Magnet: A magnet is a substance that experiences a magnetic force around it.

It attracts and is attracted

by other magnets.

Properties of a magnet:
1. It has two poles north and south
2. A magnet always pointing towards north and south direction.
3. Like poles repel and unlike poles attract.
4. A magnet has magnetic field lines around it.
5. The magnetic field lines start from north and end to the south.

Draw the diagram of a magnetic field lines around of a magnet:

# Experiment 1: Describe an experiment to show that a magnet always pointing towards north and
south pole.

Apparatus:
1. A bar magnet
2. Thread
3. Retort stand

Diagram:

Procedure:
1. A magnet is tie with the rope with the help of paper at its
middle.
2. The magnet is freely suspended by tying it with the retort
stand.
3. Let the magnet comes to stop as its swinging.

Observation:
When the magnet stops spinning we check the poles of the magnet, which is seeking north and south
direction.

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# Experiment 2: Describe an experiment to detect the polarity of an unknown magnet.

Apparatus:
1. Two magnets known and unknown polarity.
2. Thread
3. Retort stand (not necessary)

Diagram:

Procedure:
1. The magnet with unknown poles is suspended using a
thread.
2. The magnet with known poles is brought near to the ends
of the suspended magnet.

CONCLUSION:
If attraction occurs, it could mean that the ends of the two magnets are unlike poles. If repulsion occurs, it
will indicate similar polarity. Therefore, repulsion is the only sure test for polarity.

Ø Important facts: Attraction may not be identification of a magnet because attraction occur in both
opposite poles of a magnet and magnetic particle with a magnet but only repulsion could give us
the conclusion both are the magnets. (Testing of a magnet)

Ø Magnetic field strength can be measured using a teslameter.

Magnetic field: The space surrounding by a magnet in which magnetic force is exerted is called a
magnetic field. Magnetic field is a vector quantity. (It has both magnitude AND direction!)

Magnetic field lines: Magnetic field lines are imaginary lines around a magnet, which represent its
magnetic field.

Magnetic flux: The total number of magnetic field lines of a magnet is the magnetic flux.

Magnetic flux density: Magnetic flux density is the number of field lines per unit square.

Neutral point: Neutral point is a point at which the resultant magnetic flux density is zero.

POLES OF A MAGNET
The places in a magnet where the resultant attractive force appears to be concentrated are called the
poles. There are two poles in a magnet: the north-seeking pole (N pole) and the south-seeking pole (S
pole).

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# Experiment 3: Describe an experiment to detect the direction of the magnetic field lines with the help
of a compass.

Apparatus:
1. Bar magnet
2. Paper
3. Compass

Diagram:

Procedure:
1. Place the bar magnet at the center of the piece
of paper so that its north pole is aligned as shown.
2. Place the compass near one pole of the magnet and mark the positions of the ends N and S, of the
compass needle by pencil dots. Then, move the compass until the end of the compass is over the
second dot, and mark the new position of the other with a third dot.
3. Repeat the above until reaching the other pole.
4. Join the series of dots and this will give a field line of the magnetic field.
5. Repeat this method to plot other field lines on both sides of this magnet.

MAGNETIC AND NON-MAGNETIC SUBSTANCES

• Magnetic substances are substances which can be magnetized and are attracted by magnets is
known as magnetic substance, e.g. iron, cobalt and nickel.
• Non-magnetic substances are substances that cannot be magnetized and are not attracted by
magnets is called non-magnetic substance, e.g. copper, wood, plastic, glass etc.

HARD MAGNETIC MATERIAL AND SOFT MAGNETIC MATERIAL

• The magnetic material, which is difficult to magnetize, but it retains its magnetic properties for a
long time. For example, steel. Hard magnetic materials are used for permanent magnets.
• A soft magnetic material is easy to magnetize, but its magnetism is temporary. For example, iron.
Soft magnetic materials are usually used as cores in transformers and electromagnets because
their magnetic effect can be switched on or off or reversed easily.

INDUCED MAGNETISM
When a magnetic material is placed near to or in contact with a permanent magnet, poles are induced in
it. It itself starts acting as a magnet. This is called induced magnetism.

KEEPERS
A bar magnet tends to get weaker with age, because of self-demagnetization. This is caused by the poles
at the ends of the magnet which tend to reverse the direction of the magnetic dipoles inside it. In order to
prevent this, bar magnets are stored in pairs, with their opposite poles adjacent and with small pieces of
soft iron placed across their ends. These pieces are called keepers.
These keepers become strong induced magnets and the opposite induced poles at their ends neutralize
the poles of the bar magnets. The magnetic dipoles in the domains of both magnets and keepers form
closed loops with no free poles. Consequently, the demagnetizing effect disappears.

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Uses of permanent magnets:
1. magnets are used in electrical motors such as d.c and a.c generator.
2. It is used in computer hard drive disk to save the data/memory.
3. It is used to separate the magnetic material form the mixture.
4. Its is used in moving coil loudspeaker.

Hard Drives
Hard drives are an important part of any computer system and magnetism is the key behind how they work. Hard
drives use disks made of magnetic material, called platters, to store information.
Hard disk stores information in the form of magnetic fields. Data is stored digitally in the form of tiny magnetized
regions on the platter where each region represents a bit. To write a data on the hard disk, a magnetic field is placed
on the tiny field in one of these two polarities: N-S – If North Pole arrives before the south pole and S-N – if the south
pole arrives before the north pole while the field is accessed. An orientation in the one direction (like N-S) can
represent the ‘1’ while the opposite orientation (S-N) represents “0”. This polarity is sensed by integrated controllers
built within the hard disk.

A Hard Drive Platter ©Wikipedia Commons Read/Write Head © Wikipedia Commons

An electromagnet in the read/write head writes information to the disk by magnetizing small sections of the disk,
called sectors, in a one direction or another to indicate a 1 or a 0. The same read/write head also detects the
orientation of these sectors when reading information from the disk. Previously, the sectors on the platters were
magnetized parallel to the surface of the platter. This style of recording was called longitudinal recording.

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Electro magnet:
An electromagnet is a magnet that runs on electricity. Unlike a permanent magnet, the strength of an
electromagnet can easily be changed by changing the amount of electric current that flows through it.
The poles of an electromagnet can even be reversed by reversing the flow of electricity.
Ø It is used in the electric bell.
Ø Simple magnetic relay
Ø The reed switch
Ø Circuit breaker
Ø Loudspeaker

Solenoid (Electro magnet):

By making turn of a wire the magnetic field strength can
be increased. When a long wire turns into coil with many
turns is known as solenoid.

The strength of a magnetic field can be increased by,

• Increasing the number of turn of the solenoid
• Increasing the current
• Using an iron core within the solenoid

Relays
A relay is a special type of switch turned on and off by an electromagnet. The relay switch is used to turn
on and off another circuit where the current is too high and dangerous to reach there. When a small
current flow through the coil, an electro-magnetic field is set up. The field attracts an iron armature,
whose other end pushes the contacts together, completing the circuit. When the current is switched off,
the contacts open again, switching the circuit off. It is used to starting a motor circuit, with a logic gate
and nuclear power station where direct contact is difficult and dangerous.

In the home, relays are used in refrigerators, washing machines and dishwashers and heating and air-
conditioning controls. Although relays are generally associated with electrical circuitry, there are many
other types, such as pneumatic and hydraulic. Input may be electrical and output directly mechanical, or
vice versa.

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Circuit breaker
A circuit breaker is an automatic switch which cuts off the current in a circuit if
the current rises above a specified value. It has the same effect as a fuse but,
unlike a fuse, it can be reset (turned ON again) after it has tripped (turned
OFF).

In the type shown below (internal structure of the circuit breaker), the current
flows through two contacts and also through an electromagnet. If the current
gets too high, the pull of the electromagnet becomes strong enough to release
the iron catch, so the contacts open and stop the current. Pressing the reset
button closes the contact again.

Fig:1 Fig:2

Loudspeaker
Loudspeaker
The loudspeaker uses a coil which can
slide backwards and forwards over the central
pole
of a circular permanent magnet. The coil is joined
by the brown bars to a paper cone, shown below.

The wire from the amplifier carries an alternating

current which makes the coil (and the paper
cone) move backwards and forwards at
the same frequency as the changing current.
The paper cone then moves
the air backwards and forwards which creates
the sound.

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Magnetic effect of a current:
When current passes through a straight wire, a magnetic field is produced around the wire. This magnetic
field is very weak, which cannot be experience very easily. This field has some characters such as,
• The magnetic field lines are circular.
• The field is strongest close to the wire.
• Increasing the amount of current the strength of the magnetic field is increases.

Fig: 1 Fig: 2

Force exerted on the current carrying two-parallel wire in the same and opposite direction
Dot means current is passing out of the paper and cross sign means current is passing into the
page.

Force of attraction Force of repulsion

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 Current out of the page current into the page

Current in the same direction current in the opposite direction

Solenoid:
By making turn of a wire the magnetic field strength can be increased. When a long wire turns into coil
with many turns is known as solenoid.
The strength of a magnetic field can be increased by,
• Increasing the number of turn of the solenoid
• Increasing the current
• Using an iron core within the solenoid

Note: iron core concentrate the magnetic field which is the reason for increasing the magnetic field strength.

Rules for direction of the magnetic field: (Maxwell)

Ø Direction of the magnetic field in a solenoid can be determine by seeing the direction of the
current at end of the solenoid. If the current goes anti-clockwise at the end, the ends become north
pole and if the current clock-wise, it’s become south pole.

Ø The direction of the magnetic field can be determined by the right-hand grip rule. Where thumbs
show the direction of current and rest of the fingers shows the direction of magnetic field.

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Force on a current – carrying in the straight wire:
when current passes in a straight wire which is in the magnetic field, a force is exerted on the wire. The
direction of the force can be find out with the help of Fleming’s left hands rule, where first three fingers
stays perpendicular to each other. Thumbs shows the direction of force; first finger shows the direction of
magnetic field and second finger shows the direction of current.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V_3vwTlo0Rs

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Magnetic force on a current:
When an electric wire is placed in the magnetic field and if the current passes through the wire a force is
exerted on the wire due to producing magnetic field along with the wire. This force is increased if,
• The current is increased
• A stronger magnet is used
• The length of the wire in the field increased

The direction of force can be figure out by

using Fleming’s left – hand rule,
Where
• Thumb shows the direction of force
• First finger shows the direction of
magnetic field
• Second finger shows the direction of
current

Ø Flemings left-hand rule only applies if the

current and field directions are at right
angles and if the current and field are in the same direction, there is no force.

How does a d.c motor work?

Parts of the d.c motor
• Rectangular coil connected in series to a battery and rheostat
• Permanent magnets
• Split ring commutator
• Two carbon brushes

The rectangular coil of wire ABCD is mounted on an axle (by the dotted lines PQ) that allows it to rotate
about XY. The ends of the wire connected to a split ring commutator PQ. The commutator rotated with
the coil. Two carbon brushes press lightly against the commutator.

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Working principle:
When current flows through the coil ABCD, using the left-hand Flemings rule, we know a downward force
will act on side AB and upward force on CD. The coils, thus rotates clockwise about the axis XY until it
reaches the vertical position. Here, the current is cuts off because P and Q are both not in contact with the
carbon brushes, the turning effect of the coil keep it still in motion which is how the coil past the vertical
position. This reverse the direction of the current in the wire arm CD and now a downward force acts on
it. Similarly, an upward force acts on wire arm AB. Hence the coil continues to rotate in the clockwise
direction.

The purpose of the split ring commutator is to reverse the direction of the current in the coil every half
revolution whenever the commutator changes contact from one brush to another. This ensures that the
coil will always turn in the same direction.
To increase the turning effect of the coil in the motor, we can insert a soft iron core or cylinder into the
coil to concentrate the magnetic field lines.

To increase the turning effect on the coil can be increased by,

• Increasing the current
• Using stronger magnet
• Increasing the number of turns on the coil
• Increasing the area of the coil
Electromagnetic Induction:
Electromagnetic induction is the phenomenon of inducing an emf in a circuit due to a changing of
magnetic field.

Faraday’s experiment: faraday did two experiment on the concept of electromagnetism and solenoid and
gave a revolutionary formula.

Experiment no 1: Iron ring experiment:

Observation:
1. When the switch is connected, it
shows the deflection.
2. Even it shows the deflection when the
switch is off.
3. There is no deflection when the
current is steady.

Conclusion:
The induced current only flow in the coil B is
to become of the change in magnetic field.

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Exp No.: Solenoid experiment:
This experiment shows the proof of emergence of current from a magnet

Statement from the experiment

Induced emf depends on
1. Number of turns in the solenoid
2. The strength of the magnet
3. The speed with which the magnet is plunged into or withdrawn from the solenoid.

Induced EMF and induced current in a moving wire:

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the induced EMF can be increased by,
• moving the wire faster
• using a stronger magnet
• increasing the length of wire in the magnetic field, for example, by looping the wire into the
magnetic field several times.

Induced EMF and current in a coil:

If a bar magnet if pushed into a coil, an emf is induced in the coil. In this case, the magnetic field is moving
rather than the wire but the result is the same.
The induced EMF can be increased,
• Moving the magnet faster
• Using stronger magnet
• Increasing the number of turns on the coil.

Important facts:
Ø If the magnet is pulled out of the coil, the
direction of the induced EMF is reversed
Ø If the poles of the magnet is reversed the
direction of the induced EMF (current) is also
reversed
Ø If the magnet is held still, no field lines are cut
so there is no induced EMF or current.

Faradays laws of induction:

The emf generated in a conductor is proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux linking the circuit.

Lenz’s law:
The direction of the induced emf and hence the induced current in the closed circuit is always opposes
the motion or change producing it.

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AC and DC
AC is alternating current and DC is direct current. These oscilloscope traces show the difference between them.

AC – alternating current DC – direct current

AC electricity is supplied by the mains supply. DC electricity is supplied by batteries and solar cells. Many devices
need a DC supply rather than an AC supply. A rectifier changes AC into DC. The process is called rectification and it
uses diodes.

Half-wave rectification
A single diode can produce half-wave rectification. One half of the AC wave is
removed because it cannot pass through the diode.
You should remember that one diode can produce half-wave rectification, and you
should be able to recognise half-wave rectification from a voltage-time graph (as seen
in the last diagram).

Full-wave rectification
Half-wave rectification is achieved using one diode, but full-wave rectification needs
four diodes in a bridge circuit.

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Half-wave rectification and full-wave rectification
Note that in full-wave rectification current passes all the time, rather than just every half cycle.

Full-wave rectification
The diagrams below show the bridge circuit needed for full-wave rectification. The two diagrams show how the DC
(direct current) output is only in one direction, even when the direction of the AC (alternating current) input is
reversed in the second diagram.
A bridge circuit with four diodes

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Transformer:
A transformer is a device which is used to increase or decrease the voltage of an electricity supply.
A transformer consists with three parts.
a) Primary coil – where the input voltage is charged.
b) Secondary coil – it provides the output voltage.
c) Iron core – this links two coils as it’s a soft magnetic material which can be magnetized and
demagnetized very easily. It is also increase the magnetic field lines inside the coil.

Ø A transformer doesn’t change ac to dc or anything sort it only alters the voltage

Type of transformer:

Step up transformer: it is a type of transformer which step up the voltage, which means it increases the
voltage. In this transformer number of turns in the primary coil is less than the secondary coil. (ns > np)

Step down transformer: it is a type of transformer which step down the voltage, which means it
decreases the voltage. In this transformer number of turns in the primary coil is more than the secondary
coil. (ns < np)

Important fact:
If the voltage gets high the current must be low or vice-versa.

So the formula for the transformer becomes,

Vs/Vp = Ns/Np
Where, Vs= secondary output voltage
Vp = primary input voltage
Ns =
Np =

Power transfer in a transformer,

For an ideal transformer (ie, 100% efficient), the power supplied to the primary coil is fully transferred to
the secondary coil. Hence by the principle of conservation of energy,

Power in the primary coil = power in the secondary coil

IpVp = IsVs
Vs= secondary output voltage
Vp = primary input voltage
Is = current in the secondary coil
Ip = current in the primary coil

Therefore, we can write,

Vs/Vp = Ns/Np = Ip/Is

Uses:
Ø Electrical energy send to long distance with high voltage to reduces power or energy loss.
Ø When voltage gets high, current becomes low so thin wire can be used, which reduces the
cost of the wire.

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