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Hardware

Hardware consists of all the physical components of a computer system.


Hardware can be either internal or external.

Internal hardware
Motherboard A printed circuit board that allows the processor and
other computer hardware to function and communicate
with each other
RAM or  Internal memory where data is temporarily stored.
Random Access Data is lost on switching off the computer, which
Memory gives it the name volatile memory.
 RAM can be read from or written to
 Stores the data or part of the operating system
currently in use.
RAM or  Memory used to store data that needs to be
Read Only permanent
Memory  Data is kept even when the computer is switched
off, which gives it the name non-volatile memory
 Data on the ROM cannot be altered or deleted.
 Used to store computer configuration or the BIOS.
Video card Allows the computer to send graphical data to a video
display device such as a monitor, television or projector
Sound card An integrated circuit board that provides the computer
with the ability to produce sound via speakers or
headphones
HDD/SSD Hard disk drive and solid state drive are storage devices
built into a computer to allow data to be stored for
later use or to store application software, photos,
videos and more
CPU (Central  Part of the computer that interprets and executes
processing unit) commands from computer hardware and software;
 Usually part of the motherboard.
 The CPU is often referred to as a microprocessor;
 it is made up of the control unit and arithmetic-logic
unit (ALU)
Network interface Allows a computer to connect to any other device
card (NIC)

External hardware
External hardware refers to the keyboard, mouse, speaker, printer and
monitor etc.

Software
Software are programs that control the computer system. There are two kinds
of software – application software and system software.

Application software
Application software are programs that allow the user to do specific tasks on
the computer.
Word processor This is used to manipulate text documents such as
editing, saving and manipulating text, copy and paste,
spell checker and thesaurus, importing photos, text
and spreadsheets, translation of text into other
languages.
Spreadsheet  Used to organise and manipulate numerical data
 Data is organised in cells in a grid of lettered
columns and numbered rows
 Common features include formulae to carry out
calculations, ability to produce graphs, modeling and
‘what if’scenarios.
Database  Used to organise, manipulate and analyse data; uses
one or two tables to organise the data
 tables are made up of records
 Common functions include ability to carry out
queries on data and produce reports, and add,
delete and modify data in tables.
Control/measuring  Designed to allow computer/microprocessor to
interface with sensors to allow physical quantities in
the real world to be measured;
 Control of processes by comparing sensor data with
pre-stored data and sending out signals to alter
process parameters (for example, open/close a
valve).
Apps and applets  Type of software that usually runs on tablets or
mobile phones;
 Applets are small applications that perform a single
task on a device (they are usually embedded in an
HTML page on a website and can be executed from
within a browser).
 Apps refer to software which can perform a fairly
substantial task
Photo editing Allows user to manipulate digital photos such as
changing backgrounds, apply filters, cropping etc
Video editing Allows user to manipulate videos, for example, addition
of titles, colour correction, creating transitions between
video clips, and so on
Graphics editing Allows bitmap and vector images to be changed
Computer-aided  This is software used to help in the creation,
design (CAD) manipulation, modification and analysis of a
software drawing/design.
 It can be used to produce 2D or 3D diagrams
Audio editing Allows a user to edit, manipulate and generate audio
software data on a computer such as altering length of track,
start/stop time of track, conversion between audio file
formats, volume of track, fading in/out, combine
multiple sound tracks, noise reduction and to create
another version of the sound track (for example, a
continuous loop or phone ring tone).

Systems software
Systems software are programs that allow the hardware to run properly and
allow the user to communicate with the computer.

Types of system software


Compiler A compiler is a computer program that translates a program
written in a high-level language (HLL) into machine code
(code that is understood by the computer).
The original program is called the source code and the code
after compilation is called the object code.
Linker A program that takes one or more object files produced by a
compiler and combines them into a single program that can
be run on a computer.
Operating  Software running in the background of a computer;
system (OS)  It manages many functions such as user interface, error
handling, memory management and managing user
accounts.
Device driver Software that enables one or more hardware devices to
communicate with a computer’s operating system
Utilities Software designed to carry out specific tasks on a computer,
such as anti-virus, anti-spyware, file management and disk
defragmenter.

Analogue Data and Discrete Data


Analogue Data Discrete Data
Data understood in the physical Binary data understood only by
world computers
Data is continuous Data is discrete

Need for ADC


If analogue data is being sent to a computer, it must first be converted into
digital data as it cannot understand analogue data. This is done by hardware
known as an analogue to digital converter (ADC).
Need for DAC
If the computer is controlling a device (such as a motor) then the digital output
from the computer needs to be converted into analogue form. This is done by
a digital to analogue converter (DAC).

Differences between RAM and ROM

Different user interfaces offered by operating systems


 command line interface (CLI)
 graphical user interface (GUI)
 dialogue-based user interface
 gesture-based user interface

Command line interface (CLI)


A command line interface (CLI) requires a user to type in instructions or
commands. CLI is generally used by a programmer, analyst or technician.
Advantages
 The user is not restricted to limited pre-determined options.
 It takes less memory space

Disadvantages
 The user has to learn a number of commands just to carry out basic
operations.
 It is also slow having to key in these commands every time an operation has
to be carried out.
 Each command must be typed in using the correct format, spelling

Graphical user interface (GUI)


A graphical user interface (GUI) allows the user to interact with a computer
using pictures or symbols (icons) rather than having to type in a number of
commands.
GUI is used by an end-user who does not need to have any great knowledge of
how the computer works.

Advantages
 The user does not need to learn any commands.
 It is more user-friendly; icons are used to represent applications.
 A pointing device (such as a mouse) is used to click on an icon to launch
the application – this is simpler than typing in commands.

Disadvantages
 Uses up considerably more computer memory than a CLI interface.
 The user is limited to the icons provided on the screen.
 Needs a more complex operating system, such as Windows, to operate,
which can be slower to execute commands.

Dialogue-based user interfaces


Dialogue-based user interfaces use the human voice to give commands to a
computer system.

Advantages
 Very useful for people with disabilities because many tasks can be carried
out by the spoken word only
 Possible to use as a security feature because voice recognition could be
used to identify a person

Disadvantages
 May be unreliable, with many commands not being recognised or needing
to be repeated several times (especially if there is background noise)
 Can be quite complex to set up
 User needs to know which commands can be used

Gesture-based interfaces
Gesture-based interfaces rely on human interaction by the moving of hands,
head or even the feet.

Advantages
 Replaces mechanical input devices
 No physical contact required
 Very natural interface for a human operator
 No training needed to interface with the computer

Disadvantages
 Possible for unintentional movement to be picked up
 Only works fairly near to the camera or sensor
 May only accept a limited number of movements

Advantages of desktop computers over laptop computers


 Spare parts and connections are inexpensive and easily available unlike
laptops
 Desktop computers are easier and less expensive to upgrade or expand.
 Power consumption is not critical because they usually plug straight into a
wall socket
 Because they are usually fixed in one location, there is less likelihood of
them being damaged or stolen.
 Internet access can be more stable because a desktop computer is more
likely to have a wired internet connection

Disadvantages when compared to laptop computers


 They are not portable
 Needs to be wired and also clutters up the desk space.
 It is necessary to copy files to external storage devices when you want to do
some work elsewhere
Advantages of laptops when compared to desktop computers
 Portable - can be taken anywhere
 Takes up less desk space as monitor, pointing device, keyboard, processor
are all together in one single unit.
 There are no trailing wires as only one single cord is used

Disadvantages when compared to desktop computers


 Because they are easily portable, they are also easier to steal!
 They have limited battery life so the user may need to carry a heavy power
adaptor.
 The keyboards and pointing devices can sometimes be more awkward to
use.
 It is not always possible to upgrade them, for instance by adding more
RAM.

Features of smartphones
 Have an operating system (such as iOS, Android or Windows) allowing them
to run a number of computer applications known as apps or applets.
 Allow users to send/receive emails
 Use camera feature to take photos or videos
 MP3/4 players for music and videos
 Browse the internet by using 3G/4G/5G mobile phone networks.
 Lower weight and longer battery life than laptops
 Bluetooth for connection to printers and other devices
 Make use of flash (solid state) memory and cloud storage facilities to back
up

Sensors used in smartphones


 Proximity sensors to detect if the device is close to, for example the ear,
which allows it to block unintended ‘touches’
 Accelerometers, which detect movement and orientation of the device for
example, move the display from portrait to landscape to view videos
 Can use sophisticated speech recognitions systems (such as Siri) to enable
the user to ask the device to look for things (such as search the address
book).

Advantages of smartphones
 They are very small in size and lightweight – therefore they are very easy to
carry
 Apart from calling, can access Internet while on the move
 They have apps which make use of sensor data provided by the
smartphone, for instance location data for maps, transport and delivery
apps
 They have a reasonable battery life compared to laptops.

Disadvantages of smartphones
 The small screens and keyboards make pages difficult to read.
 It is more difficult and slower when typing things due to smaller keyboard
 Web browsing and photography can quickly drain the battery.
 Memory size in most phones is not very large when compared to laptops
and desktops
 Because of their small size, it is much easier to lose a smartphone or for it
to be stolen compared to laptops or desktops.
 The data transfer rate using mobile phone networks can be slower than
with Wi-Fi – this makes streaming of video or music, for example, less than
satisfactory at times.

Advantages of tablets compared to laptops


 Very fast to switch on (no time delay waiting for the operating system to
load up)
 Fully portable and lightweight
 Touch screen technology means they are simple to use
 Doesn’t get heated as they use solid-state technology
 Battery life of a tablet is a lot longer
 In standby mode, it remains connected to the internet so the user still hears
alerts when emails or other ‘events’ are received.

Disadvantages of tablets compared to laptops


 Expensive when compared to laptops
 Limited memory or storage when compared to a laptop
 If 3G/4G/5G mobile phone networks are used, they can be expensive to run
if the internet is being accessed frequently
 Typing on a touch screen can be slow and error-prone compared to a
standard keyboard
 Lack of ‘drag and drop’ facility can prove to be irritating to users
 Laptops tend to support more types of file format than tablets

Phablets
Phablets are hybrid between a tablet and a smartphone. They have much
larger screens than a smartphone but are smaller than a tablet.

Negative impacts of AI
 could lead to many job losses
 loss of skills due to dependency on technology
 Makes lifestyle more sedentary

Extended reality
Extended reality (XR) refers to real and virtual combined environments. The
three most common examples are:
 Augmented reality (AR)
 Virtual reality (VR)
 Mixed reality (MR).

Augmented reality (AR)


 Virtual information and objects are overlaid onto real-world situations and
the real world is enhanced with digital details, such as images, text and
animation
 The user can experience the AR world through smartphone/phablet screens
 The user is not isolated from the real world

Virtual reality (VR)


 The user is fully immersed in a simulated digital world
 Users must wear a VR headset or a head-mounted display which allows a
360° view of the virtual world
Advantages of keyboards
 Fast entry of new text into a document.
 Easy to use for most people.
 Easier to do verification checks as data is entered as one can immediately
compare the source document with typed data on the screen.

Disadvantages of keyboards
 Can be difficult to use if the user has limited arm/wrist use.
 Slow method when compared to direct data entry
 Fairly large device that uses up valuable desk space.

Uses of numeric keypads


 Automatic teller machines (ATMs), where the customer can key in their PIN,
amount of money, etc.
 Mobile phones to allow phone numbers, etc. to be keyed in.
 Point of sale terminals (POS) in case the barcode reader fails to read the
barcode – the number has to be keyed in manually by the operator
 Chip and PIN devices when paying by credit/debit cards (key in PIN, amount
 of money, etc.).

Mouse
The mouse is an example of a pointing device.

Advantages of a mouse
 Faster method for choosing an option rather than using a keyboard.
 Very quick way of navigating through applications and the internet.
 Does not need a large desk area when compared to a keyboard.
Disadvantages of a mouse
 Can be more difficult for people with restricted hand/wrist movement than
using a keyboard for data entry.
 Easy to damage, and the older type of mouse quickly becomes clogged up
with dirt.
 Difficult to use if no flat surface readily available (for example, on an
aeroplane).

Touchpad
Touchpads are used as a pointing device in many laptop computers.

Advantages of a touchpad
 Same as the mouse (faster than a keyboard for choosing options, used to
navigate applications and the internet, etc.).
 Because the touchpad is integrated into the laptop computer there is no
need for a separate mouse

Disadvantages of a touchpad
 People with limited hand/wrist movement find the device difficult to use.
 Can be more difficult to control the pointer when compared to a normal
mouse.
 More difficult to use when doing certain operations such as drag and drop.
Uses of a trackerball
 Can be a good alternative to a mouse for people with conditions such as
RSI.
 Used in an industrial control room environment where it is faster than a
mouse to navigate through process screens.
 Used in some luxury cars to select functions such as radio, telephone,
music, satnav and so on.

Remote control
A remote control is used for the operation of other devices using infrared
signals.

Advantages of a remote control


Can be used in hazardous industrial applications to remotely control processes
such as stop and start machinery

Uses of a joystick
 Used in video/computer games.
 Used in simulators (for example, flight simulators) to mimic actual controls.

Uses of Touch screens (as an input device)


 Self-service tills, for example, petrol stations, where the user just touches
the screen to select the fuel grade and payment method.
 Automatic teller machines (ATMs) to choose from on-screen options.
 Point of sale terminals such as in restaurants.
 Public information systems at airports, railway stations, tourist offices, etc.
 Mobile phones, tablets and satellite navigation systems.
 Interactive white boards in education.
 Computer-based training (CBT) where answers are selected during on-
screen testing.

Advantages of touch screens


 Faster entry of options than using keyboard or mouse.
 Very user-friendly method – no training necessary in its use.

Disadvantages of touch screens


 Limited number of input options available.
 The screen can get very dirty with constant touching and also giving a risk
of spreading infections

Scanners
Scanners are used to enter information from hard copy (for example, text
documents, photographs) into a computer.

Uses of scanners
 For archiving old books and records
 Scan in photographs
 Scan in barcodes at POS terminals.

Advantages of scanners
 Images can be stored for editing at a later date.
 It is possible to recover damaged documents and photographs by scanning
in and then using appropriate software to produce an acceptable copy.
Disadvantages of scanners
 Quality can be limited depending on how good a resolution the scanner is
 They can be fairly slow at scanning, especially if the colour scanning mode is
chosen or if the chosen scanning resolution is high.

Advantages of digital cameras


 Easier and faster to upload photographs to a computer rather than having
to scan in hard copies when using traditional methods.
 Less bulky than traditional cameras
 No need to develop film and print out photographs anymore – this saves
money and is also environmentally more acceptable (saves paper and
reduces the use of the chemicals used in developing traditional film).
 Memory cards can store many thousands of photographs.

Sensor
A sensor is a device that inputs data regarding the measurement of some
physical quantity that is continuously changing to a computer.These physical
quantities are analogue in nature.

Because computers only understand digital data (1s and 0s), the information
from the sensors needs to be converted using an ADC.

Advantages of using sensors


 More accurate readings taken when compared to human operators.
 Readings are continuous
 Because it is a continuous process, any necessary action or warning will be
initiated immediately.
 Systems can be automatic, removing the need for human intervention
especially if the process is hazardous or needs precise monitoring

Disadvantages of using sensors


 Faulty sensors can give spurious results
 Most sensors are analogue, therefore they require conversion using an

ADC.
Light pens
Light pens are used with CRT monitors as an input device. They contain sensors
that send signals to a computer whenever light changes are detected.

Direct data entry (DDE) devices


Direct data entry (DDE) devices are used to input data into a computer without
the need for very much, if any, human interaction.

Magnetic stripe readers


Direct data entry devices that are used to read information on the magnetic
stripe found on the back of a credit or debit card. The stripe contains useful
information such as account number, sort code, expiry date and start date.

Uses of magnetic stripe readers


 On credit/debit cards for use at ATMs or EFTPOS
 Security devices to allow entry to buildings, hotel rooms, etc.

Advantages of magnetic stripe readers


 Fast data entry, rather than keying in with a keyboard or keypad.
 Error-free (because no typing is involved).
 Secure (information not in human readable form and, because there is no
typing, removes the risk of somebody observing your key strokes).
 Prevents access to restricted/secure areas.
 Not affected by oil, water, moisture, etc.
 No moving parts – so physically very robust.

Disadvantages of magnetic stripe readers


 If the magnetic stripe gets damaged, the data is lost.
 Does not work at a distance (card needs to be in close contact with reader).

Contactless debit card readers


Contactless debit or credit cards are direct data entry devices that allow
customers to pay for items worth up to a certain amount of money without
entering their PIN.

Advantages of using contactless cards


 Faster transactions
 Customers do not have to worry about typing errors when entering the PIN
 Retailers no longer have access to the customer’s credit/debit card
information.
 Suitably encrypted; cannot do shoulder surfing

Disadvantages of using contactless cards


 More expensive than normal credit/debit cards.
 Can be stolen and misused as it does not need a PIN

Radio frequency identification (RFID) readers


Radio frequency identification (RFID) readers are direct data entry devices that
use radio waves to read and capture information stored on a tag.

Uses of RFID
 Livestock tracking to track the location and establish identity of the farm
animal
 Retail for inventory stocking
 Admission passes
 Libraries - no need to scan barcodes making the process quicker and more
accurate.
Advantages of RFID
 The tags can be read from a distance.
 It is a very robust and reliable technology.
 Very fast read-rate
 It can detect several RFID tags at the same time.

Disadvantages of RFID
 Tag collision (this is when the signals from two or more tags overlap,
interfering with each other).
 Because RFID uses radio waves, they are relatively easy to jam or interrupt.
 It is relatively easy to hack into the data/signal transmitted by the tag.
 RFID is more expensive than a comparable barcode system.

Optical mark recognition/reader (OMR)


Optical mark recognition (OMR) is a direct data entry device which can read
marks written in pen or pencil on a form.

Uses of OMR devices


 Used to read questionnaires, multiple-choice examination papers, voting
papers

Advantages of OMR devices


 Very fast way of inputting the results of a survey, etc.
 Because there is no typing, they are more accurate than keying in the data.

Disadvantages of OMR devices


 The forms need to be carefully designed to make sure the marks/shading
are correctly positioned to gather accurate information.
 There can be problems if they have not been filled in correctly

Optical character recognition/reader (OCR)


Optical character recognition (OCR) is a direct data entry device that converts
the text on hard copy documents into an electronic form that can then be used
in various application packages, such as word processors or presentation
software.

Uses of OCR
 Processing of passports and identity cards.
 ANPR systems in car parks.
 Digitising historic newspapers and rare books so they can be archived and
used by researchers, preventing damage to the originals.

Advantages of OCR
 It is a much faster data entry system than manually keying in data.
 Because there is no manual data entry, the number of errors is also
reduced.

Disadvantages of OCR
The system still has difficulty reading some handwriting.

Barcode readers
Barcode readers are direct data entry devices used to read information in the
form of a bar code.

Uses of barcode systems


 Used in supermarkets and other shops where the goods are marked with a
barcode
 Used in libraries to keep track of books on loan.
 Used as a safety function in many companies to ensure that electrical
equipment is checked on a regular basis

Advantages of barcode systems


Much faster than keying in data manually and fewer mistakes will be made.
They are a tried and trusted technology.

Disadvantages of barcode systems


 Relatively expensive system to administer.
 Not fool-proof (barcodes can be swapped around on items).
 Can be more easily damaged than RFID tags or magnetic stripes.

Quick response (QR) code scanners (readers)


A QR code is a direct data entry device that consists of a block of small squares
(light and dark) known as pixels. It allows internet addresses to be encoded
within the QR code.

Uses
 Used in advertising to give automatic access to a website or contact
telephone number
 Storing boarding passes electronically at airports and train stations
 Used for payment systems
 Wi-Fi authentication; QR codes can be used to store Wi-Fi network
authentication; when the QR code is scanned using a smartphone/tablet, it
will be able to automatically join that network.

Advantages of QR codes
 They can hold much more information than normal barcode.
 There will be fewer errors than with barcodes
 QR codes are easier to read -– they can be read by the cameras used on
smartphones and tablets.
 It is easy to transmit QR codes either as text messages or images.
 It is also possible to encrypt QR codes, which gives them greater
protection than traditional barcodes.

Disadvantages of QR codes
 More than one QR format is available.
 QR codes can be used to transmit malicious codes known as attagging and
gain access to everything on the user’s smartphone/tablet. The user could
also be sent to a fake website, or it is even possible for a virus to be
downloaded.

Output devices
These are devices that usually show the result of computer processing in a
format that can be understood by a human. Touch screens can work as both an
input device and as an output device.
Uses of touch screens acting as output
 Ticket collection machines at theatres, cinemas and railway stations
 Information kiosks at museums or art galleries.

Advantages of touch screens


 Faster entry of options than using a keyboard or mouse.
 User-friendly method – no training necessary in its use.

Disadvantages of touch screens


 Limited number of options available.
 Not very good if large amounts of data are being input or output
 The screen can get very dirty with constant touching giving a risk of
spreading infections, as well as reducing its responsiveness and making it
more difficult to read in strong sunlight.
 Easier for a third party to track a user’s interactions, which is a security risk
for example, entering credit card details.

Uses of multimedia projectors


 Training presentations
 Advertising presentations
 Home cinema systems (projecting the images from a DVD or television).

Advantages of multimedia projectors


 Enables many people to see a presentation rather than crowding around a
small screen.
 Avoids the need for several networked computers (for example, when
looking at a video clip on an internet site, everybody can see the video on
the large screen rather than logging on to a number of computers).

Disadvantages of multimedia projectors


 Images can sometimes be fuzzy.
 Expensive to buy.
 Setting up projectors can be a little difficult.
Laser printers
Involves a printing drum coated with positively-charged toner (powdered ink)

Uses of laser printers


 High-quality, high-volume printing
 Generate low noise therefore suitable in offices

Advantages of laser printers


 Printing is fast
 They can handle very large print jobs.
 The quality is consistently high.
 Toner cartridges last for a long time

Disadvantages of laser printers


 Tend to be expensive
 They produce ozone and volatile organic compounds. These have been
linked to health hazards in the office.

Inkjet printers
Inkjet printers are essentially made up of a print head, which consists of
nozzles which spray droplets of ink on to the paper to form characters

Uses of inkjet printers


Used for low volume, high quality printing jobs

Advantages of inkjet printers


 High-quality output.
 Cheaper to buy than laser printers
 Very lightweight and have a small physical footprint.
 Do not produce ozone and volatile organic compounds, unlike laser
printers.

Disadvantages of inkjet printers


 Slow output if several copies are needed
 Cannot do large print jobs as ink cartridges run out too quickly.
 Printing can ‘smudge’ if the user is not careful.

Dot matrix printers


Dot matrix printers are a type of impact printer where a print head made up of
a matrix of pins presses against an inked ribbon.

Uses of dot matrix printers


 They can be used in noisy or dirty environments (for example, garage
workshops) and in applications where print quality is not that important.
 Still widely used in till receipts.
Advantages of dot matrix printers
 They can be used in environments which would be a problem for laser or
inkjet printers (for example, dusty/dirty or moist atmospheres).
 Very cheap to run and maintain.

Disadvantages of dot matrix printers


 Very noisy – not good in an office environment.
 Actually cost more than an inkjet printer to buy initially.
 Very slow, poor-quality printing.
Graph plotters
A graph plotter is an output device that produces vector graphic drawings and
are often used in conjunction with CAD and CAM.

Uses of plotters
 Producing architectural drawings.
 Producing engineering drawings.
 Drawing animation characters (cartoon characters).

3D printers
3D printers can produce solid objects built up layer by layer using materials
such as powdered resin, powdered metal, paper or ceramic.

Uses of 3D printers
 Prosthetic limbs
 Making items to allow precision reconstructive surgery
 In aerospace, making wings and other aeroplane parts using 3D technology
 Making parts for items no longer in production, for example, parts for a
vintage car.

How to create a solid object using 3D printers


 A design is made using computer-aided design (CAD) software.
 The finalised drawing is imported into some special software that prepares
it in a format that is understood by the 3D printer.
 The 3D printer is set up to allow the solid object to be made
 The solid object is built up layer by layer; this can take several hours
depending on the thickness of the layers, the material used and the size of
the final object.
 The object is removed from the printer and is then prepared – either
washed away by immersion in water or removing excess plastic powder or
cutting away of unused material. In many cases, the object has to be left to
‘cure’ for a few hours.

Advantages of 3D printers
 The manufacturing of items has become much easier than ever before.
 Allows for rapid prototyping. This means that it will take a really short
length of time for designs to be converted into working prototypes.
 Even though the cost of 3D printing is very high, it is still less when
compared to labour costs and other costs involved in manufacturing a
product in the more conventional way.

Disadvantages of 3D printers
 Potential to make counterfeit items or items that infringe others’ copyright.
 Could be used to manufacture dangerous items by almost anyone.
 Potential for job losses if this technology takes over from some types of
manufacturing.

Actuators
When a computer is used to control devices, such as a conveyer belt or a valve,
it is usually necessary to use an actuator to, for example, start/stop the
conveyer belt or open/close the valve.

Magnetic tape drives


Magnetic tape drives are magnetic storage devices. They are used in
applications where batch processing is used for example, clearing bank
cheques, utility billing (gas, electricity, water), and producing pay slips.

Hard disk drives


Hard disk drives are magnetic storage devices used for storing the operating
system, systems software and working data/files and storing applications
software. They can be fixed or potable

Optical media and optical storage devices


CDs and DVDS are described as optical media and are read from or written to
by
optical storage devices. Optical storage devices can be built in to a computer or
connected externally via a USB cable.

CDs and DVDs can be designated as: ‘R’ (write once only), ‘RW’ (can be written
to or read from many times) or ‘ROM’ (read-only).
Blu-ray discs are another example of optical storage media.

Uses of Blu-ray discs


 Home video consoles.
 Storing and playing back movies
 Computers can use this technology for data storage or backing up hard
drives.

Solid-state media and solid-state storage devices


Solid state does not rely on magnetic properties and they have no moving
parts.

Solid-state media and can be used in the same way as an HDD as a storage
device to store files, applications, operating system, and so on.

Advantages of SSDs
 more reliable (no moving parts to go wrong)
 considerably lighter
 do not have to ‘get up to speed’ before they work properly
 lower power consumption
 Run much cooler than HDDs
 because of no moving parts, they are very thin
 Data access time and data transfer time is much faster than for HDDs.

SSD advantages specific to laptop


 considerably lighter
 lower power consumption
 lower power consumption

Pen drives
 Pen drives (memory sticks) are small portable devices that make use of
solid-state technology.
 They connect to the computer through a USB port.
 Their main advantage is that they are very small, lightweight portable
devices

Disadvantages of memory sticks/pen drives


 Cannot write protect the data/files by making it ‘read-only’
 Easy to lose (due to the small physical size).
 Incorrect removal from the devices will corrupt the data on the memory
stick and make it useless.

Memory cards
A memory card makes use of solid-state technology. They can be inserted into
a device which can read the card or allow data to be written to the card. The
cards come in various memory sizes.

There are many available memory card formats, for example:


 SD cards (secure digital card)
 XD cards (extreme digital card)
 CFast card (compactfast card).
Uses of memory cards
 Storing photos on digital cameras.
 Used as mobile phone memory cards.
 Used in MP3 players to store music files.
 Used as a backing store in hand-held computer devices.

Network interface card (NIC)


A network interface card (NIC) is needed to allow a device to connect to a
network based on the MAC address.

Media access control (MAC) address


The media access control (MAC) address is a number which uniquely identifies
a device when it is connected to a network.

Each NIC is given a unique hardwired (or hard-coded) media access control
(MAC) address at the manufacturing stage. When installed in a device, this
uniquely identifies that device.

Internet protocol (IP) addresses


An IP address essentially identifies the location of a device on a network.

Data packets
Data is moved around networks in the form of data packets. Packets of data
will usually have a header which contains:
 the sender’s IP address
 the receiver’s IP address
 the sequence of the packets so that all the packets can be reassembled into
the correct order once they reach the destination
 the packet size to ensure the receiving station can check if all of the packets
have arrived intact
 how many data packets make up the whole message.

Hubs
Hubs are hardware devices that will take a data packet received at one of its
ports and send it to every device connected to it. They are used primarily to
connect devices together in LAN.

Disadvantages of hubs
 Hubs are not very secure because every device will receive every data
packet.
 There will be unnecessary traffic on the network, which results in reduced
bandwidth.

Switches
A switch stores the MAC addresses of all devices on the network in a look up
table. Using the look-up table, a switch matches the MAC address of an
incoming data packet arriving at one of its ports, and directs it to the correct
device. None of the other devices will see this data packet. Like the hub,
switches are also used to connect devices in a LAN only.

Advantages of switches over hubs


 Switches are more secure than hubs because only the intended device is
sent the data
 Switches do not waste bandwidth as they do not send data to all the
devices in the network.

Bridges
Bridges are devices that connect one LAN to another LAN that uses the same
protocol.

Routers
Routers are used to route data packets from one network to another network,
based on IP addresses.

How does a router work?


 When a data packet is received at one of its ports, the router inspects the IP
address and consults the routing table to determine whether the data
packet is meant for its own network or for another external network.
 If the data packet is meant for its own network, then the data packet is
routed to the local switch or hub.
 Otherwise, the data packet is transmitted to a different router.

How does Bluetooth work?


 Bluetooth sends and receives radio waves in a band of 79 different
frequencies known as channels.
 When a device wants to communicate, it picks one of the 79 channels at
random to pair with another device.
 If the channel is already being used, it randomly picks another channel.
 Once paired, to minimise the risks of interference with other devices, the
devices constantly change the channels they are using (several times a
second). This is known as spread-spectrum frequency hopping.

Cloud storage
Cloud storage is a method of data storage where data is stored on remote
servers.
There are three common cloud storage systems:
 Public cloud – this is a storage environment where the customer and cloud
storage provider are different companies.
 Private cloud – this is a storage provided where the customer and cloud
storage provider are integrated and operate as a single entity and the data
resides behind a dedicated firewall.
 Hybrid cloud – this is where some data resides in the private cloud and less-
sensitive data can be accessed from a public cloud storage provider.

Advantages of cloud storage


 Customer files stored in the cloud can be accessed at any time, from any
device, anywhere as long as internet access is available.
 There is no need to carry an external storage device when moving
 The cloud provides the user with remote backup of data in case of data loss
 The cloud system offers almost unlimited storage capacity at a price.

Disadvantages of cloud computing storage


If the customer has a slow or unstable internet connection, they could have
problems accessing or downloading their data.
Costs can be high if a large storage capacity or high download/upload data
transfer is required.

Network types
Local area network (LAN)
Local area networks (LANs) are usually within one building or geographically
near each other.
A typical LAN will consist of a number of computers and devices (for example,
printers) which will be connected to hubs or switches.

Advantages of networking computers together using LANs


 Allow the sharing of resources such as hardware (e.g. printers and scanners)
and software (e.g. word processors and photo editing software)
 Permit easy communication between users of the LAN
 A network administrator ensures security and use of the LAN is constantly
monitored (e.g. the administrator can maintain passwords and also monitor
data traffic within the network).

Disadvantages of networking computers using LANs


 Easier spread of viruses throughout the whole network
 Queues for shared resources (such as a printer) which can be frustrating
 Slower access to external networks

Wireless local area network (WLAN)


Wireless LANs (WLANs) are similar to LANs, but there are no wires or cables.
They provide wireless network communications over fairly short distances
using radio or infrared signals instead of using cables.

Wide area networks (WANs)


Wide area networks (WANs) are used where computers or networks are
situated a long distance from each other geographically (for example, in a
different city or country). If a number of LANs are joined together using a
router, then they can form a WAN.
Protection of Passwords
 Run anti-spyware software to make sure that your passwords are not being
relayed back to whoever put the spyware on your computer
 Change passwords on a regular basis
 Passwords should not be easy to crack. Strong passwords should contain:
– at least one capital letter
– at least one numerical value
– at least one other keyboard character (such as @, *, & etc.).

Zero login methods


Zero login methods allow users to login to systems without typing passwords
by using biometric authentication and behaviour patterns.

Physical tokens
 A physical (or hardware) token is a form of authentication in the form of a
physical, solid object.
 The user’s interaction with a login system is used to prove that the user has
possession of the token.
 Physical tokens contain internal clocks and when a PIN and other
authentication details are entered, then a one-time password (OTP) is
generated.
 The OTP is shown on a small screen.
 The code changes on a regular basis and is usually only valid for less than a
minute.

Electronic tokens
 Electronic (software) tokens are software installed on a user’s device, such
as a smartphone.
 When the website requests the user to authenticate who they are, the user
opens the app on their smartphone.
 The app generates a one-time password (OTP) which is valid for less than a
minute.
 The user enters this OTP when prompted by the website, together with
some other form of authentication, such as PIN, touch ID or face ID.
 Once the OTP and other form of authentication are verified by the website,
the user will be allowed access.

How anti-virus software work


 They check software or files before they are run or loaded on a computer.
 Anti-virus software compares a possible virus against a database of known
viruses.
 They carry out heuristic checking – this is the checking of software for types
of behaviour that could indicate a possible virus
 Any possible files or programs which are infected are put into quarantine
which allows the virus to be automatically deleted, or allows the user to
make the decision about deletion (in case the user knows that the file or
program is not infected by a virus – this is known as a false positive and is
one of the drawbacks of anti-virus software).

Electronic Conferencing
There are three types of electronic conferencing:
 Video conferencing
 Audio conferencing
 Web conferencing.

Video conferencing
Video conferencing is a communication method that uses both video and
sound. The basic hardware includes webcams, large monitors/television
screens, microphones and speakers.

Advantages of using video conferencing


 It is possible to hold conferences at short notice
 Not travelling physically to meetings reduces costs - reduced travelling
costs, no stay cost
 Can be used if it involves meeting people in potentially unsafe places
around the world.
 It is better for the environment – less travel means less pollution.

Disadvantages of using video conferencing


 There is potential time lag in responses/delays when talking.
 Images can jerk – usually due to poor internet/network performance or
poor bandwidth.
 It can be very expensive to set up in the first place
 Different time zones can be an issue
 The whole system relies on a good network connection

Audio conferencing
Audio conferencing refers to meetings held between people using audio
equipment.

Web conferencing
Web conferencing (webinar or webcasts) uses the internet to permit
conferencing to take place. Multiple computers are used with this system, all
connected over the internet.
The only requirement is a computer and a high-speed, stable internet
connection.
To carry out web conferencing, each user either downloads an application or
logs on to a website from a link supplied in an email from the conference
organiser.

Some of the main features include:


 Slide presentations using presentation software can be posted on the
conference website in advance of the meeting.
 It is possible to transmit images or videos using the webcam throughout the
conference.
 Documents can be shared by first uploading them to the website before the
conference begins.
 It is possible to chat verbally or by using instant messaging throughout the
conference.

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