications of steam.

 Various factors such as high efficiency, reliability, cost-effectiveness, and ease of

using make steam the preferred heating medium over other alternatives. Steam is used
for either direct heating or indirect heating.
 Indirect heating, as the name suggests, uses steam to heat the products without any
direct contact. Indirect heating takes place with the help of various heating equipment
such as heat exchangers, cookers, jacketed vessels, etc.
 Superheated steam heated to 200 – 800°C (392 - 1472°F) at atmospheric pressure is
particularly easy to handle, and is used in the household steam ovens seen on the
market today.
 In direct heating, the steam is directly subjected to the product that needs to be
heated. Precision is required to ensure uniform heating and that the steam does not
exit the steam boiler without heating the products.
 Pharmaceuticals and food processing are prime examples that utilize steam for direct
heating.
Fig 1.7 Steam Oven
Vacuum Steam
 The use of steam for heating at temperatures below 100°C (212°F), traditionally the
temperature range in which hot water is used, has grown rapidly in recent years.
 When vacuum saturated steam is used in the same manner as positive pressure
saturated steam, the temperature of the steam can be quickly changed by adjusting the
pressure, making it possible to achieve precise temperature control unlike applications
using hot water. However, a vacuum pump must be used in conjunction with the
equipment, because merely reducing the pressure will not drop it to below
atmospheric pressure.
 Compared with a hot water heating system, this system offers fast, even heating. The
set temperature is rapidly reached without causing unevenness in temperature.

Fig. 1.8 Heating with Latent (Steam) Heat
Steam for Propulsion/Drive
 Steam is regularly used for propulsion (as a driving force) in applications such as
steam turbines.
 The steam turbine is a piece of equipment that is essential for the generation of
electricity in thermal electric power plants. In an effort to improve efficiency,
progress is being made toward the use of steam at ever-higher pressures and
temperatures.
 There are some thermal electric power plants that use 25 MPa abs (3625 psia), 610°C
(1130°F) superheated, supercritical pressure steam in their turbines.
 Superheated steam is often used in steam turbines to prevent damage to equipment
caused by the inflow of condensate.
Fig1.9. Generator Turbine

 In certain types of nuclear power plants, however, the use of high temperature steam
must be avoided, as it would cause problems with the material used in the turbine
equipment.
 Instead, high pressure saturated steam is typically used. Where saturated steam must
be used, separators are often installed in the supply piping to remove entrained
condensate from the steam flow.
 Besides power generation, other typical propulsion/drive applications are usually for
either turbine-driven compressors or pumps, ex. gas compressors, cooling tower
pumps, etc.
 The driving force from the steam causes the fins to turn, which then causes the rotor
on the attached power generator to rotate, and this rotation generates electricity.
Steam as Motive Fluid
 Steam can also be used as a direct “motive” force to move liquid and gas streams in
piping.
 Steam jet ejectors are used to pull vacuum on process equipment such as distillation
towers to separate and purify process vapor streams.
 They are also used for continuous removal of air from surface condensers, in order to
maintain desired vacuum pressure on condensing (vacuum) turbines.
 High pressure motive steam enters the jet ejector through the inlet nozzle and is then
diffused. This creates a low pressure zone which entrains air from the surface
condenser.
 In a similar type of application, steam is also the primary motive fluid for secondary
pressure drainers, which are used for pumping condensate from vented receiver tanks,
flash vessels, or steam equipment that experiences stall conditions.
Fig 1.10. Ejector for Surface Condenser

Steam for Atomization
• Steam atomization is a process where steam is used to mechanically separate a

fluid.
• In some burners, for example, steam is injected into the fuel in order to maximize
combustion efficiency and minimize the production of hydrocarbons (soot).
• Steam boilers and generators that use fuel oil will use this method to break up the
viscous oil into smaller droplets to allow for more efficient combustion.
• Flares also commonly use steam atomization to reduce pollutants in the exhaust.
• In flares, steam is often mixed in with the waste gas before combustion.
Fig. 1.11 Steam Assisted Flare
Steam for Cleaning

• Steam is used to clean a wide range of surfaces. One such example from industry is
the use of steam in soot blowers.
• Boilers that use oil or coal as the fuel source must be equipped with soot blowers for
cyclic cleaning of the furnace walls and removing combusted deposits from convection
surfaces to maintain boiler capacity, efficiency, and reliability.
• Steam released out of the soot blower nozzle dislodges the dry or sintered ash and slag,
which then fall into hoppers or are carried out with the combusted gasses.
Fig. 1.12 Boiler Tube Cleaning with Soot Blower
Steam for Moisturization
• Steam is sometimes used to add moisture to a process while at the same time
supplying heat.
• For example, steam is used for moisturization in the production of paper, so that paper
moving over rolls at high speed does not suffer microscopic breaks or tears.
• Another example is pellet mills. Often mills that produce animal feed in pellet form
use direct-injected steam to both heat and provide additional water content to the feed
material in the conditioner section of the mill.
• The moisturizing of the feed softens the feed and partially gelatinizes the starch content
of the ingredients, resulting in firmer pellets.

Fig. 1.13 Pellet Mill Conditioner
Steam for Humidification
 Many large commercial and industrial facilities, especially in colder climates, use low
pressure saturated steam as the predominant heat source for indoor seasonal
heating.
 (Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning) HVAC coils, often combined with steam
humidifiers, are the equipment used for conditioning the air for indoor comfort,
preservation of books and records, and infection control.
 When the cold air is heated by the steam coils, the relative humidity of the air drops,
and it must then be adjusted to normal levels with addition of a controlled injection of
dry saturated steam into the downstream air flow.
 Steam is used to humidify air within an air duct before the air is distributed to other
regions of a building.
Fig.1.14 Steam Humidifier in Air Duct

ENERGY- Capacity to do work.

 Most of the energy that we use is mainly derived from conventional energy sources.
 Due to the vast demand of energy, the rate of depletion of these resources have
reached alarmingly low levels.
 This situation has directed us to seek alternate energy sources such as solar, wind,
ocean, biomass, hydel etc.
 Kinetic Energy: Energy possessed by a body in motion.
 Potential Energy: Energy related to a position.
 Internal Energy: Energy contained in a chemical system by virtue of the motions of,
and forces between the individual atoms and molecules of the system.
Energy sources:
 The energy existing in the earth is known as CAPITAL energy.
 Energy that comes from outer space is called celestial or income energy.
 The capital energy sources are mainly, fossil fuels, nuclear fuels and heat traps.
 Celestial energy sources are - electromagnetic, gravitational and particle energy from
stars, planets, moon etc,.
 Electromagnetic energy of the earth by the energy from the Sun is called direct solar
energy. This results in WIND, HYDEL, GEOTHERMAL, BIOFUEL, etc,.
 Gravitational energy of earth-moon produces tidal energy.
Forms of Energy
Mechanical energy, Electrical energy, Chemical energy , Heat energy, Nuclear energy, Sound
energy
Sources of Energy
Fossil fuels, Hydro energy, Solar energy, Wind energy, Tidal energy
CLASSIFICATION OF ENERGY SOURCES BASED ON

I. Availability and usage with respect to time and economical viability
 Conventional and non-conventional energy sources.
II. Possibility of renewability (Reclassification of Conventional and non-conventional
energy)
 Renewable and non-renewable energy sources

CONVENTIONAL AND NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES
Conventional Energy Resources:
 Fuels which are in use from several decades like fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum,
natural gas and hydel sources are called conventional energy sources.
Non-Conventional Energy Resources:
 Fossil fuels are depleting and hydel sources are not available everywhere.
 The alternate inexhaustible sources of energy are called nonconventional energy
sources.
 They are solar energy, wind energy, tidal energy, ocean thermal energy, fuel cells,
solid wastes, hydrogen etc. Are called nonconventional energy sources.
RENEWABLE AND NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES
Renewable energy resources:
 Energy resources which are produced continuously in nature and are essentially
inexhaustible at least in the time frame of human societies.
 Ex: Direct Solar Energy, Wind Energy, Tidal energy, Hydel Energy, Bio-energy,
Ocean thermal energy, Geothermal energy, Bio energy, Fuel cells, Solid wastes,
Hydrogen
Non-Renewable energy resources:
 Energy resources which have been accumulated over the ages and not quickly
replenishable when they are exhausted.
 Ex: Fossil fuels, Nuclear fuels, Heat traps
ADVANTAGES OF RENEWABLE RESOURCES
 Non-exhaustible.
 Reliable Energy Source.
 Facilities generally require less maintenance than traditional generators. Their fuel
being derived from natural and available resources reduces the costs of operation.
 Some of the renewable energy conversion systems often can be built on, or close to
the site where the energy is required, which will minimize the transmission cost.
 Except the biomass energy source, all other renewable energy resources offer
pollution free environment and also help in maintaining the ecological balance.
 Renewable energy sources investments create a significant number of new jobs,
especially at the local level.

DISADVANTAGES OF RENEWABLE RESOURCES
 The intermittent nature of the availability of the energy is a major setback in

continuous supply of energy.
 Although supply of solar energy is limitless, there is a definite limit of rate at which
the solar energy is received at the earth as it is dependent on the local atmospheric
conditions, time of the day, part of the year and also on the latitude of the place.
 Some of renewable energy resources like wind, tidal, etc. although available in large
quantities, are concentrated in certain regions.
 Harnessing the renewable resources is not yet fully developed to meet the present day
requirements.
 Renewable energy conversion systems like solar cells, automatic tracking systems for
solar concentrators, etc. require advanced technologies.
Differences between renewable and non-renewable sources of energy

Sl.No Factor Renewable Energy Non-Renewable Energy
Exhaustibility/
1 Inexhaustibility Inexhaustible Exhaustible
2 Availability Abundantly and freely available Not abundantly available

Are replenished naturally over
a useful period of time at the same Cannot be replenished over
rateat which they are consumed. desired period of time.
For resources such as solar energy, Ex: Fossil fuels
3 Replenishment replenishment is automatic but
during the day.
Not environment friendly
and can produce green
Environment Environment friendly except in house gases that contribute
friendliness case of biomass energy resources to global warming.
Ex: Coal burnt produces
4 carbon dioxide which is
harmful to the environment
Cost of production is low.
But since the depletion rate
Cost of building systems to tap
Cost Factor is high, the demand is
energy is high. The running cost is
increasing and the supply is
5 low.
decreasing and this is
eventually increasing the
Intermittently available.
Nature of
Ex: Solar energy is available in the
6 availability Continuously available
day and not during the night.

Non-renewable energy
For renewable energy resources resources such as petroleum
like solar energy, there is no is available in select
Regional
regional restriction. This reduces countries (such as those in
7 restriction and
dependency on certain countries. the Middle East) and hence
dependency factor the dependency is high.
Comparison of Conventional and Non conventional energy Sources

Conventional energy Sources Non-conventional energy Sources
1. These are widely used and economical 1. These are rarely used since initial costs
are high
2. Most of them are exhaustible 2. Most of them are non-exhaustible
3. Most of them are hazardous to the environment. 3.Most of them are friendly to the
environment.
4. Though initial cost is more, they are reliable 4. Though initial investment is high they are
not reliable.
5. Energy transmission costs are high 5. Energy transmission costs are low
Example: Fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum, Example: Solar energy, wind energy, tidal
natural gas, and hydel resources. energy, ocean thermal energy, bio-energy,
fuel cells, hydrogen
HYDRO POWER PLANTS

 It is an indirect source of solar energy.
 The rain water flowing as river is stored in reservoirs constructed by building dams
across the rivers.
 The potential energy of water stored is converted into mechanical energy by turbines,
which is further converted into electrical by generators coupled to the turbine.
 The electrical energy generation by hydro-electric power plants is non-polluting and
is a renewable source of energy.

Fig. 1.15 Hydro Power Plants
 In hydroelectric power plants the potential energy of water due to its high location is
converted into electrical energy.
 The total power generation capacity of the hydroelectric power plants depends on the
head of water and volume of water flowing towards the water turbine
 The hydroelectric power plant, also called as dam or hydro power plant, is used for
generation of electricity from water on large scale basis. The dam is built across the
large river that has sufficient quantity of water throughout the river.
 In certain cases where the river is very large, more than one dam can built across the
river at different locations.

THERMAL POWER PLANT

• Almost two third of electricity requirement of the world is fulfilled by thermal power
plants (or thermal power stations).
• In these power stations, steam is produced by burning some fossil fuel (e.g. coal) and
then used to run a steam turbine.
• Thus, a thermal power station may sometimes called as a Steam Power Station.
• After the steam passes through the steam turbine, it is condensed in a condenser and again
fed back into the boiler to become steam. This is known as ranking cycle.
• This article explains how electricity is generated in thermal power plants. As majority
of thermal power plants use coal as their primary fuel, this article is focused on a coal
fired thermal power plant.
Fig. 1.16 Thermal power plant
Coal based thermal power plant:

• In a coal based thermal power plant, coal is transported from coal mines to the generating
station. Generally, bituminous coal or brown coal is used as fuel.
• The coal is stored in either 'dead storage' or in 'live storage’.
• Dead storage is generally 40 days backup coal storage which is used when coal supply
is unavailable.
• Live storage is a raw coal bunker in boiler house.
• The coal is cleaned in a magnetic cleaner to filter out if any iron particles are present
which may cause wear and tear in the equipment.
• The coal from live storage is first crushed in small particles and then taken into
pulverizer to make it in powdered form.
• Fine powdered coal undergoes complete combustion, and thus pulverized coal improves
efficiency of the boiler.

• The ash produced after the combustion of coal is taken out of the boiler furnace and then
properly disposed.
• Periodic removal of ash from the boiler furnace is necessary for the proper combustion.
Boiler:
• The mixture of pulverized coal and air (usually preheated air) is taken into boiler and
then burnt in the combustion zone.
• On ignition of fuel a large fireball is formed at the center of the boiler and large amount
of heat energy is radiated from it.
• The heat energy is utilized to convert the water into steam at high temperature and
pressure.
• Steel tubes run along the boiler walls in which water is converted in steam. The flue
gases from the boiler make their way through superheater, economizer, air preheater and
finally get exhausted to the atmosphere from the chimney.
 Superheater: The superheater tubes are hanged at the hottest part of the boiler. The
saturated steam produced in the boiler tubes is superheated to about 540°C in
the superheater. The superheated high pressure steam is then fed to the steam turbine.
 Economizer: An economizer is essentially a feed water heater which heats the water
before supplying to the boiler.
 Air pre-heater: The primary air fan takes air from the atmosphere and it is then warmed
in the air pre-heater. Pre-heated air is injected with coal in the boiler. The advantage of
pre-heating the air is that it improves the coal combustion.
• Steam turbine: High pressure super heated steam is fed to the steam turbine which
causes turbine blades to rotate. Energy in the steam is converted into mechanical energy
in the steam turbine which acts as the prime mover. The pressure and temperature of the
steam falls to a lower value and it expands in volume as it passes through the turbine.
The expanded low pressure steam is exhausted in the condenser.
• Condenser: The exhausted steam is condensed in the condenser by means of cold water
circulation. Here, the steam loses it's pressure as well as temperature and it is converted
back into water. Condensing is essential because, compressing a fluid which is in
gaseous state requires a huge amount of energy with respect to the energy required in
compressing liquid. Thus, condensing increases efficiency of the cycle.
• Alternator: The steam turbine is coupled to an alternator. When the turbine rotates the
alternator, electrical energy is generated. This generated electrical voltage is then stepped
up with the help of a transformer and then transmitted where it is to be utilized.
• Feed water pump: The condensed water is again fed to the boiler by a feed water pump.
Some water may be lost during the cycle, which is suitably supplied from an external
water source.

This was the basic working principle of a thermal power station and its typical components.
A practical thermal plant possess more complicated design and multiple stages of turbine such
as High Pressure Turbine (HPT), Intermediate Pressure Turbine (IPT) and Low Pressure
Turbine (LPT).
Advantages:
Less initial cost as compared to other generating stations.
It requires less land as compared to hydro power plant.
The fuel (i.e. coal) is cheaper.
The cost of generation is lesser than that of diesel power plants.
Disadvantages:
It pollutes the atmosphere due to the production of large amount of smoke. This is one
of the causes of global warming.
The overall efficiency of a thermal power station is low (less than 30%).
NUCLEAR POWER
• Chemical energy released during the splitting (fission) or fusing of atomic nuclei.
Nuclear Reaction
• Involves changes in structure of nucleus
• Nucleus gains or loses one or more neutrons or protons – release useful amount of
energy
• Nuclear Energy - millions of electron volts (MeV)Released by “FUSION” and
“FISSION” nuclear reaction

NUCLEAR POWER PLANT

• Nuclear Power can be developed by fission (splitting into two atoms from one atom)
or fusion (joining of two atoms into one) reactions in nuclear reactors.
• When a large fissile atomic nucleus such as U235 absorb a neutron, it undergoes
nuclear fission.
• The heavy nucleus splits into two or lighter nuclei (the fission products) releasing
kinetic energy, gamma radiation and free neutrons.
• A portion of these neutons may later be absorbed by other fissile atoms and cause
further fission events, which release more neutrons and so on. This phenomenon is
known as nuclear chain reaction.

Fig.1.17 Nuclear Power Plant
• Figure shows pressurized water reactor based nuclear power plant.

• Control rods are housed inside the reactor vessel, these rods are used to control the
splitting of uranium atoms (U235).
• The reactor and steam generator are housed inside a containment structure
• Pressurized water is used as coolant as well as moderator in primary circuit.
• This water transfers heat to water in secondary circuit and boils it, generating steam.
• This steam is fed to a steam turbine coupled with a generator, producing electrical
energy.
• Steam coming out of turbine is cooled with cooling water coming from cooling tower
or sea, condensed water is re-circulated in the circuit.

SOLAR POWER
Solar Radiation
Radiant energy emitted by the sun, particularly electromagnetic energy
Solar Power
Power obtained by harnessing energy given out by sun’s rays

Solar Constant
It is the quantity of radiation solar energy received at the outer layer of earth’s
atmosphere that has a mean value of 1360 watts per square meter.
French physicist CLAUDE POUILLET – made first estimate of Solar constant -
PYRHELIOMETER
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION
 Helio-electrical Process
 Helio-chemical Process
 Helio-thermal Process
Solar Cell

SOLAR POWER PLANT
Fig. 1.18 Working of Solar Power Plant
Fig. 1.19 Solar Cell
Working of SOLAR POWER PLANT
• When a p-n junction of a semiconductor is exposed to sunlight, some of solar photons

are absorbed in the vicinity of p-n junction.
• These photons will have high energy to dislodge an electron and give it enough energy to
move freely in the material.

• Thus the ejected free electron and the hole from an electron-hole pair, the electrons and
the holes being of opposite charge will be pushed in different directions by the electric
field which already exists in the vicinity of the junction if they come into the region near
the p -n junction.
• The permanent electric field which had built-in near the p-n junction pushes the hole
into the p-region and the electron into the n-region.
• Thus p-region becomes positively charged and the n-region becomes negatively
charged.
• If an external load is applied, this charge difference will drive a current through it.
• The current will flow so long as the sunlight keeps generating the electron-hole pairs.
• Further the diode is reversed biased to increase this electric field.
• So this current starts flowing in the circuit for individual solar cell. We combine the
current of all the solar cells of a solar panel, to get a significant output.
• Solar power plant have a large number of solar panels connected to each other to get a
large voltage output.
• The electrical energy coming from the combined effort of solar panels is stored in the
Lithium ion batteries to be supplied at night time, when there is no sunlight.
Advantages of Solar Power Plant (Solar Energy )

• Solar cells can be used to operate calculators and watches
• Solar batteries can be used in street lighting, radio and TV stations, satellites and
pump sets.
• Most clean and renewable source of energy.
• It is available in abundance and endless.
• It provides electricity at low cost, as fuel is free.
• With new research in this sector we now have a good power storage solution.
• Keeping in mind the pollution and cost of fossil fuel, it’s becoming the most reliable
source of clean energy.
Disadvantages of Solar Power Plant (Solar Energy )

• Storage is possible only during day light.
• It requires a lot of land to be captured forever.
• Initial cost of installation is too high.
• The energy storage options are not efficient and moreover costly if efficient.
• Power production is quite low as compared to nuclear or other resources to produce
power.
• There is a problem, if it is cloudy for few days.
Applications
 Solar power plant is powering cities in most efficient manner.

 Solar panels could be used to generate electricity individually for each house
especially in remote areas.

TIDAL POWER PLANT

WORKING OF TIDAL POWER PLANTS
• Tide or wave is periodic rise and fall of water level of the sea.
• Tides occur due to the attraction of sea water by the Moon.
• Tides contain large amount of potential energy which is used for power generation.
• When the water is above the mean sea level, it is called flood tide.
• When the water level is below the mean level it is called ebb tide.
Fig: 1.20 (a)High tide and (b)Low tide
• The arrangement of this system is shown in figure.

• The ocean tides rise and fall and water can be stored during the rise period and it can be
discharged during fall.
• A dam is constructed separating the tidal basin from the sea and a difference in water
level is obtained between the basin and sea.

• During high tide period, water flows from the sea into the tidal basin through the water
turbine. The height of tide is above that of tidal basin.
• Hence the turbine unit operates and generates power, as it is directly coupled to a
generator.
• During low tide period, water flows from tidal basin to sea, as the water level in the
basin is more than that of the tide in the sea.
• During this period also, the flowing water rotates the turbine and generator power.
• The generation of power stops only when the sea level and the tidal basin level are
equal.
• For the generation of power economically using this source of energy requires some
minimum tide height and suitable site.
• Kislaya power plant of 250 MW capacity in Russia and Rance power plant in France
are the only examples of this type of power plant.
Advantages of tidal power plants.

• It is free from pollution as it does not use any fuel.
• It is superior to hydro-power plant as it is totally independent of rain.
• It improves the possibility of fish farming in the tidal basins and it can provide
recreation to visitors and holiday makers.
Disadvantages
• Tidal power plants can be developed only if natural sites are available on the bay.
• As the sites are available on the bays which are always far away from load centres, the
power generated has to be transmitted to long distances. This increases the transmission
cost and transmission losses.

WIND POWER PLANT
Fig. 1.21 Schematic diagram of Wind Mill
• Wind energy is the energy contained in the force of the winds blowing across the earth
surface.
• Wind energy is defined as the kinetic energy associated with the movement of large
masses of air over the earth’s surface.
• The circulation of the air in the atmosphere is caused by the non-uniform heating of the
earth’s surface by the sun.
• The air immediately above warm area expands and becomes less dense. It is then forced
upwards by a cool denser air which flows in from the surrounding areas causing wind.
• When the wind blows, a packet of the pressure air flows on the downward side of the
blade.
• The low pressure air packet thus pulls the air towards it. This causes the rotor to turn and
produce force called lift.
• This force is stronger than the wind force against the front side of the blade.
• The combination of lift and drag causes the rotor to rotate like a propeller and turning
shaft rotate as generator to produce electricity.


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ELEMENTS OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING MODULE1

Introduction to Mechanical Engineering (Overview only):

Introduction to Mechanical Engineering

What is Mechanical Engineering?

Mechanical Engineering is that branch of engineering which combines physics, mathematics,

Mr. RAJESH S C, Dept. ME SKIT Page 1

Mechanical Engineering is important because it introduces and helps implement useful

ROLE OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS IN INDUSTRIES AND SOCIETY

Mechanical engineering is one of the broadest engineering fields. Mechanical engineers

Mechanical engineers design power-producing machines, such as electric generators, internal

Mr. RAJESH S C, Dept. ME SKIT Page 2

The following are examples of types of mechanical engineers:

Role of Mechanical Engineers in Society

Mr. RAJESH S C, Dept. ME SKIT Page 3

EMERGING TRENDS AND TECHNOLOGIES IN DIFFERENT SECTOR.

Mr. RAJESH S C, Dept. ME SKIT Page 4

STEAM FORMATION AND APPLICATIONS

Figure 1.1: Example of modes of heat transfer

Mr. RAJESH S C, Dept. ME SKIT Page 5

The three types of heat transfer

● Touching a hot cup of coffee

● Thermal influences in precision instruments. Learn more

● Measurement of heat output from chemical reactors.

● Heating of milk in a pan.

● Feeling much colder in water of 25°C than in air of 25°C.

● Sensing principle in heat flux based mass flow sensors

Mr. RAJESH S C, Dept. ME SKIT Page 6

● Measurement of solar power.

Figure. 1.2 Formation of Steam

Mr. RAJESH S C, Dept. ME SKIT Page 7

Figure. 1.3 Temperature-Enthalpy (T-H) diagram

𝒉𝒇 = 𝑺𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕 (kJ/kg)

• Consider 1 kg of water at 0C taken in a freely moving piston. A weight W is placed over

Mr. RAJESH S C, Dept. ME SKIT Page 8

Definition of terms used in Formation of Steam

DIFFERENT STATES OF STEAM

Mr. RAJESH S C, Dept. ME SKIT Page 9

 DRY SATURATED STEAM

Dryness fraction (𝒙):

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑒𝑡

It is a saturated steam at the saturation temperature corresponding to a given pressure having no

Mr. RAJESH S C, Dept. ME SKIT Page 10

Difference between dry steam and Superheated steam

• For constant pressure steam generation process

Mr. RAJESH S C, Dept. ME SKIT Page 11

𝒉𝒔𝒖𝒑 = 𝒉𝒈 + 𝑪𝒑𝒔(𝒕𝒔𝒖𝒑 − 𝒕𝒔) (kJ/kg)

OR 𝒉𝒔𝒖𝒑 = 𝒉𝒇 + 𝒉𝒇𝒈 + 𝑪𝒑𝒔(𝒕𝒔𝒖𝒑 − 𝒕𝒔) (kJ/kg)

Generally (𝟏 − 𝒙)𝒗𝒇 is very low and is often neglected

Specific volume of superheated steam

Mr. RAJESH S C, Dept. ME SKIT Page 12

External work of Evaporation

External work of evaporation per kg of wet steam = 𝒑 𝒙𝒗𝒈 kJ/kg

Internal Latent heat

Internal Energy of Steam

Internal energy of dry steam :

Internal energy of wet steam :

Internal energy of superheated steam :

Mr. RAJESH S C, Dept. ME SKIT Page 13

𝒖𝒔𝒖𝒑 = 𝒉𝒔𝒖𝒑 − 𝒑 𝒗𝒔𝒖𝒑 kJ/kg

(a) steam is dry saturated 𝒉𝒈 = 𝒉𝒇 + 𝒉𝒇𝒈 (kJ/kg) ;