SPORTS

PHYSIOLOGY
Learning Objectives:
The students should be able to:

Classify the nutrients used during

the muscle activity and their
functions.

Compare the fast twitch and slow twitch

muscle fibers, including its
characteristics, function, and implications
for athletic performance and training.

Understand the Muscle Metabolic System,

its function and role.

To determine the role of Cardiovascular in

Exercise.
presenter:

MANALO, CHERRY MAE

MARZAN, SAMANTHA
Introduction
Female & male athletes
 muscles in exercise
Strength, power, and endurance of muscle

The strength of a muscle is determined mainly by its

size, with a maximal contractile force between 3 and 4 kg/
cm2 of muscle cross-sectional area.

The holding strength of muscles is about 40 percent

greater than the contractile strength.

In fact, forceful stretching of a maximally contracted

muscle is one of the surest ways to create the highest
degree of muscle soreness.
muscles in exercise
Strength, power, and endurance of muscle

Mechanical work performed by a muscle and the amount

of force applied by the muscle multiplied by the distance
over which the force is applied.

Power is a measure of the total amount of work that the

muscle performs in a unit period of time. Power is therefore
determined not only by the strength of muscle contraction
but also by its distance of contraction and the number of
times that it contracts each minute.

Endurance - ability to perform the same act repeatedly

over a period of time
 muscles in exercise
Muscle metabolic systems in exercise

Muscle Metabolic Systems in Exercise

three metabolic
(1) the phosphocreatine-creatine system,
(2) the glycogen-lactic acid system
(3) the aerobic system.
 muscles in exercise
Adenosine triphosphate

Adenosine Triphosphate. The source of energy actually

used to cause muscle contraction is adenosine triphosphate
(ATP), which has the following basic formula:
Adenosine-PO3~ PO3~ PO3

The bonds attaching the last two phosphate radicals to

the molecule, designated by the symbol ~, are high-energy
phosphate bonds. Each of these bonds stores 7300 calories
of energy per mole of ATP under standard conditions

Removal of the first phosphate converts the AT into

adenosine diphosphate (ADP), and removal of the second
converts this ADP into adenosine monophosphate (AMP).
 muscles in exercise
Phosphocreatine-creatine
system
Phosphocreatine (also called creatine phosphate) is another
chemical compound that has a high-energy phosphate bond,
with the following formula: Creatine ~ PO3

Its primary utility within the body is to

serve in the maintanence and recycling of
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) for muscular
activity like contractions.
 muscles in exercise
Glycogen-lactic acid system

The stored glycogen in muscle can be split into glucose and

the glucose then used for energy.

The initial stage of this process is glycolysis, each glucose

molecule is split into two pyruvic acid molecules, and
energy is released to form four ATP molecules for each
original glucose molecule. Ordinarily, the pyruvic acid then
enters the mitochondria of the muscle cells and reacts
with oxygen to form still many more ATP molecules.
 muscles in exercise
Aerobic system
The aerobic system is the oxidation of foodstuffs in the mitochondria
to provide energy. Glucose, fatty acids, an amino acids from the
foodstuffs—after some intermediate processing—combine with oxygen
to release tremendous amounts of energy that are used to convert
AMP and ADP into ATP.

In comparing this aerobic mechanism of energy supply

with the glycogen-lactic acid system and the
phosphagen system, the relative maximal rates of power
generation in terms of moles of ATP generation per
minute are the following:
 muscles in exercise
What types of sports use which energy systems?
By considering the vigor of a sports activity and its duration,
one can estimate closely which of the energy systems is used
for each activity.
 muscles in exercise
Recovery of the muscle metabolic
systems after exercise

The energy from phosphocreatine can be used to

reconstitute ATP, energy from the glycogen-lactic acid
system can be used to reconstitute both phosphocreatine
and ATP. And then energy from the oxidative metabolism of
the aerobic system can be used to reconstitute all the other
systems—the ATP, the phosphocreatine, and the glycogen-
lactic acid system.
muscles in exercise
Recovery of the aerobic system
after exercise

Even during the early stages of heavy exercise,

a portion of one’s aerobic energy capability is
depleted. This results from two effects:

(1) the so-called oxygen debt and

(2) depletion of the glycogen stores of the
muscles.
 muscles in exercise
Oxygen debt
The body normally contains about 2 liters of stored
oxygen that can be used for aerobic metabolism even
without breathing any new oxygen. This stored oxygen
consists of the following:
1. 0.5 liter in the air of the lungs,
2. 0.25 liter dissolved in the body fluids,
3. 1 liter combined with the hemoglobin of the blood. and
4. 0.3 liter stored in the muscle fibers themselves,
combined with mainly with myoglobin

All this extra oxygen that must be “repaid,” about 11.5

liters, is called the oxygen debt.
During the first 4 minutes, the person exercises heavily,
and the rate of oxygen uptake increases
 muscles in exercise
Recovery of muscle glycogen

On a high-carbohydrates diet, full recovery

occurs in about 2 days
People on high fat, high-protein diet or on no
food at all show very little recovery even
after as long as 5 days

1. That it is important for an athlete to have a

high-carbohydrate diet before a grueling
athletic event, and
2. Not to participate in exhaustive exercise during
the 48 hours preceding the event
 muscles in exercise
Nutrients used during muscle
activity

Large usage of carbohydrates by the muscles during exercise, especially

during the early stages of exercise
Muscles use large amounts of fat for energy in the form of fatty acids and
acetoacetic acids.
And they use to a much less extent proteins in the form of amino acids.
Effect of duration of exercise as well as type of diet on relative
percentages of carbohydrate or fat used for energy by muscles.
Most of the energy is derived from carbohydrates during the first few
seconds or minutes of the exercise, but at the time of exhaustion, as much
as 60-85% of the energy is being derived from fats, rather than
carbohydrates
 muscles in exercise
Nutrients used during muscle
activity
Not all the energy from carbohydrates comes from the
stored muscle glycogen, almost as much as glycogen is
stored in the liver as in the muscles.
Glucose solutions given to an athlete to drink during the
course of an athletic event can provide as much as 30-40%
of the energy required during prolonged events such as
marathon races
Therefore, if muscle glycogen and blood glucose are
available, they are the energy nutrients of choice for
intense muscle activity.
For a long-term endurance event, one can expect fat to
supply more than 50% of the required energy after about
the first 3-4 hours.
 effect of athletic training on
muscles & muscle performace
Importance of maximal resistance training

One of the cardinal principles of muscle development

during athletic training is the following:
Muscles that function under no load, even if they are
exercised for hours on end, increase little in strength.
At the other extreme, muscles that contract at more
than 50% maximal force of contraction will develop
strength rapidly even if the contractions are performed
only a few times each day.
Using this principle, experiments on muscle building
have shown that six nearly maximal muscle
contractions performed in three sets 3 days a week
give approximately optimal increase in muscle
strength, without producing chronic muscle fatigue.
 muscles in exercise
muscle hypertrophy

Muscles is determined to a great extent by heredity plus the level of testosterone

secretion, which, in men, causes considerably larger muscles than in women.
With training the muscles can become hypertrophied perhaps an additional 30 to
60%.
The changes that occur inside the hypertrophied muscle fibers themselves include:

1. Increased numbers of myofibrils, proportionate to the degree of hypertrophy;

2. Up to 120% increase in mitochondrial enzymes;
3. As much as 60-80% increase in the components of the phosphagen metabolic system
4. As much as 50% increase in stored glycogen, and
5. As much as 75-100% increase in stored triglyceride (fat)
muscles in exercise
Fast-twitch & slow-twitch
muscle fibers
 muscles in exercise
Hereditary differences among athletes for
fast-twitch vs slow-twitch muscle fibers

Athletic training has not been shown to change the relative

proportions of fast-twitch and slow-twitch fibers however much
an athlete might want to develop one type of athletic prowess
over another.

Instead, this seems to be determined almost entirely by genetic

inheritance, and this in turn helps determine which area of
athletics is most suited to each person: some people appear to
be born to be marathoners; others are born to be sprinters and
jumpers.
 muscles in exercise
percentages of fast-twitch vs slow-twitch fibers in
the quadriceps muscles of different types of athletes
 respiration in exercise
Oxygen consumption &
pulmonary ventilation in
exercise
Normal oxygen consumption for a young man at rest is about
250 ml/min. However, under maximal conditions, this can be
increased to approximately the following average levels:

LIMITS OF pulmonary ventilation

This provides an element of safety for athletes, The important point is that the respiratory system is not
giving them extra ventilation that can be called on in such normally the most limiting factor in the delivery of oxygen to
conditions as (1) exercise at high altitudes, (2) exercise under the muscles during maximal muscle aerobic metabolism. We
very hot conditions, and (3) abnormalities in the respiratory shall see shortly that the ability of the heart to pump blood to
system. the muscles is usually a greater limiting factor.
 respiration in exercise
Effect of training on vo2 max

training program for 7 to 13 weeks.

In this study, it is surprising that the VO2 Max
increased only about 10 per cent.
the frequency of training, whether two times or
five times per week, had little effect on the
increase in VO2 Max.
Yet, as pointed out earlier, the VO2 Max of a
marathoner is about 45 per cent greater than that
of an untrained person. Part of this greater VO2
Max of the marathoner probably is genetically
determined
respiration in exercise
Oxygen-diffusing capacity of athletes
Is a measure of the rate at which oxygen can
diffuse from the pulmonary alveoli into the blood.
respiration in exercise
Blood gases during exercise

Oxygen pressure of the arterial blood remain nearly

normal

Respiration is stimulated mainly by:

1.Neurogenic mechanisms during exercise
2.Sensory signals transmitted into the
respiratory center from the contracting muscles
and moving joints.
 respiration in exercise
Effect Of smoking on pulmonary
ventilation in exercise
Effect of nicotine is
1. Constriction of the terminal bronchioles of the
lungs, which increases the resistance of airflow
into and out of the lungs. Much more severe are the effects of
2. Irritating effects of the smoke itself cause chronic smoking.
increased fluid secretion into the bronchial tree, 1. Chronic bronchitis,
as well as some swelling of the epithelial linings. 2. Obstruction of many of the terminal
3. Nicotine paralyzes the cilia on the surfaces of bronchioles, and
the respiratory epithelial cells. 3. Destruction of many alveolar walls.

As a result, much debris accumulates in the In severe emphysema, as much as four

passageways and adds further to the difficulty of fifths of the respiratory membrane can
breathing be destroyed
cardiovascular system in exercise
Muscle blood flow
the muscle blood flow increases drastically
30 per cent increase in blood pressure can often
more than double the blood flow

Work Output, Oxygen Consumption,

and Cardiac Output During
Exercise.
the muscle work output increases oxygen
consumption, and oxygen consumption in turn
dilates the muscle blood vessels, thus increasing
venous return and cardiac output. Typical cardiac
outputs at several levels of exercise are the
following:
 cardiovascular system in exercise
Effect of training on heart hypertrophy and
. on cardiac output
that marathoners can achieve maximal cardiac outputs
about 40 per cent greater than those achieved by
untrained persons.
Even though the heart of the marathoner is considerably
larger than that of the normal person, resting cardiac
output is almost exactly the same as that in the normal
person.
However, this normal cardiac output is achieved by a
large stroke volume at a reduced heart rate.
Thus, the heart-pumping effectiveness of each heartbeat
is 40 to 50 per cent greater in the highly trained athlete
than in the untrained person, but there is a corresponding
decrease in heart rate at rest.
cardiovascular system in exercise
Role of stroke volume and heart rate in
increasing the cardiac output

The approximate changes in stroke

volume and heart rate as the cardiac
output

Increases from its resting level of about

5.5 L/min to 30 L/min in the marathon
runner. The stroke volume increases
from 105 to 162 milliliters, an increase
of about 50%, whereas the heart rate
increases from 50 to 185 beats/min, an
increase of 270%.
cardiovascular system in exercise
Effect of heart disease and old age on
athletic performance

A person with congestive heart failure frequently has difficulty

achieving even the muscle power required to climb out of bed,
much less to walk across the floor.

The maximal cardiac output of older people also decreases

considerably there is as much as a 50% decrease between age 18
and age 80. Also, there is even more decrease in maximal
breathing capacity.
 Body heat in exercise

Even under the best of conditions, is only 20 to 25

per cent; the remainder of the nutrient energy is
converted into heat during the course of the
intracellular chemical reactions.
Second, almost all the energy that does go into
creating muscle work still becomes body heat
because all but a small portion of this energy is
Used for (1) overcoming viscous resistance to the
movement of the muscles and joints, (2)
overcoming the friction of the blood flowing
through the blood vessels, and (3) other, similar
effects—all of which convert the muscle
contractile energy into heat.
 Body heat in exercise
Heatstroke

Failure to treat it immediately can lead to

death.
In fact, even though the person has stopped
exercising, the temperature does not easily
decrease by itself.
One of the reasons for this is that at these high
temperatures, the temperature-regulating
mechanism itself often fails
Second reason is that in heatstroke, the very
high body temperature itself approximately
doubles the rates of all intracellular chemical
reactions, thus liberating still more heat.
Body fluids & salt in exercise

As much as a 5-to-10-pound weight loss has been recorded

in athletes in a period of 1 hour during endurance athletic
events under hot and humid conditions.

Essentially all this weight loss results from loss of sweat

Loss of enough sweat to decrease body weight only 3% can

significantly diminish a person’s performance

5 to 10% rapid decrease in weight can often be serious

Leading to muscle cramps, nausea, and other effects

Therefore, it is essential to replace fluid as it is lost

Body fluids & salt in exercise
replacement of sodium chloride and
potassium

Stated that all athletes should take salt (sodium

chloride) tablets when performing exercise on hot and
humid days.

Sweat gland acclimatization results mainly from

increased aldosterone secretion by the adrenal cortex.

Once the athlete is acclimatized, only rarely do salt

supplements need to be considered during athletic
events.
 Body fluids & salt in exercise
replacement of sodium chloride and
potassium

Experience by military units exposed to heavy exercise in the desert has

demonstrated still another electrolyte problem the loss of potassium. Potassium
loss results partly from the increased secretion of aldosterone

During heat acclimatization, which increases the loss of potassium in the urine as
well as in the sweat

As a consequence of these findings, some of the supplemental

Fluids for athletics contain properly proportioned amounts of potassium along with
sodium, usually in the form of fruit juices.
 Drugs and athletes

caffeine increase athletic performance.

running time for the marathon was reduced by 7
per cent by judicious use of caffeine in amounts
similar to those found in one to three cups of
coffee.
male sex hormones (androgens) or other anabolic
steroids to increase muscle strength undoubtedly
can increase athletic performance under some
conditions, especially in women and even in men.
increase the risk of cardiovascular damage because
they often cause hypertension, decreased high-
density blood lipoproteins (good cholesterol), and
increased low-density lipoproteins (bad cholesterol),
all of which promote heart attacks and strokes.
 Drugs and athletes

In men, leads to decreased testicular function,

including both decreased formation of sperm and
decreased secretion of the person’s own natural
testosterone, with residual effects sometimes lasting
at least for many months and perhaps indefinitely.
In a woman, hair on the face, a bass voice, ruddy skin, and
cessation of menses.
amphetamines and cocaine, have been reputed to increase one’s
athletic performance.
Some athletes have been known to die during athletic events
because of interaction between such drugs and the
norepinephrine and epinephrine released by the sympathetic
nervous system during exercise. One of the possible causes of
death under these conditions is overexcitability of the heart,
leading to ventricular fibrillation, which is lethal within seconds.
 Body fitness prolongs life

Between the ages of 50 and 70, studies have shown mortality to

be three times less in the most fit people than in the least fit.

First, body fitness and weight control greatly reduce

cardiovascular disease. This results from
(1) maintenance of moderately lower blood pressure and
(2) reduced blood cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein
along with increased high-density lipoprotein.

Second, and perhaps equally important, the athletically fit

person has more bodily reserves to call on when he or she does
become sick.
Body fitness prolongs life

An athletically fit old person may have twice as much

reserve. This is especially important in preserving life
when the older person develops conditions such as
pneumonia that can rapidly require all available
respiratory reserve.

In addition, the ability to increase cardiac output in

times of need (the "cardiac reserve") is often 50%
greater in the athletically fit old person than in the
nonfit person.
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FOR
LISTENING!
 Reference:

E. Hall, J. (2011). Guyton and Hall Textbook of

Medical Physiology (12th ed.). Elsevier Inc.
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