Space and Time, Units and Dimensions, Scalars, and Vectors

Introduction to Space and Time

The concept of space and time in physics.
In physics, space and time are fundamental concepts used to describe the framework within which
physical events occur.
Space
Space is the three-dimensional continuum in which objects and events have positions and
directions. It refers to the vast, seemingly infinite expanse in which all matter exists, and it allows
for the concept of distance, direction, and the relative positions of objects.
Three Dimensions: Space is described using three dimensions- length, width, and height (or
depth). These three dimensions allow us to specify the position of any object or event in space
using coordinates, such as in a Cartesian coordinate system (e.g., (x, y, z) coordinates).
Continuum: This means that space is a continuous, unbroken expanse without any gaps or
interruptions. In this context, it suggests that objects can exist anywhere within this space, and the
positions and distances between them can be measured smoothly and precisely. There are no empty
spots or jumps in the structure of space; instead, it allows for a seamless flow from one point to
another, meaning you can move through space or measure distances between points in an
uninterrupted, consistent manner. A mathematical example of a continuum is the real number line.
There are infinitely many numbers between any two given numbers, with no gaps in between.
Relative Position: This concept refers to the idea that the location of an object in space is defined
in relation to other objects. Instead of thinking of an object as having a fixed position in some
absolute sense, its position is described based on where it is compared to other objects around it.
For example, you might say one car is 5 meters behind another car — this is a description of their
relative positions.
When we talk about motion, it means the object is changing its relative position with respect to
another object over time. For instance, if one car is moving towards or away from another, its
motion can be described as a change in the distance or direction between them as time progresses.
In summary, relative position means an object's location is determined based on other objects, and
its motion is the change in that position over time.
Time
Time is the continuous, one-dimensional progression in which events occur from the past, through
the present, and into the future. It is often considered the fourth dimension that complements the
three dimensions of space.
Saying that time is the fourth dimension means that time is treated as an additional dimension
that complements the three spatial dimensions—x, y, and z. While the three dimensions of space
allow us to locate an object's position in the physical world, time adds the ability to track when an
event occurs or how things change over time.
Flow of Events: Time allows us to sequence events (that is, time provides a framework for
organizing events in a specific order- past, present, and future. It allows us to determine when one
event happens relative to another.), measure durations, and understand change.
Relativity of Time: In Einstein's theory of relativity, time is not an absolute entity; rather, it is
interconnected with space to form what is known as space-time. Time can pass at different rates
depending on the observer's motion or the presence of strong gravitational fields.
Einstein’s Theory of Relativity
It consists of two related concepts: Special Relativity (1905) and General Relativity (1915). Both
of these theories changed the way we used to think about how space, time, and gravity interact.
Before these theories, space and time were thought to be fixed and separate entities, and gravity
was seen simply as a force between masses.
Special Relativity
Special relativity deals with objects moving at constant speeds, particularly speeds close to the
speed of light. It introduced groundbreaking ideas about how space and time behave at high
velocities.
Key Ideas of Special Relativity
1) The Speed of Light is Constant: No matter how fast an observer is moving, the speed of
light is always the same. (This means that, regardless of the motion of the observer or the
light source, the speed of light in a vacuum remains fixed at approximately 299,792
kilometers per second).
This concept, introduced by Einstein's theory of relativity, challenges our everyday experience
with other objects, where speeds seem to vary depending on the observer’s movement. For
example, if you're moving toward a car, the car's speed relative to you appears faster, but this is
not the case with light. Whether you're moving towards, away from, or standing still relative to a
light source, light will always travel at the same constant speed. This principle is fundamental to
modern physics and has significant implications for how time and space behave at high speeds.

2) Time Dilation: Time can slow down for an object moving close to the speed of light. For
example, if someone travels at a very high speed, the clock will tick slower compared to
someone at rest. This means time is not absolute; it changes depending on an object's
motion relative to another object. (in other words, time appears to move more slowly for
an object in motion relative to a stationary observer) Essentially, as an object approaches
the speed of light, time for that object slows down compared to someone who is not moving
at that speed.
A real-world application of time dilation occurs with Global Positioning System (GPS) satellites.
Because they orbit the Earth at high speeds, their clocks tick slightly slower compared to clocks
on Earth. Scientists account for this effect to ensure GPS systems remain accurate.
Worked Example.
An astronaut is traveling in a spaceship at a speed of 0.8c (where c is the speed of light). If the
astronaut experiences a time of 5 years during the journey, how much time has passed on Earth?
Solution:
To be done together in class.
3) Length Contraction: Objects moving close to the speed of light appear shorter along the
direction of motion to an outside observer. It states that objects moving at a significant
fraction of the speed of light appear shorter along the direction of motion to a stationary
observer. The faster an object moves, the more its length seems to contract for an observer
watching it from a stationary reference frame. However, to the object itself, nothing
changes—its length remains the same from its own perspective.
Worked example
Imagine a spaceship moving at 90% of the speed of light (v = 0.9c) with a proper length (Lo) of
100 meters (its length when stationary). What is its length according to an observer on earth?
Solution.
To be done in the class.
4) Mass and Energy are Equivalent
This is encapsulated in the popular equation E = mc², which means that mass can be converted
into energy and vice versa.
General Relativity
General relativity extends the ideas of special relativity to include gravity. It provides a new way
to understand gravity, not as a force between objects (as Newton described), but as a result of the
curvature of space and time itself.
Importance of Einstein’s Theories
Unified Space and Time: Both theories combine space and time into a single entity called
spacetime. Events are described in four dimensions (three of space and one of time).
Applications: Special relativity is crucial for understanding high-speed particle physics and the
behavior of light. General relativity explains large-scale phenomena like the motion of planets,
black holes, and the expansion of the universe.
In summary, Einstein’s theory of relativity redefined our understanding of space, time, and gravity,
showing that they are interwoven and behave in ways that defy everyday intuition, especially at
high speeds or in strong gravitational fields.

Spacetime
Together, space and time form what is known as spacetime, which is a unified framework in
physics that describes the position of an object or event not only in terms of space (where) but also
in terms of time (when).
In physics, we traditionally think of space as three-dimensional, with length, width, and height.
However, when we include time as a fourth dimension, we form a four-dimensional continuum
known as space-time. This means that every event or object can be described not just by its position
in space but also by when it occurs.

Units and Dimensions

They are fundamental concepts in physics and engineering that help quantify physical quantities
Units
A unit is a standard quantity used to specify measurements of physical quantities.
Types of Units:
The fundamental units from which other units are derived. For example:
Meter (m) for length, Kilogram (kg) for mass and Second (s) for time
Derived Units: Units formed from combinations of base units. For example: Newton (N) for force:
1 N=1 kg m/s2, Joule (J) for energy: 1 J=1 N m =1 kg m2/s2
SI Units
The International System of Units (SI) is the most widely used system for measurement, and it
includes:
Length: Meter (m), Mass: Kilogram (kg), Time: Second (s), Electric Current: Ampere (A),
Temperature: Kelvin (K), Amount of Substance: Mole (mol) and Luminous Intensity: Candela (cd)
Dimensions
Dimensions refer to the physical nature of a quantity and are expressed in terms of fundamental
quantities such as length, mass, time, electric current, temperature, amount of substance, luminous
intensity, and others.
Fundamental Dimensions
The most common fundamental dimensions are: Length (L): Measured in meters (m), Mass (M):
Measured in kilograms (kg), Time (T): Measured in seconds (s), Electric Current (I): Measured
in amperes (A), Temperature (Θ): Measured in kelvins (K), Amount of Substance (N): Measured
in moles (mol) and Luminous Intensity (J): Measured in candelas (cd)
Derived Dimensions
These are combinations of fundamental dimensions, such as: Velocity: L T−1 (meters per sec),
Acceleration: L T−2 (meters per second squared), Force: M L T−2 and Energy: M L2T−2 (joules)
Importance of Units and Dimensions
Consistency: Ensures that equations are dimensionally consistent, meaning that both sides of an
equation must have the same dimensions.
Conversion: Facilitates conversion between different units (e.g., converting kilometers to meters).
Communication: Provides a common language for scientists and engineers to communicate
measurements accurately.
Dimensional Analysis: Check if the equation for kinetic energy KE=1/2mv2 is dimensionally
consistent.
Dimensions of Kinetic Energy: m (mass) has dimensions [M], v (velocity) has dimensions [LT−1],
Therefore, v2 has dimensions [L2T−2]
Thus, KE has dimensions [ML2T−2] which is consistent with energy units (joules).
Class work
Dimensional formulas of some quantities
Area, Volume, Density, Speed, Velocity, Acceleration due to gravity, Acceleration, Linear
momentum, Force etc.
Assignment:
Derive the dimensional equation of the following:
Energy, Impulse, Pressure, Power, Moment of inertia, Surface tension, Surface energy, Force
constant, Coefficient of viscosity, Pressure energy.
Dimensionless Variables are physical quantities which have dimensions but are variables.
Examples are: strain, plane angle etc.
Dimensional variables are physical quantities which have dimensions and do not have a constant
value. Examples are: Velocity, Work, Power.
Dimensional constants are physical quantities that have constant values but still have dimensions.
Examples are: Planck’s constant (h), universal gravitational constant (G).
Pure numbers like 1, 2, 3, 𝛱, etc. are called dimensional constants.
One of the applications of dimensional analysis is to check the correctness of a given relation. We
can check the correctness of a given relation by finding out the dimensional formula of every term
on either side of the relation. If the dimensions are identical, the relation is correct (Principle of
homogeneity).
Class work:
Check the correctness of the equations:
1 2
𝑆 = 𝑈𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡
2
𝑉 = 𝑈 + 𝑎𝑡
𝑉 2 = 𝑈 2 + 2𝑎𝑠 etc.

Scalars and Vectors

Scalar and Vector Quantities
In physics, quantities are classified as either scalar or vector based on whether they have direction
in addition to magnitude.

Scalar Quantities
A scalar quantity is a quantity that has only magnitude (size or numerical value) and no direction.
Scalars are fully described by a single number and appropriate units.
Examples of Scalar Quantities:
Mass: The amount of matter in an object, measured in kilograms (kg).
Example: A rock weighs 10 kg.
Temperature: The degree of hotness or coldness, measured in degrees Celsius (°C) or Kelvin (K).
Example: The temperature of a room is 25°C.
Time: The duration of an event, measured in seconds (s).
Example: It took 5 seconds to run the race.
Speed: The rate at which an object moves, measured in meters per second (m/s).
Example: A car travels at a speed of 60 m/s.
Energy: The capacity to do work, measured in joules (J).
Example: A battery stores 100 joules of energy.
Key Characteristics of Scalars:
No direction.
Can be added, subtracted, multiplied, or divided using standard arithmetic rules.
Represented simply by a number and units (e.g., 10 kg, 50 m/s).
Vector Quantities
A vector quantity is a quantity that has both magnitude and direction. Vectors are represented by
arrows in diagrams, where the length of the arrow represents the magnitude, and the direction of
the arrow shows the vector's direction.
Examples of Vector Quantities:
Displacement: The shortest distance from an initial to a final position, along with the direction,
measured in meters (m).
Example: A car moves 10 meters east.
Velocity: The rate of change of displacement with respect to time, including direction, measured
in meters per second (m/s).
Example: A plane is flying north at a velocity of 300 m/s.
Force: A push or pull acting on an object, measured in newtons (N), and includes both magnitude
and direction.
Example: A force of 50 N is applied upwards on an object.
Acceleration: The rate of change of velocity with respect to time, measured in meters per second
squared (m/s²).
Example: A car accelerates at 3 m/s² to the west.
Momentum: The product of an object’s mass and its velocity, measured in kilogram meters per
second (kg·m/s).
Example: A truck moving at a velocity of 10 m/s east has momentum.