2.Climatology

CLIMATOLOGY
UPSC AKHADA
UNIT 2 - CLIMATOLOGY
1) Atmosphere
2) Evolution of atmosphere
3) Composition of the atmosphere
4) Structure/layers of the atmosphere
5) Insolation
6) Temperature of the atmosphere
7) Albedo
8) Heat Budget of the Earth
9) Isotherms
10) Inversion of the temperature
11) Fog
12) Clouds
13) Precipitation
14) Lightening
15) Atmospheric circulation
16) Geostrophic Winds
17) Rossby Waves
18) Wind system
19) General circulation of the atmosphere /Planetary winds
20) Pressure Belts
21) Seasonal shifting of wind belts
22) Tropical cyclone
23) Temperate / Extra tropical /Mid-latitude cyclones or Frontal depression
24) Difference between Tropical & Temperate cyclones
25) Anti Cyclones
26) Air Mass
27) Jet stream
28) Local winds / Tertiary winds
29) World Climate
30) Current related Topics
31) PYQs
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UNIT 2 – CLIMATOLOGY
Atmosphere:-It is a layer of gases which surrounds the Earth from all sides and is attached to earth surface by gravitational
force.
Evolution of Atmosphere
Present Atmosphere evolved in following three stages:-
1. Loss of primordial atmosphere
The present composition of earth’s atmosphere is chiefly contributed by nitrogen and oxygen. While, early atmosphere was
supposed to be composed of hydrogen and helium as a result of the solar winds.
2. Evolution of the Atmosphere:-

o During the cooling of the earth, water vapor & many other gases were released from the interior solid earth which started
the evolution of the present atmosphere.
o The early atmosphere largely contained water vapour, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, methane, ammonia and very
little of free oxygen. The process through which the gases outpoured from the interiors of the earth is called
Degassing.
o Continuous volcanic eruptions took place throughout the earth which contributed water vapor and gases to the
atmosphere. As the earth cooled, the water vapor released started to get condensed while, carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere got dissolved in rainwater and the temperature further decreased causing more condensation and more
rains.
o The rainwater falling onto the surface got collected in the depressions which gave rise to oceans.
3. Modification of Atmospheric Composition:-

o Around 2,500-3,000 million years ago, the process of photosynthesis got evolved. Life was confined to
the oceans for a long period & gradually Oceans began to contribute Oxygen through the process of
photosynthesis.
o Eventually, oceans were saturated with oxygen, and 2,000 million years ago, oxygen began to flood
into the atmosphere, atmosphere evolved and eventually flora and fauna flourished on the earth.
Note: It was early in the Archean that life first appeared on Earth. Our oldest fossils date to roughly 3.5 billion
years ago, and consist of bacteria microfossils.
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Composition of the Atmosphere:
WATER VAPOUR DUST PARTICLES
GASES
• Nitrogen 78% (Approx.)

• Variable • Solid particles like sea
• Oxygen 21% gases in the salts, smoke, ash, pollen.
• Argon 0.93% atmosphere • Concentrated in
• Carbon dioxide 0.03% • Decreases with lower layer of
Altitude & atmosphere
• Ozone 0.00006 %
• Conventional currents
Latitude (more
• Other gases: Neon, Helium, near equator) transfer them to great
Krypton, Xenon, Hydrogen • Create clouds, heights.
fog, • Act as hygroscopic
precipitation nuclei around which
NOTE: The volume of other gases is • Reflects and water vapour condense
constant, but the volume of the carbon to produce clouds.
dioxide absorb incoming
has been increased with in the last Few radiations.
decades, mainly because of the Burning of the • It absorbs
fossil fuels. Terrestrial
radiation.
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Structure/Layers of the Atmosphere
• The atmosphere consists of different layers with varying density and temperature. Density
is highest near the surface of the earth and decreases with the increase of altitude.
• The column of atmosphere is divided into 5 different layers depending upon the
temperature condition.
• Normal lapse rate: normally with height temperature decreases at 6.5 degree Celsius
per kilometer.
Troposphere  It is the lowermost layer of the atmosphere which is also known as

Convective region.
 It contains dust particles and water vapor thereby most clouds appear here
 All changes in the climate and weather take places in this layer and this layer is
considered to be most important layer for all Biological activities.
 The thickness is greater at the equator, because the heated air rises to
greater heights.
 Tropopause (greater fall in temperature above equator is because of the greater
thickness of troposphere – 18 km).
 The troposphere is marked by temperature inversion, turbulence and eddies.
 Rainfall, fog and hailstorm etc. are confined to this layer.
 The troposphere is influenced by seasons and jet streams.
Stratosphere  It extends from tropopause to 50 km.

 The air movement is almost horizontal. This is because the effect of convection
currents is almost negligible in comparison to troposphere. This in turn prevents
vertical mixing of pollutants from troposphere to stratosphere.
 This layer is almost free from clouds and associated weather phenomenon,
making conditions most ideal for flying aeroplanes
 Sometimes, cirrus clouds are present at lower levels in this layer.
 It contains Ozone Layer.
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 Temperature in the stratosphere rises with increasing altitude, because the
ozone layer absorbs the greater part of the solar ultraviolet radiation.
 The ozonosphere is also called chemosphere because, a lot of chemical

activity goes on here.
Mesosphere  The temperature gradually falls to -100°C at 80 km altitude (because no GHGs exists
here, i.e. no heat absorbing layer nor ozone layer).
 On entering from space, Meteorites burn up in this layer
 Mesopause= Upper limit of mesosphere
 Very thin layer causes difficulty in breathing.
Thermosphere  It extends from 80-400 km and contains electrically charged particles known as ions
(Region is known as Ionosphere).
 In thermosphere temperature rises very rapidly with increase in height.
 Temperature rises with height again due to proximity to the sun (As ions
present there absorb heat).
 The International Space Station and satellites orbit in this layer
 Auroras are also form in this layer.
Exosphere  Light gases like helium and hydrogen float into the space from here.
 Temperature gradually increases through the layer as the layer is directly
exposed to sunlight).
 Aurora’s are observed in lower parts of this layer which are visible on both poles.
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Insolation
o Solar energy received from the sun through solar radiation heats the earth's surface and the
atmosphere.
o Thus, it is responsible for the movement of air and currents through changes in pressure
gradients.
Insolation:
Earth’s surface receives most of its energy in the form of short wavelengths known as incoming solar radiation
(Insolation).
Radiant energy received by the earth and its atmosphere from the Sun.
 The earth absorbs short wave radiation (Short wavelength = High Energy) during daytime and reflects back
the heat received into space as longwave radiation (mostly infrared radiation) during night. It makes the Earth
a radiating body.
 The long wave energy radiated by the Earth known as Terrestrial Radiation.
 Terrestrial Radiation heats the atmosphere from below as it is absorbed by the atmospheric gases
particularly the green house gases.
 The atmosphere in turn radiates and transmits heat to the space.
 Finally, the amount of heat received from the sun is returned to space there by maintaining constant
temperature at the earth’s surface and in the atmosphere which is also known as the Heat budget of the
earth which we will learn in later part of this chapter.
 This is why earth neither warms up nor does it get cooled over a period of time.
Sunspot activity (Dark&Cool)

On sun’s surface it varies. F Distance between the Earth & Sun - Elliptical
Orbit
Increase Sunspot activity -Higher A 1. Perihelion
Insolation.
C 2. Aphelion
T
O
Effect of the Atmosphere R Length of the day
 Absorption by the atmospheric
•
gases (GHGs) S Except equators, Places having
longer length of the day and
 Scattering by the dust particles vertical sun’s rays will receive
 Reflected by the water vapour. more insolation.
• Pole sunrays more or less parallel +
snow reflects
Angle of sun’s rays

• Decreases pole-wards
Rotation of the Earth on its axis: • Oblique on pole, travel
earth rotates on its axis which makes larger distance
an angle of 66.5 with the plane of its
orbit around the sun.
•The rotation of the earth on this
inclined axis has a greater influence
on the amount of insolation received
at different latitudes.
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Note: Times of maximum sunspot activity are associated with a very slight increase in the energy output from the sun.
Ultraviolet radiation increases dramatically during high sunspot activity, which can have a large effect on the Earth's
atmosphere. The converse is true during minimum sunspot activity.
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Temperature Distribution of the Earth:-
• Atmosphere receives very low amount of heat energy from the sun as it receives most of the energy from
the long wave terrestrial radiation.
The spatial and temporal distribution of temperatures is very significant because different types of weather, climates,
vegetation zones, animals and human life etc. depend on the distribution of temperature, whether horizontal or vertical.
The spatial distribution of temperature is controlled by a variety of following factors:-
 Latitudes: Intensity of insolation decreases with the increase in latitude. Maximum temperature is not at equator
(because of presence clouds) but at 20ºN.
 Altitude: temperature decreases with height at an average rate of 6.5ºC/km.
o The layers of air are denser at the earth surface and become lighter with increasing altitude.
 Distance from the Coast: Temperature is moderated by marine environment because of sea breeze and land
breeze. Daily range of Temperature-High (continental climate) & Low near coastal areas.
 Terrestrial radiation: Major source of atmospheric heat is the earth’s surface from where heat is transferred to the
atmosphere.
 Ocean Currents: Warm currents raise temperature where as cold current reduces.
 Prevailing Winds:
Winds transfer heat from one latitude to another as well as between land and water bodies.
 The oceanic winds bring moderating effect from the sea to coastal areas (cool summers and mild winters).
 This effect is pronounced only on the windward side. The leeward side or the interiors experiences extreme
temperature as it do not get moderating effect of the sea.
 Winds blowing from oceans to coastal lands – marine effect lower daily temperature range.
 Redistribution of temperature
 Wind blowing from Low to High latitude increases temperature and vice versa.
 Local winds –warm Chinook raise temp.
 Air mass: Places having warm air mass experiences higher temperature than the places comes under influence of
cold air mass.
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 Effect of continentality: Daily Range of temperature is less in marine climate, while extremely high in
continental climate. Temperature of the land is more than water bodies as Specific heat of water is
more ,Albedo (more of water) & presence of clods over oceans.
 Nature Of Ground Surface :Colour ,Vegetation, Snow cover (more Albedo)
 Slope Facing the sun receives more insolation
Minimum daily range of temperature is the characteristic feature of marine climate while extremely high daily range
of temperature characterizes continental climate. For example, temperature of Chennai is more uniform than that of
Delhi because Chennai is located at the sea coast and Delhi is located away from the sea.
ALBEDO:
• The portion of incident radiation reflected back from the surface of the body is called Albedo.
• It is defined as the ratio of the reflected radiation to the total intercepted radiation
• Fresh snow> Desert > Forest> Black soil >Ocean water> Land.
Heat Budget of the Earth:-
• Average temperature of the earth remains more or less constant. It is possible because of the balance between
the amount of incoming solar radiation (Short wave) and the amount of outgoing terrestrial radiation
(Long wave).
• • The Earth receives a certain amount of Insolation (short waves – the visible part of the UV and
electromagnetic spectrum) and emits heat back into space with terrestrial radiation (long-wave or
infrared radiation).
•Through this give and take, or heating budget, the Earth maintains a constant temperature.
• The balance of incoming and outgoing radiation has been termed as Heat budget of the Earth.
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If we consider 100% of the total radiation received at the top of the atmosphere, a certain amount of energy is reflected,
spread and absorbed through the earth's atmosphere, and only the remaining radiation reaches the earth's surface.
About 35 units are reflected into space even before reaching the ground. Of these, 27 units are reflected from the top of
the clouds and 2 units from the snow and ice covered areas of the earth, 6 units reflected back by atmosphere.
The remaining 65 units are absorbed, 14 units to the atmosphere and 51 units to the soil. The Earth radiates back 51
units in the form of terrestrial radiation.
Of these, 17 units are ejected directly into space and the remaining 34 units are absorbed into the atmosphere. The 48 units
absorbed in the atmosphere (14 units of radiation and 34 units of ground radiation) are also radiated back into space.
The total radiation returning from the earth and the atmosphere is therefore 17 + 48=65 units, which balances the 65
units received from the sun.
Ways of transfer of heat and energy:

1.Conduction : heat transfer occurs between objects by direct contact.
2.Convection: the heat transfer takes within the fluid.
3. Radiation: heat transfer occurs through electromagnetic waves without involving particles.
Latitudnal Heat Balance:-
Although the earth as a whole maintains a balance

between the incoming and outgoing radiation, still its
distribution is not uniform all over the earth.
The amount of insolation gradually decreases
from the equator towards the poles and similarly, the amount of outgoing terrestrial radiation also varies.
• At latitudes below 40 degrees (40 degree north to 40 degree south) solar radiation received is more than is lost to
space by the earth.
• While on higher latitudes more heat is lost than the received.
• The tropics, therefore, should have been getting progressively hotter and the poles getting progressively cooler.
But this is not so.
• The atmosphere and the oceans act as giant thermal engines that transfer excess heat from the tropics towards the
poles.
• Due to imbalance of heat, winds and ocean currents are produced. As most of the heat transfer takes place
across the mid-latitudes (30 degrees to 50 degrees), much of the stormy weather is associated with this region.
• Thus, the transfer of surplus energy from the lower latitudes to the deficit energy zone of the higher latitudes maintains
an overall balance over the earth's surface.
Horizontal Distribution of Temperature on Earth (Isotherm)
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o The temperature distribution is generally shown on the map with the help of isotherms.
o Isotherms: An imaginary Line joining places having equal temperature at a given time or on average
over a given period, reduced to sea level to eliminate the effects of altitude.
Temperature Anamoly:-
 The difference between mean temperature of a place and the mean temperature of its
latitude is called temperature anomaly.
 Positive Anomaly = Local Temperature > Latitude Temperature
 Negative Anomaly = Local Temperature < Latitude Temperature
Characteristics of Isotherms:-
o Isotherms run east-west and generally follow the parallels/latitudes.

o Isotherms take sudden bends where land-water contrasts are maximum.
o The spacing of isotherms indicates the latitudinal thermal gradient, i.e. steepness of temperature change.
o Highest temperatures = Tropics and sub-tropics (high insolation)
o Lowest temperatures = Polar and Sub Polar Regions
o The interiors of continents have highest diurnal and annual temperature range because of
continentality effect (No moderating effect of oceans).
o Temperature gradients are usually low over the eastern margins (because of warm ocean currents) and
high over the western margins (because of cold ocean currents) of continents.
o An enhanced land-sea contrast makes isotherms irregular over the northern hemisphere.
o Northern hemisphere is warmer than the southern hemisphere due to the predominance of landmass.
o Maximum insolation is received over the subtropical Deserts due to less cloudiness.
Isotherms and Seasonal Extremes
The earth maintains a constant temperature by ensuring the heat it receives (insolation) equals the heat it emits
(terrestrial radiation). Thus earth as a whole neither accumulates nor loses heat, hence it maintains its temperature.
Temperature distribution across the globe isn’t uniform. It’s a dynamic pattern influenced by various factors, and it
changes with seasons.
 Isotherms: Isotherms are lines that connect places with the same temperature.
o They give us a visual representation of temperature distribution.
o Maps often use isotherms to depict temperature variations, especially for specific months like January and July.
 Latitude’s Influence: Generally, isotherms tend to run parallel to latitudes.
o This means places at the same latitude often have similar temperatures.
o However, there are exceptions, especially in January in the northern hemisphere due to the vast landmass.
 Land vs. Ocean Dynamics: The vast landmass in the northern hemisphere causes significant temperature
deviations.
o For instance, warm ocean currents like the Gulf Stream push isotherms northward in the North Atlantic.
o But over continents, temperatures drop sharply, causing isotherms to bend southward, as seen in Europe and
Siberia.
 Temperature Range: In January , equatorial oceans are warm, with temperatures over 27°C.
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o The tropics are over around 24°C, middle latitudes between 2°C and 0°C, and the chilly Eurasian interior plunges to
between –18°C and –48°C.
o The southern hemisphere, with its oceanic dominance, sees more gradual temperature changes.
o The isotherm of 20° C, 10° C, and 0° C runs parallel to 35° S, 45° S and 60° S latitudes respectively.
o By July , isotherms in both hemispheres run more parallel to latitudes, with subtropical regions in Asia even crossing
30°C.
 Temperature Extremes: Figure shows the difference in temperatures between January and July can be stark in some
regions.
o North-eastern Eurasia experiences a massive range of over 60°C, attributed to its continental nature.
o Meanwhile, the region between 20° S and 15° N sees a minimal range of just 3°C.
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Inversion of temperature:
A reversal of the normal behaviour of temperature in the troposphere, in which a layer of cool air at the surface is
overlain by a layer of warmer air.
of warmer air.
1. Radiation Inversion/ Ground Inversion:-

 It occur due to conductive cooling of air by extremely Cold ground with following
conditions:-
• Cold winter Nights i.e. surface of earth is extremely cold
• There is no high velocity wind i.e. stable atmospheric conditions.
• Cloudless and clear sky with dry air.
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2. Valley inversion:-
 During night, the air at the mountain becomes very cold and heavy. As such it moves down the slope
and settles down in the valley bottom replacing comparatively warmer air which is pushed up.
 Sometimes, the temperature of the air in the valley bottom reaches below freezing point, whereas the air at
higher altitude remains comparatively warm.
 As a result, the trees along the lower slopes are bitten by frost, whereas those at higher levels are free from it.
In Polar Regions permanent temperature inversion conditions are found.
 Due to conduction, air found near the surface become colder than the air located on bit higher altitude.
3. Frontal Inversion:-
 Frontal or cyclone- (Warm layer rises over cold layer)
 When the warm and cold fronts meet, then the warm front rises up and being heavier the cold front sinks
down. It results in formation of Frontal Inversion.
 It has considerable slope, whereas other inversions are nearly horizontal. It often takes place in the
temperate zone and causes cyclonic conditions which result in the precipitation in different forms.
 A frontal inversion is unstable and is destroyed as the weather changes.

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Significance of Temperature Inversion:
• Fog is formed due to the situation of warm air above and cold air below.
Promotes stability in lower atmosphere - smoke particles collected beneath the inversion layer
and spread horizontally.
• Inversions also affect diurnal variations in air temperature. The principal heating of air during the day
is produced by its contact with a land surface that has been heated by the Sun’s radiation. Heat from
the ground is communicated to the air by conduction & convection.
Since an inversion will usually control the upper level to which heat is carried by convection, only a shallow
layer of air will be heated in case of temperature inversion, and the rise in temperature will be great.
Note : Over polar areas temperature inversion is normal throughout the year. As air near the cooler surface has
low temperature than layer above it.
Absolute Humidity is the amount of water vapour present per unit volume of air. It is measured Grams per cubic
meter
Specific Humidity - Ratio of the weight of water vapour per unit to the weight of air. Measured in gram per kilogram
Relative Humidity - Ratio of air's moisture capacity to actual moisture. Measured in percentage. Relative humidity, decreases
as temperature increase.
Fog
Fog is a visible aerosol consisting of tiny water droplets or ice crystals suspended in the air at or near the Earth's surface.
When the cool air mixes with the warm moist air over the water, the moist air cools until its humidity reaches 100% and fog forms.
Favourable Conditions: -
 The presence of moisture and a fall in the temperature are key factors for the formation of fog.
 Fog can have “high spatial variability”, and its intensity can depend on factors like humidity, wind, and temperature.
Formation of Fog:-
 With the land surface cooling down at night, the air close to the surface also cools down.
 Since cooler air cannot hold as much moisture as warm air, the water vapour in the air condenses to form fog.
 Fog begins to form in the early hours of the morning, when the temperature is at its lowest.
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CLOUDS
Clouds are another form of condensation. They consist of minute droplets of water or particles of ice which are
in suspension.
Types of Clouds
High Clouds
• Cirrus: These are composed of small ice crystals, white, fibrous or feather like in
appearance.
• Cirrostratus: - looks like a thin white almost transparent sheet.
• Cirrocumulus: - they are also composed of ice crystal but they are globular in
appearance forming thin cloud.
Middle clouds:-
• Altostratus:- composed of water droplets forming sheets of Grey or watery-looking clouds partly or
totally covering the sky
• Altocumulus:- composed of water droplets in layers or patches globular with
flattened bases arranged in lines or waves
Low Clouds:
Stratocumulus: - Large globular masses; soft grey in appearance.
Nimbostratus: - Dark grey and rain bearing; dense and shapeless often give continuous rain. Stratus: -
Low grey layered and almost fog like appearance, bring dull weather and often accompanied by drizzle.
Clouds of great Vertical extent

• Cumulus: - round topped and flat based forming a whitish grey globular mass. There are patches
of blue sky between the clouds.
• Cumulonimbus: - special type of cumulus cloud of great vertical extent, white or black
globular masses; summits rise like towers and mountains often indicate conventional rain,
lightning and thunder.
Effect of clouds on climate:
The interaction of clouds with solar radiation depends on their height, thickness and composition.
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High clouds are usually thin and composed of ice crystals. They are transparent to incoming solar
radiation, but can capture some of the infrared radiation emitted by the Earth. This trapping effect can
warm the earth.
Low clouds are usually thicker and consist of water droplets. They reflect incoming solar radiation better,
so they tend to cool the soil. Low clouds also emit more longwave radiation than high clouds, which can further
cool the Earth's surface.
The overall effect of clouds on climate is complex and depends on several factors, such as clouds, distribution
and altitude.
In general, however, high clouds have a warming effect, while low clouds have a cooling effect.
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Precipitation:-
Precipitation is any form of liquid or solid water particles that fall from the atmosphere and reach the surface of the Earth.
Types of Precipitation:
Rain
Drizzle
Snow
Sleet
Hail
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S No. Type of Precipitation Details
1. Rain  it is a precipitation that falls on the surface of the earth as spherical
water droplets
2. Drizzle  It consists of light water precipitation where liquid water droplets

are smaller than those of rain.
 This can occur when updrafts in clouds are not strong enough to allow
them to produce rain.
 Drop size less than 0.5 mm
3. Hail  Precipitation in the form of hard round pellets

 Strong ascending currents take water vapor to great heights
where it condenses and precipitates as snow.
 As it comes down, it melts but strong currents push them up again
increasing the size. Thus size keeps on increasing until it becomes very
hard and big.
4. Snow  Snow consists of ice crystals in a flaky form, having an average density
of 0.1g/cc.
 It is also an important form of precipitation that usually forms in

colder climates and higher altitudes.
5. Sleet  Sleet is frozen raindrops that are formed when rainfall passes through
the air in the atmosphere at subfreezing temperatures.
 It is a type of precipitation in the form of a mixture of rain and snow.
 It is a frozen rain which forms when rain while falling to the earth
passes through a layer of the very cold air mass.
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Types of Rainfall
On the basis of mode of occurrence, the rainfall is classified into three categories:-
Convectional Rainfall:-
o Convectional rainfall refers to the precipitation that results from the upward movement of warm, moist air in the
atmosphere. The process begins with the heating of the Earth's surface by the sun, causing the air above it to warm
up. As the air warms, it becomes lighter and starts to rise.
o As the warm air rises higher into the atmosphere, it encounters cooler temperatures at higher altitudes.
o The temperature drop causes the moisture-laden air to reach its dew point, where it becomes saturated with water
vapor.
o Saturated air cannot hold all the moisture it contains, leading to condensation—the conversion of water vapor into
liquid water.
o Water droplets begin to form around tiny particles, such as dust or aerosols, present in the atmosphere.
o These water droplets cluster together to form visible cloud formations, specifically large cumulus clouds.
o Occurs mostly in tropics where it is hot.
o If the air is hot enough, it rises very quickly and can cause thunderstorms.
o Such rain is usual in the summer or in the hotter session of the day.
o It is also described as pre-monsoon rainfall. It goes by different names locally in India:-
Mango Shower  Kerala and coastal areas of Karnataka.

 They are known as mango showers as
they help in the early ripening of mangoes.
Blossom Shower:  With this shower, coffee flowers blossom in

Kerala and nearby areas.
Kal Baisakhi  These are dreaded evening

thunderstorms in Bengal and Assam
 These showers are useful for tea, jute
and rice cultivation.
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 Orographic Rainfall:-
o Relief rainfall occurs very frequently near mountains beside the sea.
o The moisture-laden air is forced to rise on encountering a mountain range. As it rises upwards, it is
cooled and cloud is formed.
o The cloud becomes saturated with water vapor and it begins to precipitate on the side of the
mountain facing the sea (known as windward side).
o The cloud precipitates the most on the windward side of the mountain.
o The cloud becomes almost exhausted by the time they reach another side (known as leeward
side) so it rains very little there.
o This makes leeward sides of a mountain very sheltered from rain and they hardly ever get much
rain.
Frontal Rainfall:-
 Frontal rainfall occurs when warm air is forced to rise over cold air.
 The moisture in the warm air condenses as it cools which causes clouds and rain.
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LIGHTENING
During the development of a thunderstorm, the air current move upwards while the water droplets move
downwards. These vigorous movements cause separation of charges.
By a process, not yet completely understood the positive charge collect near the upper edges of the
clouds and the negative charges accumulate near the lower edges. There is accumulation of positive
charge near the ground also.
When the magnitude of the accumulation charges become very large, the air which is normally a poor
conductor of electricity is no longer able to resist their flow.
Negative and positive charges meet, producing streaks of bright light and sound.
We see streaks as lightning. The process is called electrical discharge.
The process of electric discharge can occur between two or more clouds or between clouds and the earth.
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Atmospheric circulation
Atmospheric
Pressure:-
o Atmosphere, exerts considerable amount of pressure over the earth’s surface. But we rarely feel it as the
pressure inside our body helps us to beer that. But of course when we go to such places which are located
at a very high altitude, reduction in the atmospheric pressure is easily felt as it causes uneasiness in
our body.
o It decreases with the height.
o Thermal and Non-thermal factors cause changes in air density. Air expands when heated and gets
compressed when cooled. This results in variations in the atmospheric pressure.
o The result is that it causes the movement of air from high pressure to low pressure, setting the air
in motion (wind). It causes horizontal as well as vertical movements of air.
o The winds redistribute the heat and moisture across the planet, thereby, maintaining a constant
temperature for the planet as a whole.
• Distribution of Pressure:-
• Distribution of Air pressure is shown on a map with the help of Isobar which is an imaginary line
drawn to connect places having equal atmospheric pressure, reduced to sea level.
• These are drawn horizontal and parallel to each other.
• Sometimes isobars become circular also which indicates that there is a low pressure at
a place which is surrounded by high pressure areas from all the side. Such circular
isobars indicate cyclonic conditions.
Some concepts:-
• High temperature is associated with low pressure (as air expand) & vice versa.
• On surface, air move from high pressure to low pressure.
• The vertical rising of moist air cools down to from the clouds and brings precipitation.
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Factors Affecting the Velocity and Direction of Wind:-
 Horizontal winds near the earth surface respond to the combined effect of three forces in addition with downward
gravitational force.
Coriolis Force
 It is not a force, but an effect, caused due to rotation of the earth.
 It turns the object to right or clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left or anti-
clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere.
 It affects wind direction and not the speed.
 Higher the wind speed greater is the Coriolis effect.
 Maximum at poles as poles rotate slow and becomes zero at the equator.
 It always acts at right angle to the direction of the wind.
 The Coriolis deflection decreases as latitude decreases, as it is proportional to theSine of the latitude.
Frictional Force:-
 Friction is the resistance to motion of one object moving relative to another.
 The friction force drags the wind as it moves across surfaces.
 As the surface friction decrease wind speed, it reduces the effect of Coriolis force.
Pressure Gradient Force (PGF):-

Pressure Gradients:-
 The rate of change of pressure with respect to distance is the pressure gradient.
 Pressure Gradient is denoted by the spacing of isobars that expresses the rate and direction of pressure changes
o Close spacing = Steep or strong pressure gradient
o Wide spacing = Weak gradient
 Pressure Gradient Force (PGF) is produced by the differences in atmospheric pressure.
 It operates from the high-pressure area to a low-pressure area.
 The Pressure Gradient Force acts perpendicular to the Coriolis force and to an isobar.
Higher the pressure gradient more will be the speed of the wind.
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Geostrophic Winds:
 Geostrophic winds come about because pressure gradient force and Coriolis force come into balance after the air
begins to move.
 As the air mass starts to move, it is deflected to the right by the Coriolis force. The deflection increases until the
Coriolis force is balanced by the pressure gradient force. At this point, the wind will be blowing parallel to the isobars.
When this happens, the wind is referred to as the "geostrophic wind"
 Under the influence of both the Pressure Gradient Force and Coriolis Force, air tends to move parallel to isobars in
conditions where friction is low (1000 meters above the surface of the Earth) and isobars are straight.
 At the surface level wind blows at an angle, but above it becomes parallel to isobars.
Rossby Waves:-
 Rossby waves are initial types of oscillations that are seen in rotating fluids in their natural state.
 Carl-Gustaf Arvid Rossby is credited with discovering the phenomenon known as Rossby waves, or Planetary Waves.
 Massive meanders in the atmosphere called Rossby waves, which are found at great heights.
 It greatly influence the weather.
 The pressure system and jet stream are also affected by these waves.
 The oceanic Rossby waves travels along the dividing line between the warm upper layer and the chilly deep ocean.
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WIND SYSTEM
PRIMARY CIRCULATION/ PERMANENT /PLANETARY WINDS:

E.g., Trade winds (Easterlies), Westerlies, Polar winds.
The direction of such winds remains more or less the same throughout the year though their areas change
seasonally
SECONDARY CIRCULATION / SEASONAL WINDS includes:

Monsoon winds
Cyclone
Air masses
Anticyclone -formed due to subsidence of air currents in the horse latitude. These anticyclones are known as
‘Subtropical highs.
TERTIARY CIRCULATION
Local winds like: Mistral, Chinook etc.
GENERAL CIRCULATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE / PLANETARY WINDS
• General circulation of the atmosphere is the pattern of the movement of the planetary winds.
• The general circulation of the atmosphere also sets in motion the ocean water circulation which influences the
earth’s climate.
• At the equator, the air near the surface is warm, winds are light, and the pressure gradient is weak. This region
of monotonous weather is known as the doldrums.
The warm air here rises, condensing into massive cumulonimbus clouds and thunderstorms, which release large
amounts of latent heat as they form. The additional heat makes the air even more likely to rise, and provides the
energy that drives the rising branch of the Hadley cell.
This rising air reaches the stable tropopause, which blocks it from rising further, causing the air to diverge at upper
levels and move poleward.
As air moves poleward from equatorial regions, it is constantly experiencing radiational cooling as it emits infrared
radiation. Simultaneously, this air begins to converge and pile up as it approaches the mid-latitudes (around 30°
latitude in both hemispheres). This convergence of air far above the surface increases the mass of air aloft,
increasing the pressure at the surface.
This increase in surface pressure results in a belt of high pressure centers called subtropical highs around 30°N and
30°S. These latitudes are commonly known as the horse latitudes.
• As this converging air above the subtropical highs slowly descends, it warms adiabatically by compression. This
sinking air, dries the atmosphere creating generally clear skies and little rain.
• Some of these lighter surface winds begin to move back toward the equator, and are deflected by the Coriolis
force.
• This causes north-easterly winds in the Northern Hemisphere and south-easterly winds in the Southern
Hemisphere in tropical regions. These winds are known as the trade winds.
• Near the equator, the northeasterly and southeasterly trade winds converge at the surface at what is known as
the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ). Here, convergence further reinforces the rising branch of the Hadley cell.
• Back at 30° latitude, while some of the air sinking along the subtropical highs goes equatorward to complete
the Hadley cell, some sinking air also moves poleward.
• This poleward moving surface air travels from from 30° to 60° and is again deflected by the Coriolis force.
• This results in the prevailing surface westerlies that impact the mid-latitudes in both hemispheres.
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• As the surface air travels poleward from 30° to 60°, it collides with cold polar air moving equatorward. These air
masses do not mix easily, and are separated by a boundary known as the polar front. At the polar front, surface air
converges and rises at the subpolar low, and storms and convection develop here.
• Some of this rising air goes all the way up to the tropopause where it moves back to 30° latitude and sinks at
the subtropical high along with the descending branch of the Hadley cell.
• This circulation cell from 30° to 60° is known as the Ferrel cell, which is a thermally indirect circulation in which cool
air rises and warm air sinks.
• Behind the polar front in the Northern hemisphere, cold surface polar air moves from the poles toward 60°. As
the air moves equatorward, it is again deflected by the Coriolis force. In the Arctic regions, air typically flows from the
northeast while in the Antarctic, air flows from the southeast. These are known as the polar easterlies.
• Along the polar front where cold polar air collides with warm air from the Ferrel cell, some of the rising air moves back
toward the poles. Eventually this air reaches the poles, sinks back to the surface, and flows back toward the polar front,
which gives us the Polar cell.
These three cells set the pattern for the general circulation of the atmosphere. Thetransfer of the heat energy
from lower latitudes to higher latitudes maintain the general circulation. The general circulation of the
atmosphere initiates the large andslow-moving currents of the ocean.
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PRESSURE BELTS:
Pressure belts are those areas on the surface of the earth where the same pressure is distributed differently based on
latitude.
 The horizontal distribution of air pressure across the latitudes is characterized by high or low pressure belts.
(i) The Equatorial Low Pressure Belt

 The sun shines almost vertically on the equator throughout the year.
 As a result the air gets warm and rises over the equatorial region and produce equatorial low pressure.
 This belt extends from equator to 10º N and 10 º S latitudes.

Due to excessive heating horizontal movement of air is absent here and only conventional currents are
there. Therefore, this belt is called doldrums (the zone of calm) due to virtual absence of surface winds.
 These are the regions of convergence because the winds flowing from sub tropical high pressure belts
converge here.
 This belt is also known as-Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ).
Significance:
Contributes to the development of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), where trade winds converge and result in
significant rainfall.
Plays a crucial role in the Earth’s heat redistribution by initiating the Hadley cell circulation.
(ii) The Sub-tropical High Pressure Belts

 The sub-tropical high pressure belts extend from the tropics to about 35 º latitudes in both the
Hemispheres.
 The existence of these pressure belts is due to the fact that the up rising air of the equatorial region is
deflected towards poles due to the earth’s rotation.
 After becoming cold and heavy, it descends in these regions and get piled up. This results in high pressure.
 Calm conditions with feeble and variable winds are found here.
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 In olden days vessels with cargo of horses passing through these belts found difficulty in sailing under
these calm conditions. They used to throw the horses in the sea in order to make the vessels lighter.
Henceforth these belts or latitudes are also called ‘horse latitudes’.
 These are the regions of divergence because winds from these areas blow towards equatorial and subpolar
low pressure belts.
Significance:
 Leads to the formation of subtropical deserts, such as the Sahara in Africa and the Sonoran in North America.
 Influences the trade winds that blow towards the equator.
(iii) The Sub-polar low Pressure Belts
 The sub-polar low pressure belts extend between 45 º N and the Arctic Circle(60 0 N) in the northern
hemisphere and between 45°S and the Antarctic Circle(60 0 S) in the southern hemisphere.
 They are known as the North sub-polar low and the South sub-polar low pressure belts respectively.
 Winds coming from the sub-tropical and the polar high belts converge here to produce cyclonic storms or
low pressure conditions.
 This zone of convergence is also known as polar front .
Significance:
 Contributes to the development of the polar front, a zone of weather systems and storms.
 Influences the westerlies, the prevailing winds in the mid-latitudes.
(iv) The Polar High Pressure Belts
In polar regions, sun never shines vertically.

Sun rays are always slanting here resulting in low temperatures.
Because of low temperature, air compresses and its density increases . Hence, high pressure is found
here.
Winds from these belts blow towards sub-polar low pressure belts.
Seasonal Shifting of Pressure belts
This system of pressure belts is a generalized picture. In reality, the location of these pressure belts is not
permanent.
They shift northward in July and southward in January, following the changing position of the sun’s
direct rays as they migrate between the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn.
The thermal equator (commonly known as the belt of highest temperature) also shifts northwards and
southwards of the equator.
With the shifting of thermal equator northwards in summer and southwards in winter, there is also a
slight shift in pressure belts towards north and south of their annual average location.
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• Significance:- Mediterranean climate(30 to 45 degree) & Monsoon climate.

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TROPICAL CYCLONE
• Tropical Cyclone are violent Storms (low pressure center) that originate over the Ocean in
tropical areas and more over to coastal areas bringing about the large scale destruction caused
by violent winds, very heavy rainfall and storm surges.
• Movement:
Anticlockwise in Northern hemisphere.
Clockwise in Southern hemisphere.
Tropical cyclones are called by different names in different regions given below:
o Hurricane – Atlantic
o Typhoon – Western Pacific and the South China Sea
o Willy-Willies – Western Australia
o Cyclone – Indian Ocean
• Occurrence in India-June to November
FAVOURABLE CONDITIONS:
1. High sea surface with temperature- higher than 27 degree Celsius:

This ensures sufficient evaporation and source of moisture.
The moisture provides the necessary latent heat in the air.
Latent heat - heat required - solid to liquid or vapour or liquid into vapour without change of temperature.
2. Presence of Coriolis force:-

• lead to the development of the cyclonic vortex
• between 10 degree to 20 degree north and South latitude - 65% tropical cyclones
• Do not form at equator, as Coriolis force is absent.
3. Minimal vertical wind shear:-

• Tropical cyclones forms when the wind is uniform at most height through the
troposphere.
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• Vertical wind shear is the change in wind speed and direction with the altitude in
the atmosphere The larger the change in wind speed and direction with the
altitude, the stronger the vertical wind shear.
• If a tropical cyclone is being affected by rather strong vertical wind shear for a
sustain period of time, the storm structure will be damaged and its low level
circulation could be separated from the main convective cluster.
4. A Pre-existing weak Low Pressure Area:-

• Promotes initial convergence of winds
5. Depth of warm water:-

• Up to 60 to 70m.
Structure of Tropical Cyclone: -
 Eye:- A mature tropical cyclone is characterized by the strong spirally circulating wind around the center,
called the eye.
 The eye is a region of calm with subsiding air. Around the eye is the eye wall, where there is a strong
spiraling ascent of air to greater height reaching the tropopause.
 The wind reaches maximum velocity in this region, reaching as high as 250 km per hour. Torrential rain
occurs here.
Eye Wall:- From the eye wall rain bands may radiate and trains of cumulus and cumulonimbus clouds may
drift into the outer region.
 The diameter of the storm over the Bay of Bengal, Arabian sea and Indian ocean is between 600 - 1200 km.
Characteristics OF TROPICAL CYCLONE:

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1.The cyclone creates storm surges (pushing of water into shore by strong winds) and inundates
the coastal lowlands.
2.On reaching the land moisture supply is cut off and storm dissipates.
3.The place where tropical cyclone crosses the coast is called the landfall of the cyclone.
4.Clouds : Cumulus ,Cumulonimbus
5.Its diameter is typically around 200 to 500 km but can reach 1000 km. A tropical cyclone brings
very violent winds, torrential rain, high waves and, in some cases, very destructive storm surges
and coastal flooding. The winds blow counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise
in the Southern Hemisphere.
Colour coding of Cyclones
India Meteorological Department (IMD) issues color-coded weather warnings for cyclone-prone areas in
India to alert people about the potential danger from cyclones. These color codes represent the intensity of
the cyclone and the likely impact on people and property in the affected areas.
Color-coded warnings issued by the IMD for cyclones:
Green (All is well): This is the least severe warning and indicates that there is no immediate danger. It is issued
when a cyclone is expected to form in the coming days but is not yet close to the affected area.
Yellow (Be Aware): This warning is issued when a cyclone is likely to hit the affected area in the next few days.
It indicates that people should be cautious and take necessary precautions.
Orange/ Amber (Be Prepared): This warning is issued when a cyclone is expected to hit the affected area in the
next 24 hours. It indicates that people should take all necessary precautions and be prepared for the worst.
Red (Take Action): This is the most severe warning and is issued when a cyclone is expected to hit the affected
area within the next few hours. It indicates that people should take immediate action to protect themselves and
their property.
The IMD also provides detailed information on the potential impact of the cyclone, such as wind speed,
rainfall, storm surge, and flooding, along with the warning. The color-coded weather warnings issued by
the IMD for cyclone-prone areas in India are an important tool to alert people about the potential danger
from cyclones and to help them take necessary precautions to protect themselves and their property.
Naming of Cyclones
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In 2000, a group of nations called WMO/ESCAP (World Meteorological Organisation/United Nations
Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific), which comprised Bangladesh, India, Maldives,
Myanmar, Oman, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and Thailand, decided to start naming cyclones in the region.
After each country sent in suggestions, the WMO/ESCAP Panel on Tropical Cyclones (PTC) finalized the
list.
The WMO/ESCAP expanded to include five more countries in 2018 — Iran, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United
Arab Emirates and Yemen.
The list of 169 cyclone names released by IMD in April 2020 were provided by these countries — 13
suggestions from each of the 13 countries.
Why is it important to name cyclones?
1.Adopting names for cyclones makes it easier for people to remember.
2.With a name, it is also easy to identify individual cyclones, create awareness of its development, rapidly
disseminate warnings to increase community preparedness and remove confusion where there are multiple
cyclonic systems over a region.
What are the guidelines to adopt names of cyclones?
While picking names for cyclones, countries need to follow some rules.
The proposed name should be neutral to (a) politics and political figures (b) religious believes, (c) cultures and (d) gender.
Name should be chosen in such a way that it does not hurt the sentiments of any group of population over the globe.
It should not be very rude and cruel in nature.
It should be short, easy to pronounce and should not be offensive to any member.
The maximum length of the name will be eight letters.
The proposed name should be provided with its pronunciation and voice over.
The names of tropical cyclones over the north Indian Ocean will not be repeated. Once used, it will cease to
be used again.
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Temperate / Extra tropical /Mid-latitude Cyclones or Frontal depression
Fronts
 Fronts are the typical features of mid latitudes weather (temperate region – 30° – 65° N and S) while they are
uncommon (unusual) in tropical and polar regions.
Front Formation
The process of formation of a front is known as Frontogenesis (war between two air masses), and dissipation front
is known as Frontolysis (one of the air masses win against the other).
Frontogenesis involves convergence of two distinct air masses while Frontolysis involves overriding/divergence
of one of the air mass by another.
Due to Coriolis effect, In northern hemisphere Frontogenesis (convergence of air masses) happens in anti-
clockwise direction and in southern hemisphere, clockwise direction.
 Mid-latitude cyclones or temperate cyclones or extra-tropical cyclones occur due to frontogenesis.
Temperate Cyclones Mid-latitude cyclones/ Extra-tropical cyclones
Temperate cyclones are storm systems emerging in the mid and high latitudes, away from the tropics, and they are
low-pressure systems with associated cold fronts, warm fronts, and occluded fronts.
The systems developing in the mid and high latitude (35° latitude and 65° latitude in both hemispheres), beyond the
tropics are called the Temperate Cyclones or Extra-Tropical Cyclones.
Origin and Development of Temperate Cyclones
The development of temperate cyclones can be studied in five stages namely:
Stage I: Stationary/ Beginning

Stage II: Beginning of Young Adult
Stage III: Mature
Stage IV: Occlusion
Stage V: Dissipation
In the Northern Hemisphere, Warm air blows from the south and cold air from the north of the front.
When the pressure drops along the front, warm air goes north and cold air moves south, causing an
anticlockwise cyclonic circulation to form in the northern hemisphere under the influence of the Coriolis
Force.
As a result of this Cyclonic Circulation, A well-developed extratropical cyclone with a warm front and a cold
front.
Between the forward and rear cold air or cold sectors, there are pockets of warm air or warm sectors.
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Weather along a warm front
As a series of clouds develop across the sky in front of the warm front, warm air slides over cold air,
bringing precipitation.
As the warm air moves up the slope, it condenses and causes precipitation but, unlike a cold front, the temperature
and wind direction changes are gradual.
Such fronts cause moderate to gentle precipitation over a large area, over several hours.
The passage of warm front is marked by rise in temperature, pressure and change in weather. [No cumulonimbus
clouds as the gradient is gentle]
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Weather along a cold front
As the cold front moves in from behind, warm air is forced upward. As a result, cumulus clouds develop along the
cold front.
The cold front advances quicker than the warm front and eventually overtakes it.
The weather along such a front depends on a narrow band of cloudiness and precipitation.
Severe storms can occur. During the summer months thunderstorms are common in warm sector.
In some regions like USA tornadoes occur in warm sector.
Produce sharper changes in weather. Temperatures can drop more than 15 degrees within the first hour.
Clouds: dark nimbus and cumulonimbus clouds cause heavy showers. A cold front passes off rapidly, but the
weather along it is violent.
Occluded Front
 Occlusion: Meteorology a process by which the cold front of a rotating low-pressure system catches up the warm front,
so that the warm air between them is forced upwards.
 Such a front is formed when a cold air mass overtakes a warm air mass and goes underneath it.
 Frontolysis begin when warm sector diminishes and the cold air mass completely undertakes the warm sector on
ground.
 Thus, a long and backward swinging occluded front is formed which could be a warm front type or cold front type
occlusion.
Weather along an occluded front
 Weather along an occluded front is complex—a mixture of cold front type and warm front type weather. Such
fronts are common in west Europe.
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Clouds along an occluded front
 A combination of clouds formed at cold front and warm front.

 Warm front clouds and cold front clouds are on opposite side of the occlusion.
The cyclone evaporates once the warm air is completely pushed up and the front is occluded (occluded front).
Individual frontal cyclones usually last 3 to 10 days and move in a west to east path.
The orientation of the polar jet stream in the upper troposphere controls the precise movement of this weather
phenomenon.
Distribution of Temperate Cyclones
 Temperate cyclones form in the world's mid-latitude regions, this region is also referred to as extra-tropical
(beyond tropical).
Temperate cyclones are mostly found between 35 and 65 degrees north and south latitude.
Their traces have been discovered beyond 65 degrees latitude in both hemispheres.
Temperate cyclones can be found practically all year round, with some seasonal changes.
However, they are more common in the winter since there is a higher temperature disparity.
As a result, winter is the best time for temperate cyclones to form, and their frequency is also higher.
Characteristics of Temperate Cyclones
1. Size and Shape:
 The temperate cyclones are asymmetrical and inverted 'V-shaped.

 They cover a distance of 500 to 600 kilometers.
 They may cover a distance of 2500 kilometers throughout North America (Polar Vortex). They range in height from 8 to 11
kilometers.
2. Wind Velocity and Strength:

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The wind speed increases as the storm approaches, but drops as it passes.
3. Orientation And Movement:
In temperate cyclogenesis, the jet stream is quite important.
Temperate cyclones are similarly influenced by jet streams.
These cyclones are orientated east-west because they move with the westerlies (Jet Streams).
Associated Weather:-
 A temperate cyclone's arrival is signalled by a drop in temperature, and moon, and a thin layer of cirrus clouds.
 A little drizzle follows, eventually turning into a torrential downpour.
 The approach of the warm front, which halts the fall in mercury levels and raises the temperature, changes these conditions.
 Rainfall ends and clear weather reigns until an anticyclonic cold front comes, bringing with it a drop in
temperature, cloudiness, and rain with thunder.
 After that, the weather becomes clear once more.
 Anticyclones are usually accompanied by these cyclones.
Significance of Temperate Cyclones
 Temperate cyclones bring rain to most of North and North-western India, filling the void left by the South West monsoon.
 Temperate cyclones are extremely important in agriculture.
 Because of the Temperate cyclones, most Rabi crops, especially wheat, in North and North-western India produce superior
results.
 They also play an important role in meeting water demands for human consumption.
 Snowfall : Temperate cyclones enter India from the Mediterranean Sea in the winter season. These cause rainfall over the Northern plains
and snowfall in the mountains in the months of December and January. This promotes tourism, winter sports & ground water recharge.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TROPICAL & TEMPERATE CYCLONES:
S.No. Parameters Tropical Cyclone Temperate Cyclone

1 Location Tropics (5-to-20-degree N&S latitude) Extra tropical (30 to 65 N&S)
2 Formation Latent heat of evaporation Convergence of two contrasting

air masses
3 Frontal Not present Convergence of two contrasting
System air masses
4 Area Cover less area as compared to Cover a larger area
temperate cyclone
5 Origin Originate only over the seas and Can originate over the land and
dissipate on reaching land sea
6 Wind Much Higher and it is more Less wind speed
Velocity destructive
ANTI CYCLONES
Opposite form of the cyclones.

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Consist of circular isobar with high pressure at the center and low pressure at the periphery.
Winds move form the center towards the outer edges.
Anti-cyclones are larger, with a diameter 75% greater than cyclones.
-Wind speed in anti-cyclones range from 30- 50 km/hr.
Air descends form the top to the bottom at their center.
This descending air keeps the center's weather clear and prevents the formation of fronts
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AIR MASSES:
 When the large body of Air remains over a vast region with homogenous conditions of temperature and humidity
for a sufficiently longer time, it acquires the characteristics of the area which leads to formation of Air mass.
 Such air mass has distinct boundaries and may extend hundreds and thousands kilometers
horizontally and sometimes as high as the top of the troposphere.
 The Earth’s major air masses originate in polar or subtropical latitudes.

 The middle latitudes constitute essentially a zone of modification, interaction, and mixing of the polar and tropical
air masses.
Source Region for Development of Air Mass: -
 The homogenous surfaces, over which air masses form, are called the source regions.
 The main source regions are the high-pressure belts in the subtropics and around the poles which give rise to tropical air
masses & the source for polar air masses respectively.
 Source Region establishes heat and moisture homogenous equilibrium with the overlying air mass.
Conditions for the formation of Air Mass:-
Classification of Air Masses based on:-
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Principal World Air Masses:-
The Air Masses are classified as under:-
1.Polar:-
a. Continental Polar Air Masses (CP)
 Source regions of these air masses are the Arctic basin, northern North America, Eurasia, and
Antarctica.
 These air masses are characterized by dry, cold, and stable conditions.
 The weather during winter is frigid, clear, and stable.
 During summer, the weather is less stable with the lesser prevalence of anticyclonic winds, warmer
landmasses, and lesser snow.
b. Maritime Polar Air Masses (MP)
 Maritime Polar (mP) air masses form over both the Northern and Southern hemispheres’ polar regions.
They usually have a lot more moisture in them than cP air masses
 The conditions over the source regions are cool, moist, and unstable.
 The weather during winters is characterized by high humidity, overcast skies, and occasional fog and
precipitation.
 During summer, the weather is clear, fair, and stable.
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2.Tropical:-
c. Continental Tropical Air Masses (CT)
 The source-regions of the air masses include tropical and sub-tropical deserts of Sahara in Africa,
and of West Asia and Australia.
 These air masses are dry, hot and stable and do not extend beyond the source.
 They are dry throughout the year.
d. Maritime Tropical Air Masses (MT)

 The source regions of these air masses include the oceans in tropics and sub-tropics such as
Mexican Gulf, the Pacific, and the Atlantic oceans.
 These air masses are warm, humid, and unstable.
 The weather during winter has mild temperatures, overcast skies with fog.
 During summer, the weather is characterized by high temperatures, high humidity, cumulous clouds, and
convectional rainfall.
Air Masses Movement

 Air masses do not stay over their source location for a long period.
 As the weather pattern changes slightly, air mass gets shifted to a new location.
 Differences in air pressure can result in the movement of air masses from one location to another.
 Horizontal Movement:-
o Air masses tend to flow from areas of high air pressure to areas of low air pressure. Thus, winds blow away
from high-pressure areas; wind blows towards low-pressure areas.
 Vertical Movement:-
o Air masses also move vertically. Dense, cold air masses sink and push less dense warm air masses
upward. Movement caused by differences in temperature produce convection currents . As warm air
rises, it becomes less dense, spreads out, and cools.
Impacts of movement of air masses on weather and winds in different parts of the continents
 In North America:-
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In the US, the collision between a maritime tropical air mass from Gulf of Mexico and a continental polar
air mass from Canada can lead to the formation of severe weather, thunderstorms, tornadoes, and heavy
rainfall.
This occurs in the central part of the country known as ‘Tornado Ally’.
In south western USA particularly in summers, the arrival of dry tropical air mass from the desert region can result in
extreme heatwaves and dry conditions.
When they interact with maritime polar air mass from the Pacific ocean, it can result from monsoon-like thunderstorms,
especially in Arizona and New Mexico.
o In Europe:-
 Western Europe experiences the influence of maritime polar air masses from the North Atlantic ocean and maritime tropical
air masses from the Azores high. Interactions can lead to frequent precipitation and variable weather conditions.
 The movement of air masses in the European Alps results in Foehn winds. When Moist maritime air mass
from the Atlantic ocean encounters the mountains they are forced to rise. As the air ascends it cools and
releases moisture as precipitation on the windward side. On the leeward side, the air descends, warming
adiabatically leading to warm and dry conditions.
In India:-
The Indian subcontinent experiences the seasonal reversal of winds due to the movement of air masses.
o During the summers the continent is influenced by maritime tropical air masses from the Indian Ocean which brings
heavy monsoon showers while during winter it is influenced by continental polar air mass from Eurasian landmass
leading to dry and cool weather.
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JET STREAM:
• According to WMO, a strong narrow current of air concentrated along a quasi-horizontal

axis in upper troposphere or in stratosphere.
Properties:
1. In general, the circulation of jet stream is from west to east in a narrow belt of few
hundred kilometers width at the height of 7.5 to 14 km in the upper troposphere.
2. On an average these measures thousands of kilometers in length, a few hundred kilometers
in width and a few kilometers in depth.
3. Generally, there circulation is observed between poles and 20-degree latitude in both the
hemisphere.
4. This circulation is Wavy and meandering.
5. Maximum wind velocity can be 480 kilometers per hour.
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TYPES OF JET STREAMS:
Polar Front Jet Stream: - Formed above the convergence zone (40 to 60 degree latitude)of the surface polar
cold air mass and tropical warm air mass.
It is less regular.
Subtropical westerly jet stream: - move in the upper troposphere to the north of the subtropical surface high
pressure belt (30 to 35 degree latitude).
More regular.
Tropical easterly jet stream: - develop in the upper troposphere above surface easterly trade winds over
India and Africa during summer season due to intense heating of Tibetan plateau and play important role in
the mechanism of Indian monsoon
Local Jet streams are formed locally due to the local thermal and dynamic conditions and have local
importance. Example Flindator current.
Significance
1. There are fluctuations in the local weather condition due to changes in the form and nature of the
ground surface cyclones and anticyclones caused by the upper air jet stream.
2. The monsoon of the South Asia is largely affected and controlled by the jet streams.
3. The vertical air circulation in jet stream causes rapid rate of mixing of air between
troposphere and stratosphere which helps in the transport of the anthropogenic pollutants
from troposphere to stratosphere.
UPSC AKHADA
Local winds /Tertiary winds
Land and sea breezes:-
(Diurnal winds - change their direction twice in 24-hour period)
Reason - land and sea absorb & transfer heat
differently.
• Sea Breeze: - During the day land heats up faster &

becomes warmer than the sea. Therefore, over the land the
air rises giving rise to the low- pressure area, whereas the
sea is relatively cool and pressure over the sea is relatively
higher.
Thus, pressure gradient from sea to land is created and wind

blows from the sea to the land as sea breeze.
This has cooling effect on the coastal land as the temperature

drop by 5 -10 degrees Celsius.
Land breeze:-
• In the night land losses heat faster than the sea the pressure
gradient is from the land to sea and hence land breeze results.
• Land breezes are comparatively weaker than sea

breeze.
These are called dry winds.
Mountain And Valley Breeze:
• In Mountain region, during the day the slope get heated up and the air moves upslope and to fill
the resulting gap the air from the valley blows up the valley This wind is known as the valley
breeze. (Anabatic winds - warmer)
• During the night the slopes get cooled, and the dense air descends into the valley as the
mountain wind. (Katabatic winds- cooler).
UPSC AKHADA
Chinook and Foehn:-
• Warm and dry local winds blowing on the leeward sides of the Mountain are called Chinook in
the USA (Rockies Mountain) and Foehn (Alps mountains) in the Switzerland.
Chinook - snow eater

Significance:
 Green pasture is open even during winter season.
• The rise in temperature and also helps in early sowing of spring wheat in the USA
Foehn: a warm dry southerly wind developing in the lee of
of the Alps.
 Weather becomes quite pleasant in the valleys due to melting of Snow.

 Switzerland valleys aka “climate oasis” during winter season.
 These winds help in early sowing of wheat, ripening of grapes and check autumn frost.
Adiabatic cooling: As the altitude increases, atmospheric pressure decreases, causing the air to expand.
As the air expands, its temperature decreases, a phenomenon known as adiabatic cooling. This decrease
in temperature and pressure allows water vapor in the air to condense into water droplets that fall to the
ground as rain or snow.
Harmattan
 Dry, warm, strong, dust-laden winds blowing from North East

of Sahara to the Western Sahara.
 Western coast of Africa is warm and moist and have

unpleasant weather.
 Weather become suddenly dry and pleasant.
 Relative humidity decreases due to rise in temperature &

aridity of harmattan.
 Also known as Doctor wind in

Guinea coastal areas of Western Africa.
UPSC AKHADA
 Similar warm dry , very strong and dust Laden winds are
called Brickfielder in Victoria province of Australia and
Norwester in New Zealand.
Sirocco:-
 Warm dry dusty

 From Sahara to Mediterranean region and Italy and Spain.
 Sirocco while passing over the Mediterranean sea pick up moisture and yields rainfall in southern
part of Italy- ‘blood rain’ because of fallout of red sand (picked when it blow over the Sahara).
 Sirocco is injurious to agriculture and fruit crops.
 Different local names: Khamsin (Egypt), Ghibli (Libya).
UPSC AKHADA
Mistral:-
 Cold local winds blow in Spain and France

 These Stormy events adverse effect air flights
Bora:- Cold dry winds along the shore of Adriatic sea, Italy.
Blizzard
 Cold polar wind, laden with dry snow.

 Prevalent in Siberia ,Canada, USA
 Visibility decreases because of Snow ice crystals
Pampero: Cold wind in ‘Pampas’ (temperate grassland) of South America
Santa Ana : Warm and dry wind in USA
Zonda:- Warm wind Andes in Argentina.
Local Winds Region Nature

1. Alize West Central Africa Maritime wet, fresh northerly wind
2. Bora Adriatic coast of Serbia Cold and gusty north-easterly wind
3. Cape Doctor South African coast Dry south-easterly wind
4. Chinook USA warm, dry wind
5. Diablo San Francisco Hot, dry wind
6. Etesian Greece and Turkey Strong & Dry Wind
7. Elephanta Malabar coast of India Cool Winds
8. Fohn Alps and the North Italy Warm dry winds

9. Fremantle Doctor Indian Ocean Hot & dry winds
10. Harmattan Western Africa Hot & dry winds
11. Kali Andhi Indo-Gangetic Plain Violent winds
12. Karaburan Central Asia Violent winds
13. Khasim Eastern Mediterranean Normal wind
14. Loo India and Pakistan Hot Local winds & Dry Winds
15. Maestro Adriatic sea Strong Wind
16. Mistral Alps to Mediterranean Strong & Cold
17. Borasco Local winds of Mediterranean Thunderstorm Wind
UPSC AKHADA
18. Nor'easter USA and Canada Strong & Cold
19. Nor'wester New Zealand's Hot local winds & Dry Winds
20. Pampero Argentina Violent Wind
21. Passat Tropical areas Medium-strong wind
22. Rashabar (‘black wind’) Kurdistan Region of Iraq Strong Wind
23. Santa Ana winds Southern Californian Strong, Hot & Dry wind
24. Shamal Persian Gulf states Strong, Hot & Dry wind
25. Simoom Sahara, Israel, Jordan, Syria Strong, Hot & Dry wind
26. Sirocco North Africa to Southern Europe Hot & Dry wind
27. Southerly Buster Australia Cold Local winds
28. Squamish British Columbia Strong & Violent Winds
29. Vendavel Strait of Gibraltar Strong, windy, wet, and moist south-west wind
30. Brickfielder Southern Australia Hot local winds and dry wind
World Climate
Cold zone Arctic/Tundra/ Polar type
North of the Arctic Circle and south of the Antarctic Circle. There
are no trees in the tundra.
Lowest forms of vegetation like mosses, lichens etc. are found in patches. Mammals -
Wolves, foxes, muskox, Arctic hare and lemmings.
Penguins live only in Antarctic
Western margin Central Continent Eastern Margin

Cool Temperate British type: Siberian type:- Laurentian type
zone Permanent influence of Westerlies Experienced only in Northern It has features of both Maritime
450 – 650 all around the year. Hemisphere. and Continental climates.
Adequate rainfall throughout the Evergreen Coniferous trees:- It extends in eastern Canada
year with a tendency towards a Taiga in Siberia, Finland, Sweden. (Newfoundland), North-East USA
slight winter maximum (due to Siberia called as Cold Pole of the (New England states) regions,
frontal cyclones). earth. Korea, Northern Japan
USA leading producer of producing
Precipitation: 50-250cm. wooden pulp. Lumbering is prevalent.
Britain, Northern France, Northern Agriculture not prevalent due to
Germany, Norway, Western severity of winters
Canada (Vancouver provinces)
Tasmania and New Zealand,
Southern Chile.
Natural vegetation:- Deciduous

Trees
Market Gardening, Truck Farming,
Sheep rearing, Mixed farming.
Beet sugar is alternative to cane
sugar
Warm Mediterranean type Steppe type:- China type/Gulf type/Natal:
Temperate zone
California, Chile, South Africa, They are so remote from maritime It has more rainfall(60-
300 – 450 in South Australia. influence that grasslands are 150cm)than Mediterranean
N&S Shifting of pressure belts and practically treeless. But poleward climates for the same latitude
comes under the effect of trade winds some Conifers appear. because of the influence of
during summers (continental trades Extensive wheat cultivation warm currents.
and hence dry) and westerlies during (Russia)
winters (onshore winds and hence Pastoral farming. Climate strongly modified by
wet). maritime influence.
Dry warm summers and wet cold
winters. Rice Cultivation on terraced
Local winds: Sirocco, Bora, Mistral uplands
Most intensively tilled parts of
Orchard farming, the earth
Viticulture
Hot zone Hot desert Sudan/ Savannah type transitional Monsoonal type
type of climate found between the 150cm, 27-32oC
In tropics - 100 Offshore trade winds, they are equatorial forest and the hot
– 300 in also called Trade wind deserts. deserts. Tropical Monsoon:- India
N&S Primitive hunters:- Kalahari, 100 cm and 150 cm. 24ºC Tropical Marine:- Australia,
Bushmen || Bindbu:- Australia. and 27º C. Philippines, Madagascar. Trees
30-35°C. The grasses are are normally Deciduous
called llanos in the Orinoco basin Seasonal reversal of winds
and campos in Brazil.
Extreme diurnal range of temp Trade

winds:- Harmattan “Doctor’s wind”
Masai Pastoralists:- African
Equatorial Zone Hot Wet equatorial climate:-

50 – 100
N&S of Uniformity of Temperature :- 24-27oC , No Winters. Precipitation
equator is heavy and well distributed throughout the year.
Equatorial Climate:
Annual average rainfall is around 200 cm. In some regions the annual average may be as
high as 250 – 300 cm.
There is no month without rain.
Peculiarity:- two periods of Max Rainfall (during equinoxes while least during
Solstices) Examples are Ecuador, Colombia, Brazil, Peru, Nigeria, Liberia,
Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Malaysia, Java.
It is dominantly found in the lowlands of the Amazon, the Congo, Malaysia and the East
Indies. Amazon low lands are called Selvas.
Supports a luxuriant type of vegetation – the tropical rainforest.
Mahogany, Ebony, Dyewoods.
Lianas, epiphytic and parasitic plants are also
found. In such vegetation, trees of a single species
are rare.
Plantation: Cocoa, Oil Palm, Rubber (Malaysia, Indonesia)
Temperate Continental Grasslands/Steppe Climate:

Characteristics and Regions
Name of the Temperate Region

Grassland
Pustaz Hungary and surrounding regions
Prairies North America (between the foothills of the Rockies and the Great Lakes)
Pampas Argentina and Uruguay (Rain-shadow effect)]
Bush-veld (more tropical) Northern South Africa
HighVeld (more temperate) Southern South Africa
Downs Australia (Murray-Darling basin of southern Australia)
Canterbury New Zealand
The shrubs are differently named in the various parts of the Mediterranean biome on the basis of local names e.g.,
maquis or garrigue in southern Europe, chaparral in California, fymbos or in south Africa, Matorral in Chile and
mallee scrub in Australia.

Figure: Mediterranean Climate across the world
Note : The taiga has a dense forest of conifers such as pine and spruce, while trees are entirely absent in
the tundra.
Köppen climate classification scheme symbols

description table.
Contemporary Topics
Urban Heat Island-
Urban areas and cities having more temperature than rural places at same latitude. This phenomenon has been
termed as Urban Heat island effect.
Urban heat island may be defined as the local and temporary phenomenon in which certain pockets within a city
or entire city is experiencing higher heat load than its peripheral area which is associated with
concretization of Urban places in the place of green spaces which is impacting overall albedo of urban
places resulting into trapping of heat, hence forming Urban Heat Island. It constitutes high thermal
conductivity and lack of evapotranspiration.
Main Causes of Urban Heat Island:-
 Urban Agglomeration:- with more urban agglomeration and rural to urban migration it is estimated that global rate
of urbanization will increase by 70% of present world urban population.
 Rapid Urbanization:- with growing urbanization, natural land cover has been replaced by concretization of
pavements and buildings and other dark surfaces that absorb and retain heat.
 Massive Transportation system:- Massive Transportation system in the cities produce great amount of heating
because of fossil fuel burning which accumulate green house gases which increases temperature.
 Lack of Tree Cover:- Dense Urban trees have been replaced by concrete buildings which hinders
Evapotranspiration.
 Urban Architecture:- Tall Buildings hinder circulation of air and promotes Urban Canyon Effect.
Consequences:-
 Venturi Effect:- Venturi Effect i.e. accumulation of short wave radiation which leads to faster formation
of rain causing Clouds which leads to instances of Flash flooding.
 The Venturi-Effect is a phenomenon observed in fluid dynamics. In fluids (such as wind) an increase in
velocity when flowing through constricted spaces of cities is observed. This effect has been observed in
major cities across the world as predominant winds are forced through a dense network of high-rise buildings.
For Example:- Flash floods have become new normal in Indian cities like Mumbai, Gurugram, New Delhi
which severely impact lives, transportation and properties.
 Accumulation of Particulate matter:- It leads to accumulation of particulate matter which deteriorates

Air Quality Index as noticed in cities like New Delhi where AQI at times goes to “very severe”.
Heat islands raise demand for electricity in summer. Companies that supply electricity typically rely on
fossil fuel power plants to meet much of this demand, which in turn leads to an increase in air pollutant
and greenhouse gas emissions.
 High Urban Temperature: High temperature has been noticed in the Urban Region as compared to
peripheral region.
 Forest Fire:- High accumulation of heat has caused Forest fire in many parts of the world . for
Example:- Recent Forest Fires in Germany 2023.
 Human Illness:- It leads to formation of Heatwaves which often cause human illness and fatalities like
Heat strokes, Heat cramps etc.
 Increased Energy usage:- High heating resulting into high Fossil fuel-based Energy usage.
 Colonization of Ecotherm species like Lizards and other Pathogens.
Way Forward:-
 Urban Forestry:- To enhance Potential Evapotranspiration, Urban Afforestation and Urban Forestry in line of
Miyawaki
method as practices in the states of Kerala and Telangana.
 Green Buildings:- Facilitate Green Buildings and Sponge Cities Mission one the lines of Concept of Sponge
cities in Beijing, China.
Greener Rooftops: use of light coloured concrete and installation of solar panels to promote albedo effect
and generate green electricity.
Green Building Code:- Adhering to environmentally sustainable solution like Green Building Code which
makes the building Eco-friendly.
Thus, to reduce UHI, there is a need for planned urbanization and accomplish SDG 13 i.e. Combat Climate
change concept to generate sustainable cities and sustainable livability in the Urban cities.
Why Arabian Sea has more Cyclones

The frequency and intensity of cyclones developing over the Arabian Sea has increased in the last two decades, while
fewer such storms have been seen over the Bay of Bengal. 52% increase was noticed in the frequency of cyclones over
the Arabian Sea between 2001 and 2019 while 8% decrease over the Bay of Bengal during same period.
The Arabian Sea used to experience few extreme cyclones than the Bay of Bengal on India’s eastern coast.
There are following reasons that result into higher frequency of Cyclones in Arabian Sea as compared to Bay of Bengal:-
1. Rising Sea Surface Temperatures: There has been an increase in cyclone intensity because of global
warming, which has resulted in the rising temperature of seawater.
2. Abundant Energy: The rising temperature enables the Arabian Sea to supply abundant energy for
strengthening the cyclones. Cyclone Tauktae evolved as a VSCS in just 2 days, as seawater up to depths of 50
meters has been very warm.
3. Role of Wind : a higher-level easterly wind pushed the crater of Cyclone Ockhi to the Arabian Sea from the Bay
of Bengal.
4. Aerosols Emissions: Since 1930, there has been a six-fold increase in the anthropogenic emissions of
aerosols. This has led to the weakening of upper- level easterly winds and lower-level south westerly winds that
determine the movement of precipitation over the Arabian Sea.
5. Indian Ocean Dipole which is an irregular natural oscillation of Sea Surface Temperatures (SSTs) in which the
western Indian Ocean becomes alternately warmer and then colder than the eastern part of the ocean-strongest IOD in
60 years.
Case Study:
Cyclone Biparjoy:
Cyclone Biparjoy developed over the southeast Arabian Sea on 6th June 2023. Cyclone Biparjoy, the first cyclone in the
Arabian Sea in 2023, underwent rapid intensification, escalating from a cyclonic circulation to a very severe cyclonic storm.
The IMD data shows that cyclone Biparjoy is on course to become the longest- lifespan cyclone in the Arabian Sea. The
cyclone has sustained its strength for a longer than normal duration, which is attributed to an unusually warm Arabian
Sea.
Increase in frequency of cyclones over the Arabian Sea has not posed a corresponding increase in the coastal vulnerability
along the west coast since most of such cyclones forming over the Arabian Sea make landfall over the coasts of
Oman, Yemen etc. and due to pro-active role played by government agencies to tackle impacts of Climate Change.
Bomb Cyclones
o A bomb cyclone is a large, intense mid-latitude storm that has low pressure at its center.
o Weather fronts and associated weather, from blizzards to severe thunderstorms to heavy precipitation and heavy
rains.
 Reasons for the Formation:

o Storms form when a mass of low-pressure air (warm air mass) meets a high-pressure mass (cold air
mass). The air flows from high pressure to low, creating winds.
o It occurs when a midlatitude cyclone rapidly intensifies, dropping at least 24 millibars over 24 hours.
o This quickly increases the pressure gradient, between the two air masses, therefore making the winds stronger.
 The formation of this rapidly strengthening weather system is a process called bombogenesis.
How does a Bomb Cyclone Differ from a Hurricane?
 Hurricanes tend to form in tropical areas and are powered by warm seas. For this reason, they’re most
common in summer or early fall, when seawater is warmest.
 Bomb cyclones generally occur during colder months because cyclones occur due to cold and warm air meeting.
 During the summer, there’s generally not much cold air across the atmosphere; this means a bomb cyclone is
much less likely to occur.
 Hurricanes form in tropical waters, while bomb cyclones form over the northwestern Atlantic, northwestern Pacific
and sometimes the Mediterranean Sea.
Cloud Seeding
Cloud Seeding is a kind of weather modification technology to create artificial rainfall.

Rain happens when moisture in the air reaches levels at which it can no longer be held, Cloud seeding aims to
facilitate and
accelerate that process by making available chemical ‘Nuclei’ around which condensation can take place.
Two ways of adding Nuclei particles to clouds:-
 Using Large cannons that shoot particles into the sky.
 Using Airplanes that drop the particles from above as presented in the diagram:-
Benefits of Cloud Seeding:-
 Drought Management:- this technique is useful for drought affected areas. According to IMD, 87% of India’s
districts are vulnerable to droughts.
 Clearing fog in airports:- flights are affected due to Low visibility during fog season, Cloud Seeding technique can
help to improve visibility.
 Fight Forest Fire:- as per ISFR Report 35.46% of the forest cover is prone to forest fires. Rain through Cloud
Seeding can help to reduce the forest fire affected region.
 Divert Rainfall:- Clouds can be diverted to other region based on requirement such as during 2008 Olympics
opening ceremony used it to make ceremony, Precipitation-free.
 Improve Water availability:- Cloud Seeding will help to distribute rainfall across country and hence help to recharge
aquifers.
Issues in Cloud Seeding:-
Bioaccumulation:- For example Silver Iodide chemical is most commonly used to seed a cloud is known to be toxic for aquatic
life because of Bioaccumulation.
Increasing Carbon Footprint:- Cloud seeding through dry ice is source of Greenhouse gases and affected the climate change.
Uncertainty on Effectiveness:- WMO adopted guidelines in 2017 advising members not to perform weather modification
activities without considering the high levels of uncertainty in effectiveness and potential harms involved.
Not all types of clouds are suitable:- Clouds must be deep enough and of a suitable temperature to be seeded effectively.
Disturbing the Hydrological Cycle:- Cloud Seeding simply redistributes rain in drought affected areas which can
ultimately affect the
Hydrological Cycles.
Cloud seeding technology holds significant promise for addressing water scarcity and mitigating drought conditions. However, to
fully unlock its potential, further improvements are needed. Such as incorporating nanotechnology-based Titanium dioxide coating
on salt particles can enhance the effectiveness of cloud seeding operations.
Nevertheless, it is imperative to conduct extensive research to fully comprehend the long-term implications and
potential risks associated with cloud seeding.
Mains PYQ and Practice Questions:-
1. Discuss the development of Local Winds and their influence on local
weather, giving three examples of the well-known local winds in the world 15
marks
2. Discuss the origin, movements and characteristics of Air masses and
Explain their role in influencing world climates. 15 marks
3. Compare the origin and weather conditions associated with the tropical and
temperate cyclones. 15 marks
4. “Contemporary global climate change is an anthropogenic phenomenon”
Discuss 15 marks
5. Explain the nature of Urban Climates and their impact on global
environmental change 15 marks
Q6.Explain the characteristic features of Frontogenesis and Frontolysis. 15 marks

Answer: Frontogenesis and frontolysis are about how weather fronts form and disappear. Weather fronts are where
different air masses meet, each with its own temperature, humidity, and wind direction. These fronts shape weather
systems, affecting things like rain, clouds, and temperature.
Characteristic features of frontogenesis and frontolysis:

Frontogenesis:
1. Formation of Fronts: Frontogenesis describes the process of intensification or formation of weather
fronts, typically occurring when contrasting air masses converge along a boundary.
2. Convergence: This process involves the merging of air masses with differing properties, leading to
upward motion, cloud formation, and precipitation along the front.
3. Gradient Tightening: Frontogenesis is marked by the tightening of horizontal gradients in temperature,
pressure, or other meteorological variables, indicating increased front intensity.
4. Increased Vertical Motion: As air masses converge, vertical motion intensifies, lifting air parcels, and
fostering cloud and precipitation development, thereby strengthening the front.
5. Cyclogenesis: Frontogenesis often coincides with the development or intensification of cyclones,
particularly in baroclinic environments.
Frontolysis:
1. Front Decay: Frontolysis refers to the weakening or dissipation of weather fronts, occurring as
temperature, humidity, and wind contrasts diminish across the front.
2. Divergence: Frontolysis involves air masses diverging along the front, leading to its weakening, as
upward motion decreases and cloud and precipitation development diminish.
3. Gradual Relaxation: Unlike frontogenesis, which involves gradient tightening, frontolysis is characterized
by a gradual relaxation of horizontal gradients, signaling the front's weakening.
4. Reduction in Vertical Motion: With decreased air mass contrast and convergence, vertical motion along
the front decreases, contributing to its weakening.
5. Cyclolysis: Frontolysis often precedes or accompanies the weakening of cyclones, particularly when
associated baroclinic zones dissipate.
Understanding frontogenesis and frontolysis is crucial for meteorologists in forecasting weather patterns and
understanding the evolution of weather systems.
1. With reference to the Earth's atmosphere, which one of the following statements is correct? (2023)
(a) The total amount of insolation received at the equator is roughly about 10 times of that received at the poles.
(b) Infrared rays constitute roughly two thirds of insolation.
(c) Infrared waves are largely absorbed by water vapour that is concentrated in the lower atmosphere.
(d) Infrared waves are a part of visible spectrum of electromagnetic waves of solar radiation.
Answer:- (c) Infrared waves are largely absorbed by water vapour that is concentrated in the lower
atmosphere.
Explanation:-
 The Earth’s surface receives most of its energy in short wavelengths. The energy received by the earth is
known as incoming solar radiation, which in short, is termed insolation.
 The atmosphere is largely transparent to short wave solar radiation. The incoming solar radiation passes
through the atmosphere before striking the earth’s surface. Within the troposphere water vapour, ozone
and other gases absorb much of the near infrared radiation.
2. Consider the following statements : (2023)
Statement-I The temperature contrast between continents and oceans is greater during summer than in winter.
Statement-II The specific heat of water is more than that of land surface.
Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?
(a) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement II is the correct explanation for Statement-I
(b) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement II is not the correct explanation for Statement-I
(c) Statement-I is correct but Statement II is incorrect
(d) Statement-I is incorrect but Statement-II is correct
Answer:- (a) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement II is the correct explanation for
Statement-I
 The specific heat capacity is the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of one
gram of the substance by 1 degree. The specific heat capacity of water is much greater
than the land because the relative density of water is much lower than that of the land
surface.
 It means more heat is required to raise the temperature of one gram of water by 1
degree than one gram of land. Physical characteristics of heat transport and ocean
circulation impact the Earth's climate system.
 Like a massive 'flywheel' that stabilizes the speed of an engine, the vast amounts of
heat in the oceans stabilizes the temperature of Earth.
 The heat capacity of the ocean is much greater than that of the atmosphere or the land.
As a result, the ocean slowly warms in the summer, keeping air cool, and it slowly cools
in winter, keeping the air warm.
 The temperature contrast between continents and oceans is greater during summer
than in winter. Therefore, both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and
Statement-II is the correct explanation for Statement-I. Hence option (a) is the
correct answer
3. Consider the following statements: (2022)
1. High clouds primarily reflect solar radiation and cool the surface of the Earth.
2. Low clouds have a high absorption of infrared radiation emanating from the Earth’s surface and thus
cause warming effect.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
Answer:- (d) Neither 1 nor 2
 Statement 1 is not correct: Low, thick clouds primarily reflect solar radiation and cool the surface
of the Earth.
 Statement 2 is not correct: High, thin clouds primarily transmit incoming solar radiation; at the
same time, they trap some of the outgoing infrared radiation emitted by the Earth and radiate it
back downward, thereby warming the surface of the Earth.
1. In the tropical zone, the western sections of the oceans are warmer than the eastern sections owing to the
influence of trade winds.
2. In the temperate Zone, westerlies make the eastern sections of oceans warmer than the western sections

(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 and 2
Answer:- (c) Both 1 and 2
Statement 1 is correct. Warmer water is transported westward in the ocean by the Northeast trade winds in
the Northern hemisphere of the tropical zone (as the figure given below shows). So, in tropical zones, the western
section of ocean is warmer than eastern sections due to trade winds.
Statement 2 is correct. Similarly, the Westerlies play an important role in carrying the warm, equatorial waters
and winds to the western coasts of continents (that is eastern section of the Oceans in temperate zone). Thus, in
temperate zones, westerlies make the eastern section of the ocean warmer than the western sections.
1. Jet streams occur in the Northern Hemisphere only.

2. Only some cyclones develop an eye.
3. The temperature inside the eye of a cyclone is nearly 10°C lesser than that of the surroundings.

(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 2 only
(d) 1 and 3 only
Answer:- (c) 2 only

Explanation:-
 Jet Streams occur in both Northern and Southern Hemisphere.
• Hence, statement 1 is incorrect.
 Extra-Tropical Cyclones may not always have an eye, whereas mostly mature storms
have well-developed eyes.
 Rapidly intensifying storms may develop an extremely small, clear and circular eye,
sometimes referred to as a Pinhole eye
• Hence, statement 2 is correct.
 It is warmer, and not colder inside the eye of the tropical cyclone
 The warmer temperature is what drives the storm
• Hence, statement 3 is also incorrect.
6. Why are dewdrops not formed on a cloudy night? (2019)
(a) Clouds absorb the radiation released from the Earth’s surface.
(b) Clouds reflect back the Earth’s radiation.
(c) The Earth’s surface would have a low temperature on cloudy nights.
(d) Clouds deflect the blowing wind to ground level.
Answer: (b) Clouds reflect back the Earth’s radiation.

Explanation:-
 When the moisture is deposited in the form of water droplets on cooler surfaces of solid objects
(rather than nuclei in air above the surface) such as stones, grass blades and plant leaves, it is known
as dew.
 The ideal conditions for its formation are
 clear sky,
 calm air,
 high relative humidity, and
 cold and long night
 For the formation of dew, it is necessary that the dew point is above the freezing point.
 When the sky is clear and the trees and plants are cooler at nights, there is more evaporation of water
and hence more dew formation.
 But when sky is cloudy, the trees and plants do not get cool in the night and hence there is less dew
formation because on a cloudy night, the clouds send the heat (earth’s radiation) back to the ground
so the ground never gets cold enough for the dew to be formed.
1. The winds which blow between 30 N and 60 S latitudes throughout the year are known as westerlies.
2. The moist air masses that cause winter rains in the North Western region of India are part of westerlies.

(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: (b) 2 only
Explanation;-
 The Westerlies are prevailing winds from the west toward the east in the middle
latitudes between 30 and 60 degrees latitude.
 They originate from the high-pressure areas in the horse latitudes and tend towards the
poles and steer extra tropical cyclones in this general manner.
 The moist air masses that cause winter rains in North-Western region of India are part of
westerlies.
8. The seasonal reversal of winds is the typical characteristic of: (2014)
(a) Equatorial climate

(b)Mediterranean climate
(c) Monsoon climate
(d) All of the above climates
Answer:- (c) Monsoon climate
9. During a thunderstorm, the thunder in the skies is produced by the: (2013)
1. meeting of cumulonimbus clouds in the sky

2. lightning that separates the nimbus clouds
3. violent upward movement of air and water particles
Select the correct answer using the codes given below.

(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3
(c) 1 and 3
(d) None
Answer: (d) None
Explanation:-
 Thunderstorms result from the rapid upward movement of warm moist air. They can
occur inside warm moist air masses and at fronts. As the warm moist air moves upward
it cools condenses and forms cumulonimbus clouds that can reach heights of over 20
km 12.45 miles.
 The thunderstorms are associated with the cumulonimbus clouds. These clouds
normally form on warm sunny days but they can also be found on cold front.
 But this question is asking about the Thunder i.e. the sound produced. The lightning
generates between 100 million and 1 billion volts of electricity and can heat the air to
around 50K°F.
 The rapid expansion causes the shock waves. Thunder happens because the lightning
would heat the air at huge temperatures and the air expands so fast that it make a loud
clap of thunder.
10. “Climate is extreme, rainfall is scanty and the people used to be nomadic herders.” (2013)
The above statement best describes which of the following regions?

(a) African Savannah
(b) Central Asian Steppe
(c) North American Prairie
(d) Siberian Tundra
Answer: (b) Central Asian Steppe

2.Climatology

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2.Climatology

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CLIMATOLOGY

Present Atmosphere evolved in following three stages:-

1. Loss of primordial atmosphere

2. Evolution of the Atmosphere:-

3. Modification of Atmospheric Composition:-

• Nitrogen 78% (Approx.)

Troposphere  It is the lowermost layer of the atmosphere which is also known as

Stratosphere  It extends from tropopause to 50 km.

 The ozonosphere is also called chemosphere because, a lot of chemical

Sunspot activity (Dark&Cool)

Angle of sun’s rays

 Altitude: temperature decreases with height at an average rate of 6.5ºC/km.

 Nature Of Ground Surface :Colour ,Vegetation, Snow cover (more Albedo)

 Slope Facing the sun receives more insolation

Heat Budget of the Earth:-

Ways of transfer of heat and energy:

Latitudnal Heat Balance:-

Although the earth as a whole maintains a balance

Horizontal Distribution of Temperature on Earth (Isotherm)

o Isotherms run east-west and generally follow the parallels/latitudes.

Isotherms and Seasonal Extremes

1. Radiation Inversion/ Ground Inversion:-

 A frontal inversion is unstable and is destroyed as the weather changes.

Clouds of great Vertical extent

Effect of clouds on climate:

2. Drizzle  It consists of light water precipitation where liquid water droplets

3. Hail  Precipitation in the form of hard round pellets

 It is also an important form of precipitation that usually forms in

o It is also described as pre-monsoon rainfall. It goes by different names locally in India:-

Mango Shower  Kerala and coastal areas of Karnataka.

Blossom Shower:  With this shower, coffee flowers blossom in

Kal Baisakhi  These are dreaded evening

We see streaks as lightning. The process is called electrical discharge.

Factors Affecting the Velocity and Direction of Wind:-

Pressure Gradient Force (PGF):-

PRIMARY CIRCULATION/ PERMANENT /PLANETARY WINDS:

SECONDARY CIRCULATION / SEASONAL WINDS includes:

GENERAL CIRCULATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE / PLANETARY WINDS

(i) The Equatorial Low Pressure Belt

 This belt extends from equator to 10º N and 10 º S latitudes.

(ii) The Sub-tropical High Pressure Belts

(iii) The Sub-polar low Pressure Belts

(iv) The Polar High Pressure Belts

In polar regions, sun never shines vertically.

Seasonal Shifting of Pressure belts

• Significance:- Mediterranean climate(30 to 45 degree) & Monsoon climate.

• Occurrence in India-June to November

1. High sea surface with temperature- higher than 27 degree Celsius:

2. Presence of Coriolis force:-

3. Minimal vertical wind shear:-

4. A Pre-existing weak Low Pressure Area:-

5. Depth of warm water:-

Structure of Tropical Cyclone: -

Characteristics OF TROPICAL CYCLONE:

Colour coding of Cyclones

Color-coded warnings issued by the IMD for cyclones:

Why is it important to name cyclones?

1.Adopting names for cyclones makes it easier for people to remember.

What are the guidelines to adopt names of cyclones?

It should not be very rude and cruel in nature.