Applied Physics for CSE-Module-1 to 5
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amriteagle5910Applied Physics for CSE stream- Study Material RNS Institute of Technology
BPHYS102/202
MODULE - 01
LASERS AND OPTICAL FIBERS
LASERS
The word Laser stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. It is a device
which amplifies light. It has properties like Coherence, Unidirectional, Monochromatic, Focus
ability, etc.
Interaction of an electromagnetic wave with matter leads to transition of an atom or a molecule
from one energy state to another. If the transition is from lower state to higher state it absorbs the
incident energy. If the transition is from higher state to lower state it emits a part of its energy.
Emission or Absorption takes through quantum of energy called photons. h is called quantum
energy or photon energy.
h = 6.626×10-34 Joules Second is Planck’s constant and ‘’ is the frequency.
If ∆E is the difference between the two energy levels,
Then ∆E = (E2 - E1) Joule
According to Max Planck, ∆E = h = (E2-E1)
= (E2 - E1)/h Hz.
Three types of interactions, which are possible, are as follows:
1) Induced Absorption:
Induced absorption is the absorption of an incident photon by system as a result of which the
system is elevated from a lower energy state to a higher state, wherein the difference in energy of
the two states is the energy of the photon.
Consider the system having two energy states E1 and E2,
E2 > E1. When a photon of energy h is incident on an
atom at level E1, the atom goes to a higher energy level
by absorbing the energy.
When an atom is at ground level (E1), if an electromagnetic wave of frequency is applied to the
atom, there is possibility of getting excited to higher level (E2). The incident photon is absorbed.
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It is represented as
Atom + Photon → Atom*
2) Spontaneous Emission: The emission of a photon by the transition of a system from a higher
energy state to a lower energy state without the aid of an external energy is called spontaneous
emission.
Let ‘E1’ and ‘E2’ be two energy levels in a material, such that E2>E1. E1 is ground level and E2 is
the higher level. h=E2-E1 is the difference in the energy. The atom at higher level (E2) is more
unstable as compared to that at lower level (E1).
The life time of an atom is less in the excited state, In spontaneous emission atom emits the photon
without the aid of any external energy. It is called spontaneous emission. The process is
represented as
Atom* → Atom + Photon
The photons emitted in spontaneous emission may not have same direction
and phase similarities. It is incoherent.
Ex: Glowing electric bulbs, Candle flame etc.
3) Stimulated Emission:
Stimulated emission is the emission of a photon by a system under the influence of a passing
photon of just the right energy due to which the system transits from a higher energy state to a
lower energy state.
The photon thus emitted is called stimulated photon and will have the same phase, energy and
direction of movement as that of the passing photon called the stimulation photon.
Initially the atom is at higher level E2. The incident photon of energy h forces the atom to get de-
excited from higher level E2 to lower level E1.
i.e., h = E2–E1 is the change in energy.
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The incident photon stimulates the excited atom to emit a photon of exactly the same energy as
that of the incident photons. The emitted two photons have same phase, frequency, direction and
polarization with the incident photon and results in coherent beam of radiation. This kind of action
is responsible for lasing action.
Atom* + Photon → Atom + (Photon + Photon)
Expression for energy density in terms of Einstein’s Coefficients
Consider two energy levels E1 and E2 of a system of atoms with N1 and N2 are population of energy
levels respectively.
Let U be the energy density of incident beam of radiation of frequency γ. Let us consider the
absorption and two emission process
1) Induced absorption:
Induced absorption is the absorption of an incident photon by system as a result of which the
system is elevated from a lower energy state to a higher state.
The rate of absorption is proportional to N1U
Rate of absorption = B12N1U …………….. (1)
Where ‘B12’ is the proportionality constant called Einstein Coefficient of induced absorption.
2) Spontaneous emission:
The emission of a photon by the transition of a system from a higher energy state to a lower energy
state without the aid of an external energy is called spontaneous emission.
Spontaneous emission depends on N2 and independent of energy density.
The rate of spontaneous emission = A21N2 ……………(2)
Where ‘A21’ is called proportionality constant called Einstein coefficient of spontaneous
emission.
3) Stimulated emission:
Stimulated emission is the emission of a photon by a system under the influence of a passing
photon of just the right energy due to which the system transits from a higher energy state to a
lower energy state
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The rate of stimulated emission is directly proportional to N2Uγ.
The rate of stimulated emission = B21N2U …………….. (3)
Where ‘B21’ is the proportionality constant called Einstein’s Coefficient of stimulated emission.
At thermal equilibrium,
Rate of absorption = (Rate of spontaneous emission + Rate of stimulated emission)
B12N1U = A21N2 + B21N2U
U (B12N1 - B21N2) = A21N2
A21 N2
U =
(B12 N1 −B21 N2 )
A21 N2
i.e. U= B[12
]
B21 ( N −N2 )
B21 1
A21 1
U = [ ] → (4)
B21 (B12 N1 ) −1
B21 N2
E2 −E1
By Boltzmann’s law, N2= N1 e−( )
KT = N1 e-h/KT
ℎ𝜗
𝑁1
i.e. = 𝑒 𝐾𝑇
𝑁2
A21 1
Eqn. (4) becomes U h
→ (5)
B21 B
12
B e
kT
1
21
By Planck’s law, U 8h3
3
1
→ (6)
h
c
e
kT
1
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Comparing equation (5) & (6)
A21 B12
= 8πh3/c3 & =1 i.e. B12 = B21
B21 B21
The probability of induced absorption is equal to the stimulated emission.
Therefore A12 is written as A and B12, B21 written as B.
A 1
Equation (5) becomes U
B kT
h
e
1
Above equation is the expression for energy density
Condition for laser action:
1) Meta Stable State:
It is the special type of excited state where in the life time of atom
is more than the normal excited state.
This state plays an important role in lasing action. In metastable
state, atoms stay of the order of 10-3 to 10-2 second. In normal
excited state other than metastable atom stay of order of 10-8 to10-
9
seconds. It is possible to achieve population inversion condition
in certain system which possesses a metastable state.
2) Population Inversion:
It is the state of the system at which the population of a higher energy level is greater than that of
the lower energy level.
Let E1, E2, E3 be the energy levels of the system E3>E2>E1. E2 is the metastable state of the system.
Atoms get excited from the state E1 to E3 by means of external source and stay there for short time.
These atoms undergo spontaneous transitions to E2 and E1. The atoms at the state E2 stay for longer
time. A stage is reached in which the number of atoms at state E2 is more than the number of atoms
at E1 which is known as population inversion.
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Requisites of a Laser System:
1) The pumping process:
It is the process of supplying energy to the medium in order to transfer it to the state of population
inversion is known as pumping process
Optical Pumping: It is the process of exciting atoms from lower energy level to higher energy
level by using high intensity light or by operating flash tube as an external source called optical
pumping.
Electrical pumping: It is the process of exciting atoms from lower energy level to higher energy
level by using dc power supply as an external source called electrical pumping.
2) Active medium:
It is a medium which supports population inversion and promotes stimulated emission leading to
light amplification
Active centers: In a medium consisting of different species of atoms only small fraction of the
atoms of a particular type are responsible for stimulated emission and consequent light
amplification they are known as Active centers
3) Laser cavity.
An active medium bounded between two mirrors is called as a laser cavity.
Semiconductor laser - Gallium-Arsenide Laser:
A Semiconductor diode laser is one in which the active medium is formulated by semiconducting
materials.
Construction: Gallium-Arsenide Laser is a single crystal of GaAs consists of heavily doped n-
type and p-type. The diode is very small size with sides of the order of 1mm. The width of the
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junction varies from 1-100m. The top and bottom surfaces are metalized and Ohmic contacts are
provided for external connection. The front and rear faces are polished. The polished faces
functions as the resonant cavity. The other two faces are roughened to prevent lasing action in that
direction.
Working:
Energy level diagram of p-n junction Ga-As semiconductor diode laser
(a) Before biasing (b) After biasing
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The energy band diagram of heavily doped p-n junction is as shown. At thermal equilibrium the
Fermi level is uniform.
Because of very high doping on n- side, the Fermi level is pushed in to the conduction band
and electrons occupy the portions of the conduction band that lies below the Fermi level and on
p-side, the Fermi level lies within the valence band and holes occupy the portions of the valence
band that lies above the Fermi level.
A suitable forward bias is applied to overcome the potential barrier. As a result electrons from
n-region and holes from p-region injected into the junction.
The current begins to flow following which there will be a region in junction in which the
population inversion can be achieved.
Initially concentration of electrons in the energy levels at the bottom of the conduction band
will be less than that of energy levels at top of valence band. So that the recombination of
electrons and holes result only in spontaneous emission.
When the current exceeds the threshold value, population inversion is achieved in the active
region which is formulated in the junction.
At this stage the photons emitted by spontaneous emission triggers stimulated emission, over a
large number of recombination leading to build up laser.
Since the energy gap of GaAs is 1.4eV, the wavelength of emitted light is 8400 Å.
Properties of laser:
1. Coherence: The emitted radiation after getting triggered is in phase with the incident radiation.
2. Monochromaticity: The laser beam is highly monochromatic than any other radiations.
3. Unidirectionality: Laser beam travels in only one direction. It can travel long distance without
spreading.
4. Focusability: A laser beam can be focused to an extremely fine spot.
Applications of Laser:
1. Barcode Scanner
A barcode is a method of representing data in a visual and machine-readable form. Barcodes
represent data by varying the widths, spacing and sizes of parallel lines. These barcodes, now
commonly referred to as linear can be scanned by special optical scanners, called barcode readers.
A barcode reader is an optical scanner that can read printed barcodes, decode the data contained
in the barcode to a computer. Laser scanners use a laser beam as a light source and typically employ
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oscillating mirrors to scan the laser beam back and forth across the barcode. A photo-diode is used
to measure the intensity of the light reflected back from the barcode. An analog signal is created
from the photodiode, and is then converted into a digital signal. The digital data from the scanner
is sent to a computer program, which figures out the final barcode.
2. Laser Printer
Laser beam is used in laser printers to get printouts with better quality. Laser printers read the
electronic data from computer and beam this information onto a drum inside the printer, which
builds up a pattern of static electricity. This attracts a dry powder called toner onto the paper. A
fuser roller generates heat and pressure to permanently fix the image onto the paper.
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3. Laser Cooling
In this technique, heat can be removed optically with the help of laser. Atoms can be cooled using
lasers because light particles from the laser beam are absorbed and re-emitted by the atoms, causing
them to lose some of their kinetic energy. Reduction in the momentum results in the reduction in
temperature of atom. After thousands of such impacts, the atoms will be chilled near to zero
Kelvin.
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OPTICAL FIBERS
An optical fibre is a cylindrical wave guide made of transparent dielectric material (glass or plastic)
which guides light waves along its length by total internal reflection.
Principle
The propagation of light in an optical fibre from one end to the other end is based on the principle
of Total internal reflection (TIR). They are used in optical communication.
When a light enters one end of the fibre, it undergoes successive total internal reflections from side
walls and travels down the length of the fibre along zigzag path.
Construction
A practical optical fibre is cylindrical in shape and has three regions.
The innermost cylindrical region is the light guiding region called as core which is usually made
up of glass or plastic.
The outer part which is a concentric cylinder surrounding the core is called as cladding and is
also made up of similar material but of lesser refractive index.
The outermost region is called a Sheath or Protective buffer coating, nothing but the plastic
coating providing a physical and environmental protection for the fibre. Number of such fibers
is grouped to form a cable.
Total Internal Reflection
When a ray of light travels from denser to rarer medium it bends away from the normal.
As the angle of incidence increases in the denser medium, the angle of refraction also increases.
For a particular angle of incidence called the “critical angle” (θc), the refracted ray grazes the
surface separating the media or the angle of refraction is equal to 90°.
If the angle of incidence is further increased beyond the critical angle, the light ray is reflected
back to the same medium. This is called “Total Internal Reflection”.
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In total internal reflection, there is no loss of energy. The entire incident ray is reflected back.
Let XXl is the surface separating medium of refractive index n1 and medium of refractive index
l
n2, n1 > n2. AO and OA are incident and refracted rays. θ1 and θ2 are angle of incidence and angle
l
of refraction, θ2 > θ1. For the ray BO, θc is the critical angle. OB is the refracted ray which grazes
l
the interface. The ray CO incident with an angle greater than θc is totally reflected back along OC .
From Snell's law,
n1sinθ1 = n2sinθ2
For total internal reflection, θ1=θc and θ2=90°
n1sinθc = n2 (because sin90°=1)
In total internal reflection there is no loss or absorption of light energy. The entire energy is
returned along the reflected light. Thus is called Total internal reflection.
Acceptance angle and numerical aperture
Consider a light ray entering into the core of an optical fiber with an angle of incidence (θ0),
such that after entering, the ray incidents on the core-cladding interface with an angle of
incidence equal to the critical angle.
From figure it is clear that any ray which enters into the core with an angle more than θ 0, will
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have to be incident at an angle less than the critical angle at the core-cladding interface.
90-θ1
B
θ1
θ0 A
n1
n2
n0
Therefore the ray does not undergo total internal reflection and the ray will be lost. Thus for
any ray to propagate through the fiber it must enter with an angle less than θ0. This maximum
angle is called as ‘Acceptance angle’ and the conical surface described by the ray when rotated
about the axis of the fiber is called ‘Acceptance cone’.
Thus acceptance angle is defined as “The maximum angle that a light ray can take relative to
the axis of the fiber to propagate through the fiber”.
Sine of the acceptance angle of an optical fiber is called as “Numerical aperture”.
Expression for Numerical aperture and condition for propagation
90-θ1
B
θ1
θ0 A
n1
n2
n0
Consider a light ray entering into the core of an optical fiber with an angle of incidence (θ0), such
that after entering, the ray incidents on the core-cladding interface with an angle of incidence equal
to the critical angle. Let n0, n1 and n2 are the refractive indices of the surrounding medium, core
and cladding respectively. Now, applying Snell’s law at the point of entry of the ray i.e., at A,
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃0 𝑛1
=
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃1 𝑛0
𝑛1
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃0 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (1)
𝑛0
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Applying Snell’s law at B,
𝑠𝑖𝑛(90° − 𝜃1 ) 𝑛2
=
𝑠𝑖𝑛 9 0° 𝑛1
𝑛2
⇒ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃1 = . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2)
𝑛1
𝑛
From expression (1) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃0 = 𝑛1 √1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃1
0
Substituting for cos θ1 from (2)
𝑛 𝑛2
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃0 = 𝑛1 √1 − 𝑛22
0 1
𝑛1 𝑛12 − 𝑛22
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃0 = √
𝑛0 𝑛12
√𝑛12 − 𝑛22
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃0 =
𝑛0
If 𝑛0 =1 i.e., surrounding medium if it is air
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃0 = √𝑛12 − 𝑛22
i.e., 𝑁. 𝐴. = √𝑛12 − 𝑛22
Condition for propagation:
If θi is the angle of incidence of the incident ray, then the ray will be able to propagate,
if 𝜃𝑖 < 𝜃0
⇒ 𝑖𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑖 < 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃0
𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑖 < √𝑛12 − 𝑛22
𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑖 < 𝑁. 𝐴.
Fractional index change (Δ)
The ratio of the difference in refractive index of core and cladding to the refractive index
𝑛 −𝑛
of core of an optical fiber. 𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝛥 = 1𝑛 2
1
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Relation between N.A. and Δ
𝑁. 𝐴. = 𝑛1 √2𝛥
Increase in the value of Δ enhances the light gathering capacity of the fiber. Δ value cannot be
increased very much because it leads to intermodal dispersion intern signal distortion.
V- Number
The number of modes supported for propagation in the fiber is determined by a parameter
called V-number.
If the surrounding medium is air, then V-number is given by,
𝜋𝑑
𝑉= √𝑛12 − 𝑛22
𝜆
Where, d is the core diameter,
n1 and n2 are refractive indices of core and cladding respectively,
λ is the wavelength of light propagating in the fiber.
or V=
If the fiber is surrounded by a medium of refractive index n0, then,
V=
𝑉2
For V ≫1, the number of modes supported by the fiber is given by, number of modes ≅ 2
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Types of optical fibers
Based on the refractive index profile and mode of propagation, There are three types of optical
fibers,
1. Single mode fiber
2. Step index multimode fiber
3. Graded index multimode fiber
(i) Single mode fiber
Single mode fibers have a core material of uniform refractive index value.
Cladding material also has a uniform refractive index but of lesser value than that of core.
Thus its refractive index profile takes a shape of a step. The diameter of the core is about 8-10
µm and the diameter of the cladding is about 60-70 µm.
Because of its narrow core, it can guide just a single mode as shown in above figure.
Single mode fibers are the extensively used ones ant they are less expensive. They need
LASERs as the source of light.
(ii) Step index multimode fiber
A step index multimode fiber is very much similar to the single mode fiber except that its core
is of large diameter. A typical fiber has a core diameter 50 to 200 µm and a cladding about 100
to 250µm outer diameter.
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Its refractive index profile is also similar to that of a single mode fiber but with a larger plane
region for the core.
Due to the large core diameter it can transmit a number of modes of wave propagation.
The step index multimode fiber can accept either a LASER or an LED as source of light.
It is the least expensive of all and its typical application is in data links which has lower
bandwidth requirements.
(iii) Graded index multimode fiber
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It is also called GRIN.
The refractive index of core decreases in the radially outward direction from the axis of the fibre
and becomes equal to that of cladding at the interface but the refractive index of the cladding
remains uniform.
Laser or LED is used as a source of light.
It is the expensive of all. It is used in telephone trunk between central offices.
Signal attenuation in optical fibers
Attenuation is the loss of optical power suffered by the optical signal as it propagates through
a fiber also called as the fibre loss.
There are three mechanisms through which attenuation takes place.
Attenuation can be caused by three mechanisms.
(i) Absorption losses
Absorption of photons by impurities like metal ions such as iron, chromium, cobalt and copper
in the silica glass of which the fiber is made of.
During signal propagation photons interact with electrons of impurity atoms and the electrons
are excited to higher energy levels.
Then the electrons give up their absorbed energy either in the form of heat or light energy.
The re-emission of light energy will usually be in a different wavelength; hence it is referred
as loss of energy.
The other impurity such as hydroxyl (OH) ions which enters into the fiber at the time of
fabrication causes significant absorption loss.
The absorption of photons by fiber itself assuming that there are no impurities and in-
homogeneities in it is called as intrinsic absorption.
(ii) Scattering losses
Scattering of light waves occurs whenever a light wave travels through a medium having
scattering objects whose dimensions are smaller than the wavelength of light.
Similarly when a light signal travels in the fibre, the photons may be scattered due to the sharp
changes in refractive index values inside the core over distances and also due to the structural
impurities present in the fibre material.
This type of scattering is called as Rayleigh scattering. Scattering of photons also takes place
due to trapped gas bubbles which are not dissolved at the time of manufacturing.
A scattered photon moves in random direction and leaves the fibre.
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(iii) Radiation losses
Radiation losses occur due to macroscopic bends and microscopic bends.
Macroscopic bending: All optical fibers are having critical radius of curvature provided by the
manufacturer. If the fiber is bent below that specification of radius of curvature, the light ray
incident on the core cladding interface will not satisfy the condition of total internal reflection.
This causes loss of optical power.
Microscopic bending: Microscopic bends are repetitive small scale fluctuations in the linearity
of the fibre axis. They occur due to non-uniformities in the manufacturing and also lateral
pressure built up on the fiber. They cause irregular reflections and some of them leak through
the fibre. The defect due to non-uniformity (micro-bending) can be overcome by introducing
optical fiber inside a good strengthen polyurethane jacket.
Attenuation co-efficient
The attenuation of a fiber optic cable is expressed in decibels.
10 𝑃 𝑑𝐵
i.e., 𝛼 = − 𝐿 𝑙𝑜𝑔 [ 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡] 𝑘𝑚
𝑖𝑛
The main reasons for the loss in light intensity over the length of the cable is due to light
absorption, scattering and due to bending losses.
Applications: Point to point optical fibre communication System
In point to point communication analog information are fed into the coder.
Coder- converts analog information into binary data which comes out as electrical pulses.
The electrical pulses from the coder are fed to optical transmitter which converts electrical
pulses into pulses of optical power which are further fed into the optical fiber.
The incident light which is funneled into the core within the acceptance angle propogates
within the fiber by means of total internal reflection.
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The photodetector converts optical signals into electrical pulses in binary form and the decoder
converts the binary data into analogue signal.
Applications: Fiber Optic Networking
Information from the input data channels are fed into a Multiplexer.
Multiplexer- Receives multiple signal and combine them.
Modulator- Superimposes a low frequency (information) signal onto a high frequency
(carrier) signal. Modulation is a process of influencing data information on to the carrier.
Optical transmitter (Laser or LED)– converts electrical signals into optical pulses.
Optical signals are further carried through a Multi-mode or single-mode optical fiber.
From the optical fiber, the optical signals carrying information will be passed through an
optical transmitter that converts optical pulses into electrical signals.
Optical amplifier- enhances the signal strength.
Demultiplexer –receives single signal (input) and generate multiple signals (outputs).
*************************************
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LASERS AND OPTICAL FIBERS
1. Explain the requisites of laser action. Obtain an expression for energy density in terms of
Einstein’s coefficients.
2. Define the terms population inversion and metastable state. Explain the construction and
working of a semiconductor laser.
3. Explain the applications of lasers in (a) Bar Code Scanner (b) Laser Printer (c) Laser
Cooling.
4. What is numerical aperture? Derive an expression for numerical aperture of an optical
fiber and mention the condition for ray propagation.
5. Explain different types of optical fibers with neat diagram.
6. Discuss the attenuation and various losses in an optical fibers.
7. Briefly explain the application of optical fibers in (a) Fiber optic networking (b) point to
point communication system.
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MODULE -2
QUANTUM MECHANICS
Dual nature of matter (de-Broglie Hypothesis)
Dual nature of light: - The concept of photoelectric effect and Compton Effect gives the evidence
for particle nature of light. Where as in physical optics the phenomenon like interference,
diffraction, superposition was explained by considering wave nature of light. This is wave particle
duality of light.
Dual nature of matter:-
On the basis of above concept (dual nature of light), in 1923, Louis de Broglie gave a hypothesis
“Since nature loves symmetry, if the radiation behaves as particles under certain conditions and as
waves under certain conditions, then one can expect that, the entities which ordinarily behaves as
particles (ex. Like electrons, protons, and neutrons) must also exhibit properties attributable to
waves under appropriate circumstances”. This is known as de-Broglie hypothesis
Matter is made up of discrete constituent particles like atoms, molecules, protons, neutrons and
electrons, hence matter has particle nature. Wave nature of matter is explained by Davisson and
Germer experiment. Hence matter also exhibit wave particle duality.
The waves associated with the moving particles are called de Broglie waves or matter waves or
pilot waves.
Characteristics of matter waves:
1. Waves associated with moving particles are called matter waves. The wavelength ‘λ’ of a de-
Broglie wave associated with particle of mass ‘m’ moving with velocity 'v' is λ = h/(mv).
2. Matter waves are not electromagnetic waves because the de Broglie wavelength is independent
of charge of the moving particle.
3. The velocity of matter waves (vP) is not constant. The wavelength is inversely proportional to
the velocity of the moving particle.
4. Lighter the particle, longer will be the wavelength of the matter waves, velocity being constant.
5. For a particle at rest the wavelength associated with it becomes infinite. This shows that only
moving particle produces the matter waves.
6. Matter waves can travel both in vacuum and in medium.
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de-Broglie’s Wavelength:
A particle of mass ‘m’ moving with velocity ‘c’ possess energy given by
E = mc2 → (Einstein’s Equation) (1)
According to Planck’s quantum theory the energy of quantum of frequency ‘υ’ is
E = hυ → (2)
From (1) & (2)
mc2 = hυ = hc /λ since υ = c/λ
λ= hc /mc2 = h/mc
λ= h/mv since v ≈ c
Relation between de-Broglie wavelength and kinetic energy
Consider an electron in an electric potential V, the energy acquired is given by
1 2 p2
E eV mv
2 2m
Where ‘m’ is the mass, ‘v’ is the velocity and ‘p’ is the momentum of the particle. ‘e’ is charge of
an electron.
p 2meV 2mE
The expression for de-Broglie wavelength is given by
h h h h
p mv 2meV 2mE
de-Broglie Wavelength of an Accelerated Electron:
An electron accelerated with potential difference ‘V’ has energy ‘eV’. If ‘m’ is the mass and ‘v’ is
the velocity of the electron.
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Then eV = 1/2(mv2) → (1)
If ‘p’ is the momentum of the electron, then p=mv.
Squaring on both sides, we have
p2 = m2v2
mv2 = p2/m
Using in equation (1) we have
eV = p2/(2m) or p = (2meV)
According to de-Broglie λ = h/p
h 1 h
Therefore λ=
2meV = V 2me
1 6.626 10 34
λ=
V 2 9.11 10 31 1.602 10 19
1.226 10 9
= m
V
1.226
λ= nm
V
Phase velocity and group velocity:
A wave is represented by the equation:
y = A sin (ωt- kx)
Where ‘y’ is the displacement along Y-axis at an instant t, ‘ω’
is the angular frequency, ‘k’ is propagation constant or wave
number. ‘x’ is the displacement along x-axis at the instant ‘t’.
If ‘p’ is the point on a progressive wave, then it is the representative point for a particular phase of
the wave, the velocity with which it is propagated owing to the motion of the wave is called phase
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velocity. The phase velocity of a wave is given by vphase = (ω /k).
Group velocity:
Individual Waves Amplitude variation after Superposition
A group of two or more waves, slightly differing in wavelengths are super imposed on each other.
The resultant wave is a packet or wave group. The velocity with which the envelope enclosing a
wave group is transported is called Group Velocity.
d
vgroup =
dk
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle:
According to classical mechanics a particle occupies a definite place in space and possesses a
definite momentum. If the position and momentum of a particle is known at any instant of time, it
is possible to calculate its position and momentum at any later instant of time. The path of the
particle could be traced. This concept breaks down in quantum mechanics leading to Heisenberg’s
Uncertainty Principle according to which
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle states that “It is impossible to measure simultaneously both
the position and momentum of a particle accurately. If we make an effort to measure very
accurately the position of a particle, it leads to large uncertainty in the measurement of momentum
and vice versa”.
If ∆ x and Px are the uncertainties in the measurement of position and momentum of the particle
then the uncertainty can be written as
∆ x . Px ≥ (h/4π)
In any simultaneous determination of the position and momentum of the particle, the product of
the corresponding uncertainties inherently present in the measurement is equal to or greater than
h/4π.
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Similarly 1) ∆E.∆t ≥ h/4π 2) ∆L.∆θ ≥ h/4π
Application of Uncertainty Principle:
Impossibility of existence of electrons in the atomic nucleus:
According to the theory of non-relativity, the energy of the particle is given by,
2
𝑃
E= → (1)
2𝑚
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle states that
h
∆ x . Px ≥ → (2)
4
The diameter of the nucleus is of the order 10-14m. If an electron is to exist inside the nucleus, the
uncertainty in its position ∆ x must not exceed 10-14m.
i.e. ∆ x ≤ 10-14m
The minimum uncertainty in the momentum
6.63 1034
Px min ≥
h
≥ ≥ 0.5 × 10-20 kg. m/s → (3)
4 x max 4 10 14
By considering minimum uncertainty in the momentum of the electron
i.e., Px min ≥ 0.5 × 10-20 kg.m/s = p → (4)
Consider eqn (1)
2
𝑃
E=
2𝑚
(0.5 × 10−20 )2
𝐸=
2 × 9.11 × 10−31
𝐸 ≥ 1.37 × 10−11 𝐽
𝐸 ≥ 85 MeV
If an electron exists in the nucleus its energy must be greater than or equal to 85 Mev. It is
experimentally measured that the beta particles ejected from the nucleus during beta decay have
energies of about 3 to 4 MeV. This shows that electrons cannot exist in the nucleus.
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[Beta decay: In beta decay process, from the nucleus of an atom, when neutrons are converting
into protons in releasing an electron (beta particle) and an antineutrino. When proton is converted
into a neutron in releasing a positron (beta particle) and a neutrino. In both the processes energy
sharing is statistical in nature. When beta particles carry maximum energy neutrino’s carries
minimum energy and vice-versa. In all other processes energy sharing is in between maximum
and minimum energies. The maximum energy carried by the beta particle is called as the end point
energy (Emax).
Principle of complementarity:
According to this principle all objects in atomic dimension requires description of both wave and
particle properties to characterize the object under study, however particle and wave behavior are
mutually exclusive, this duality in quantum system is called principle of complementarity.
In effect the complementarity particle implies that phenomena on atomic and subatomic scale are
not strictly like large scale particles or waves. Such particle and wave characteristics on large scale
phenomena are incomplete rather than complementarity. Knowledge of small scale phenomena,
however essentially incomplete until both aspects are known.
Statement: Bohr stated as “In a situation where the wave aspect of a system is revealed, its particle
aspect is concealed; and, in a situation where the particle aspect is revealed, its wave aspect is
concealed. Revealing both simultaneously is impossible; the wave and particle aspects are
complementary”.
Correlation between Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle, Debroglie wavelength and wave
packet:
Although the uncertainty principle deals with many non-
commute operators. if you certainly know the wavelength of
the matter wave associated with the particle, you certainly
know the momentum of the particle.
Given a wave function if you can tell its wavelength you will
know the momentum but its position will be uncertain.
Note: In all the images only real part of the wave function is shown.
The wavelength of the following matter wave. The wavelength is the length of the red segment”
In this case you can certainly point out the wavelength; so you certainly know the momentum but
you can’t tell the position of the particle— it may be anywhere on the x-axis i.e. the position
uncertainty is very high.
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In any of the above three cases you cannot tell the wavelength of the matter wave.
For example, in the last case the wavelength uncertainty is large. This is in fact a superposition of
many waves whose wavelength can be found. Such a wave packet is made up of many waves. So
if you try to measure the wavelength of this wave packet you will get the wavelength of any of the
waves shown above. Upon large number of observations, you will have many wavelengths and
then calculate the standard deviation (the uncertainty). This will lead you to uncertainty in
momentum which will of course be large (because you got a large number of wavelengths). But
as you see the uncertainty in position will be comparatively smaller.
If the uncertainty in the de Broglie wavelength is large, the uncertainty in momentum is large
and consequently the uncertainty in position is small and vice versa.
Wave Function:
A physical situation in quantum mechanics is represented by a function called wave function. It is
denoted by ‘ψ’. It accounts for the wave like properties of particles. Wave function is obtained by
solving Schrodinger equation. To solve Schrodinger equation it is required to know
1) Potential energy of the particle
2) Initial conditions and
3) Boundary conditions.
There are two types of Schrodinger equations:
1) The time dependent Schrodinger equation: It takes care of both the position and time
variations of the wave function. It involves imaginary quantity i.
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d 2
h2 ih d
The equation is: 2 V
8 m dx 2
2 dt
2) The time independent Schrodinger equation: It takes care of only position variation of the
wave function.
d 2 8 2 m
The equation is: 2 ( E V ) 0
dx 2 h
Time independent Schrodinger wave equation
Consider a particle of mass ‘m’ moving with velocity ‘v’. The de-Broglie wavelength ‘λ’ is
h h
λ= → (1)
mv P
Where ‘mv’ is the momentum of the particle.
The wave eqn is
A ei ( kx t ) → (2)
Where ‘A’ is a constant and ‘ω’ is the angular frequency of the wave.
Differentiating equation (2) with respect to ‘t’ twice
d 2
2
A 2 e i ( kx t ) 2 → (3)
dt
The equation of a travelling wave is
d2y 1 d2y
dx 2 v 2 dt 2
Where ‘y’ is the displacement and ‘v’ is the velocity.
Similarly for the de-Broglie wave associated with the particle
d 2 1 d 2
→ (4)
dx 2 v 2 dt 2
where ‘ψ’ is the displacement at time ‘t’.
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From eqns (3) & (4)
d 2 2
2
dx 2 v
But ω = 2πυ and v =υ λ where ‘υ’ is the frequency and ‘λ’ is the wavelength.
d 2 4 2 1 1 d 2
or → (5)
dx 2 2 2 4 2 dx 2
1 m2v2 P2
K .E mv 2 → (6)
2 2m 2m
h2
→ (7)
2m2
Using eqn (5)
h2 1 d 2 h 2 d 2
K .E 2 → (8)
2m 4 2 dx 2 8 m dx 2
Total Energy E = K.E + P.E
h 2 d 2
E 2 V
8 m dx 2
h 2 d 2
E V 2
8 m dx 2
d 2 8 2 m
2 E V
dx 2 h
d 2 8 2 m
E V 0 is the time independent Schrodinger wave equation.
dx 2 h2
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Physical significance of wave function:
Probability density: If ψ is the wave function associated with a particle, then |ψ|² is the probability
of finding a particle in unit volume. If ‘τ’ is the volume in which the particle is present but where
it is exactly present is not known. Then the probability of finding a particle in certain elemental
volume dτ is given by |ψ|2dτ. Thus |ψ|² is called probability
density. The probability of finding an event is real and positive
quantity. In the case of complex wave functions, the probability
density is |ψ|² = ψ * ψ where ψ* is Complex conjugate of .
Normalization:
The probability of finding a particle having wave function
‘ψ’ in a volume ‘dτ’ is ‘|ψ|²dτ’. If it is certain that the particle is
present in finite volume ‘τ’, then
| | ² d 1
0
If we are not certain that the particle is present in finite volume, then
| | ²d 1
In some cases | | ²d 1 and involves constant.
The process of integrating the square of the wave function within a suitable limits and equating it
to unity the value of the constant involved in the wave function is estimated. The constant value
is substituted in the wave function. This process is called as normalization. The wave function
with constant value included is called as the normalized wave function and the value of constant
is called normalization factor.
Eigen functions:
Eigen functions are those wave functions in Quantum mechanics which possesses the
properties:
1. They are single valued.
2. Finite everywhere and
3. The wave functions and their first derivatives with respect to their variables are continuous.
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Eigen values:
According to the Schrodinger equation there is more number of solutions. The wave functions are
related to energy E. The values of energy En for which Schrodinger equation solved are called
Eigen values.
Application of Schrodinger wave equation:
Energy Eigen values of a particle in one dimensional, infinite potential well (potential well of
infinite depth) or of a particle in a box
Y-Axis
V= V=0 V=
Particle x=0 x x=a X-Axis
Consider a particle of a mass ‘m’ free to move in one dimension along positive x -direction
between x =0 to x =a. The potential energy outside this region is infinite and within the region is
zero. The particle is in bound state. Such a configuration of potential in space is called infinite
potential well. It is also called particle in a box. The Schrödinger equation outside the well is
d 2 8 2 m
E 0 → (1) ∵V = ∞
dx 2 h2
For outside, the equation holds good if ψ = 0 & |ψ|² = 0. That is particle cannot be found outside
the well and also at the walls
The Schrodinger’s equation inside the well is:
d 2 8 2 m
E 0 → (2) ∵V = 0
dx 2 h2
h2 d 2
E → (3)
8 2 m dx 2
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This is in the form Ĥψ = Eψ
This is an Eigen-value equation.
8 2 m
Let 2
E k 2 in eqn (2)
h
d 2
k 2 0
dx 2
The solution of this equation is:
ψ = C cos k x + D sin k x → (4)
at x = 0 → ψ = 0
0 = C cos 0 + D sin 0
∴C=0
Also x = a → ψ = 0
0 = C cos ka + D sin ka
But C = 0
∴D sin ka = 0 (5)
D0 (because the wave concept vanishes)
i.e. ka = nπ where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4… (Quantum number)
n
k= → (6)
a
Using this in eqn (4)
n
n D sin x → (7)
a
Which gives permitted wave functions.
To find out the value of D, normalization of the wave function is to be done.
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a
i.e. n2 dx 1 → (8)
0
using the values of ψn from eqn (7)
n
a
D xdx 1
2
sin 2
0
a
1 cos( 2n / a ) x
a
D2 dx 1
0 1 cos 2
2 sin 2
D2
a a
2 n 2
dx cos xdx 1
2 0 0
a
2 n
a
D2 a
x 2n sin a x 1
2 0
D2
a 0 1
2
D2
a 1
2
2
D
a
Hence the normalized wave functions of a particle in one dimensional infinite potential well is:
2 n
n sin x → (9)
a a
Energy Eigen values:
From Eq. 6 &2
8 2 m n 2 2
E k 2
h2 a2
n2h2
Implies E
8ma 2
It gives the energy Eigen values of the particle in an infinite potential well.
n = 0 is not acceptable inside the well because ψn = 0. It means that the electron is not present
inside the well which is not true. Thus the lowest energy value for n = 1 is called zero point energy
value or ground state energy.
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h2
i.e. Ezero-point =
8ma 2
The states for which n >1 are called exited states.
Wave functions, probability densities and energy levels for particle in an infinite potential well:
Let us consider the most probable location of the particle in the well and its energies for first three
cases.
Case I → n=1
It is the ground state and the particle is normally present in this state.
The Eigen function is
2
ψ1= Sin x ∵from eqn (7)
a a
ψ1 = 0 for x = 0 and x = a
But ψ1 is maximum when x = a/2.
x=0 a/2 x=a x=0 a/2 x=a
The plots of ψ1 versus x and | ψ1|2 verses x are shown in the above figure.
|ψ1|2 = 0 for x = 0 and x = a and it is maximum for x = a/2. i.e. in ground state the particle cannot
be found at the walls, but the probability of finding it is maximum in the middle.
The energy of the particle at the ground state is
h2
E1 =
8ma 2
Case II → n=2
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In the first excited state the Eigen function of this state is
2 2
ψ2 = Sin x
a a
ψ2= 0 for the values x = 0, a/2, a.
Also ψ2 is maximum for the values x = a/4 and 3a/4.
These are represented in the graphs.
| ψ2|2 = 0 at x = 0, a/2, a, i.e. particle cannot be found either at the walls or at the centre.
a 3a
2 maximum for x , x
2
4 4
ψ2 | ψ2|2
a/4 3a/4
a/4
3a/4
x=0 a/2 x=a x=0 a/2 x=a
The energy of the particle in the first excited state is E2 = 4E1.
Case III → n=3
In the second excited state,
2 3
ψ3= Sin x
a a
ψ3 = 0, for x = 0, a/3, 2a/3 and a.
ψ3 is maximum for x = a/6, a/2, 5a/6.
These are represented in the graphs.
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a a 5a
3 maximum for x ,x ,x
2
| ψ3 |2 = 0 for x = 0, a/3, 2a/3 and a.
6 2 6
The energy of the particle in the second excited state is E3 = 9 E1.
*************************************
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QUANTUM MECHANICS
1. Derive an expression for de-Broglie wavelength by analogy and hence discuss the
significance of de-Broglie waves.
2. State and Explain Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle. Prove that an electron does not
exist inside the nucleus.
3. State and explain principle of complementarity and hence the correlation between de-
Broglie wavelength, uncertainty principle and wave packets.
4. Explain the wave function with mathematical form and discuss the physical significance
of a wave function.
5. Set up Schrodinger time independent wave equation in one dimension.
6. Discuss the motion of a quantum particle in a one-dimensional infinite potential well of
width ‘a’ and also obtain the Eigen functions and Energy Eigen states.
OR
Explain Eigen functions and Eigen values and hence derive the eigen function of a particle
inside infinite potential well of width ‘a’ using the method of normalization.
OR
Using the Schrodinger time independent wave equation, Obtain an expression for Energy
Eigen values and the Normalized wave function.
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MODULE-3
QUANTUM COMPUTING
Introduction to Quantum Computing
Quantum Computing is the area of study focused on developing computing methods based on the
principle of quantum theory. Quantum computing is based on the principle of quantum
superposition. In Quantum computing, the information is encoded in quantum system such as
atoms, ions or quantum dots. One quantum rule in particular creates enormous incentives to apply
quantum mechanics to computing. The algorithms are also written based on quantum principles in
which, Shor’s algorithm for factorization and Grover’s search algorithm are basics. (Grover is an
Indian born Physicist working in Bell Labs). The process of computation is incredibly fast but it
has to be done by the help of quantum computers which are yet to be realized in practice. It is
expected that 140 digit log number could be factored a billion (109 ) times faster than classical
computation. It is so powerful that a search engine can search every part of internet in half an hour.
Moore’s law & its End
In the year 1965, Gordon Moore observed increasing performance in the first few generations of
the integratedcircuit (IC) technology. Moore predicted that it would continue to improve at an
exponential rate with the performance per unit cost increasing by a factor or two every 18 months
are so. The computer industry has followed this prediction since then. But actually the doubling
was occurring in every 24 months or 2 years. The following plot shows the 50 years of Moore’s
law. The question that arises is how long can Moore’s law continues to hold and what are the
ultimate limitations?. According to the semiconductor size data the size has reached 5 nanometer
in 2021. The Demise of the Transistor in the quantum scale could be expected as the dimensions
decrease further. Quantum effects can cascade it he micro scale realm causing problems for current
microelectronics. The most typical effects are Electron tunneling among the circuit lines. Thus
Quantum Computation is the option for the further generation.
Statement: “The number of transistors on a microchip doubles every year"
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Differences Between Classical and Quantum Computing
Classical computing Quantum computing
It is large scale integrated multi-purpose It is high speed parallel computer based on
computer. quantum mechanics.
Information storage is bit based on voltage or Information storage is Quantum bit based on
charge etc. direction of an electron spin.
Information processing is carried out by logic Information processing is carried out by
gates e.g. NOT, AND, OR etc. Quantum logic gates.
Classical computers use binary codes i.e. bits 0 or Quantum computers use Qubits i.e. 0, 1 and
1 to represent information. both of them simultaneously to run machines
faster.
Operations are defined by Boolean Operations are defined by linear algebra over
Hilbert Space and can be represented by
Algebra. unitary matrices with complex elements.
Circuit behaviour is governed by classical Circuit behavior is governed explicitly by
physics. quantum mechanics.
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Concept of Qubit and its properties
Quantum bits, called qubits are similar to bits having two measurable states called 0 and 1 states.
Qubits can also be in a superposition state of these 0 and 1 states as shown in the figure. A qubit
can be in a superposition of both 0 and 1. Qubits can be expressed in quantum mechanical states
with mathematical formula, Dirac or “brac–ket” notation is commonly used in quantum mechanics
and quantum computing. The state of a qubit is enclosed in the right half of an angled bracket,
called the “ket”. A qubit |𝜓⟩ could be in |0⟩ or |1⟩ state which is the superposition of both |0⟩
and |1⟩ state.
This is written as, |𝜓⟩ = α |0⟩+ β |1⟩
Where α and β called the amplitude of the states which are a complex number.
Properties of Qubits
Qubit is a basic unit in which of information in a quantum computer. Superposition, Entanglement,
and Tunneling are all special properties that define a qubit.
i) A qubit can be in a superposed state of the two states 0 and 1. Qubit is a superposition of both
|0⟩ and |1⟩ state is given by
|ψ⟩ = α |0⟩+ β |1⟩.
ii) If measurements are carried out with a qubit in superposed state then the results that we get will
be probabilistic unlike how it’s deterministic in a classical computer. The total probability of all
the states of the quantum system must be 100%.
i.e. |α|2 + |β|2 =1 is called Normalization rule.
iii) Owing to the quantum nature, the qubit changes its state at once when subjected to measurement.
This means, one cannot copy information from qubits the way we do in the present computers
and is known as "no cloning principle".
A Qubit can be physically implemented by the two states of an electron or horizontal and vertical
polarizations of photons as |↓⟩ and |↑⟩.
Representation of qubit by Bloch Sphere
The pure state space qubits (Two Level Quantum Mechanical Systems) can be visualized using an
imaginary sphere called Bloch Sphere. It has a unit radius.
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The Arrow on the sphere represents the state of the Qubit. The north and south poles are used to
represent the basis states |0⟩ and |1⟩ respectively. The other locations are the superposition of |0⟩
and |1⟩ states and represented by |𝜓⟩ = α |0⟩+ β |1⟩ with |α|2 + |β|2 =1.
Thus a Qubit can be any point on the Bloch Sphere. The Bloch sphere allows the state of the qubit
to be represented unit spherical co-ordinates. They are the polar angle θ and the azimuth angle ϕ.
The Bloch sphere is represented by the equation
𝜃 𝜃
|𝜓⟩ = cos |0⟩+ 𝑒 𝑖𝜙 sin |1⟩
2 2
Case i) For φ =0 and θ=0 then |𝜓⟩ = |0⟩ which is along +z axis.
Case ii) For φ=0 and θ = 180 then |𝜓⟩ = |1⟩ which is along -z axis.
𝜋 1
Case iii) For φ =0 and θ= 2 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 |𝜓⟩ = (|0⟩ + |1⟩) which is along +X axis.
√2
𝜋 1
Case iv) For φ =0 and θ= − 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 |𝜓⟩ = (|0⟩ − |1⟩) which is along -X axis.
2 √2
Single and Two qubits and Extension to N qubits
i) Single qubit
A Single qubit has two computational basis states |0⟩ and |1⟩. It is in general written as by |𝜓⟩
= α |0⟩+ β |1⟩. Such that |α| 2 + |β| 2 =1
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The matrix representation of |0⟩ and |1⟩ is given by
|0⟩ = (1) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |1⟩ = (0)
0 1
ii) Two qubit
A two qubit system has four computational basis states denoted has |00⟩ |01⟩ |10⟩ |11⟩. The two
qubit state is given by |𝜓⟩ = α |00⟩+ β |01⟩ + 𝛾|10⟩ + 𝛿|11⟩ + ⋯
iii) N qubit
A multi-qubit system of N qubits has 2N computational basis states. For example a state of 3 qubits
has 23 computational basis states. Thus for N-qubit the computational basis states are denoted has
|000 … … 00⟩ |000 … . .01⟩ |10 … … .00⟩ |10 … … .01⟩ .
Dirac Representation and Matrix Operations
Matrix representation of |0⟩ and |1⟩
The wave function could be expressed in ket notation as |𝜓⟩ (ket Vector), ψ is the wave function.
𝛼
The quantum state is given by |𝜓⟩ = α |0⟩ + β |1⟩ and in matrix form |𝜓⟩ = (𝛽 ) . The matrix
1
form of the states |0⟩ and |1⟩ is given by |0⟩ = ( ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |1⟩ = (0)
0 1
Identity Operator
1 0
The operator of type 𝐼 = [ ] is called identity operator. When an identity operator acts on a
0 1
state vector its keeps the state intact. By analogy we study identity operator as an identity matrix.
Let us consider the operation of Identity operator on |0⟩ and |1⟩states. As per the principle of
identity operation 𝐼 |0⟩ = |0⟩ and |1⟩ = |1⟩ .
1 0 1 1
𝐼 |0⟩ = [ ] [ ] = [ ] = |0⟩
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0
𝐼 |1⟩ = [ ] [ ] = [ ] = |1⟩
0 1 1 1
Thus the operation of identity matrix (operator) on |0⟩ and |1⟩states leaves the states unchanged.
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Pauli Matrices
Pauli Matrices are set of 2 × 2 matrices. Which are very much useful in the study of quantum
computation and quantum information. The pauli matrices are given by
0 1 0 −𝑖 1 0
𝜎𝑥 = 𝑋 = [ ] , 𝜎𝑦 = 𝑌 = [ ] and 𝜎𝑧 = 𝑍 = [ ]
1 0 𝑖 0 0 −1
Pauli Matrices operating on |𝟎⟩ and |𝟏⟩ States
0 1 1 0
1. 𝜎𝑥 |0⟩ = [ ] [ ] = [ ] = |1⟩
1 0 0 1
0 1 0 1
𝜎𝑥 |1⟩ = [ ] [ ] = [ ] = |0⟩
1 0 1 0
0 −𝑖 1 0
2. 𝜎𝑦 |0⟩ = [ ] [ ] = [ ] = 𝑖|1⟩
𝑖 0 0 𝑖
0 −𝑖 0 −𝑖
𝜎𝑥 |1⟩ = [ ] [ ] = [ ] = −𝑖|0⟩
𝑖 0 1 0
1 0 1 1
3. 𝜎𝑧 |0⟩ = [ ] [ ] = [ ] = |0⟩
0 −1 0 0
1 0 0 0
𝜎𝑧 |1⟩ = [ ] [ ] = [ ] = −|1⟩
0 −1 1 −1
Conjugate of a Matrix
It is possible to find the conjugate for a given matrix by replacing each element of the matrix
with its complex conjugate.
The conjugate of a complex number is found by switching the sign of the imaginary part.
The complex conjugate of 1 is just 1 and the complex conjugate of +i is −i.
1 𝑖
𝐴=[ ]
1 𝑖
The conjugate of matrix A is
1 −𝑖
𝐴∗ = [ ]
1 −𝑖
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Transpose of a matrix
Transpose of a matrix, switches rows with columns.
The first row turns into the first column, second row turns into the second column.
1 𝑖
𝐴=[ ]
1 𝑖
The conjugate of matrix A is
1 −𝑖
𝐴∗ = [ ]
1 −𝑖
1 1
𝐴+ = [ ]
−𝑖 −𝑖
Unitary Matrix (U)
A matrix U is unitary, if the matrix product of U and its conjugate transpose U † (called U-
dagger) produces the identity matrix.
UU† = U†U = I = 1
0 1
Let 𝑈=[ ]
1 0
0 1
Conjugate of U is 𝑈 ∗ = [ ]
1 0
0 1
Transpose of U is 𝑈 † = [ ]
1 0
0 1 0 1 0 1
𝑈𝑈 † = [ ][ ]=[ ]=𝐼
1 0 1 0 1 0
0 1 0 1 0 1
𝑈†𝑈 = [ ][ ]=[ ]=𝐼
1 0 1 0 1 0
𝑈𝑈 † = 𝐼
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Row and Column matrix (Inner product)
A Row matrix is a vector represented by Brac vector . < |
A Column matrix is a vector represented by ket vector | >
𝛼1
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 |𝜓⟩ = [ 𝛽 ] ; Row vector |𝜓⟩ = [𝛼1 , 𝛽1 ] ,Where Bra vector is a complex conjugate of ket
1
vector.
𝛼1
|𝜓 ∗⟩ = [ 𝛽 ] and |𝜓⟩† = [𝛼1 ∗ , 𝛽1 ∗ ]
1
Thus Brac is the complex conjugate of ket and conversely ket is the complex conjugate of Brac.
Orthogonality and Orthonormal
Two states |𝜓⟩ and |𝜙⟩ are said to be orthogonal if their inner product is Zero.
Mathematically ⟨𝜓|𝜙⟩ = 0
The two states are orthogonal means they are mutually exclusive. Like spin up and Spin down of
an electron.
1
Consider the inner product of and ⟨0|1⟩= [1, 0] [ ] = [0 + 0] = 0
0
Two states |𝜓⟩ and |𝜙⟩ are said to be orthonormal if their inner product is one.
Mathematically ⟨𝜓|𝜙⟩ = 1
QUANTUM GATES
In quantum computing a quantum logic gate is a basic quantum circuit operating on a small number
of qubits. A qubit is useless unless it is used to carry out a quantum calculation. The quantum
calculations are achieved by performing a series of fundamental operations, known as quantum
logic gates. They are the building blocks of quantum circuits similar to the classical logic gates in
conventional digital circuits.
1) Quantum Not Gate:
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In Quantum Computing the quantum NOT gate for qubits takes the state |0⟩ to |1⟩ and vice
versa. It is analogous to the classical not gate. The Matrix representation of Quantum Not Gate is
given by
0 1
𝑋=[ ]
1 0
0 1 1 0
𝑋|0⟩ = [ ] [ ] = [ ] = |1⟩
1 0 0 1
0 1 0 1
𝑋|1⟩ = [ ] [ ] = [ ] = |0⟩
1 0 1 0
α
A Quantum State is given by 𝛼 |0⟩ + 𝛽 |1⟩ and its matrix representation is given by [β]
Hence the operation of Quantum Not Gate on quantum state is given by
α 0 1 α β
X[β]=[ ] [ ]=[ ]
1 0 β α
Thus the quantum state becomes 𝛼 |1⟩ + 𝛽 |0⟩. Similarly, The input 𝛼 |1⟩ + 𝛽 |0⟩ to the quantum
not gates changes the state to 𝛼 |0⟩ + 𝛽 |1⟩. The quantum not gate circuit and the truth table are as
shown below
𝛼 |0⟩ + 𝛽 |1⟩ X 𝛼 |1⟩ + 𝛽 |0⟩
Quantum Not Gate
Truth table of Quantum Not Gate
Input Output
|0⟩ |1⟩
|1⟩ |0⟩
𝛼 |0⟩ + 𝛽 |1⟩ 𝛼 |1⟩ + 𝛽 |0⟩
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2) Pauli-X,Y and Z Gates
i) Pauli X Gate
The Pauli-X Gate is nothing but Quantum Not Gate.
ii) Pauli Y Gate
Pauli Y Gate is represented by Pauli matrix 𝜎𝑦 or 𝑌. This gate Maps |0⟩ state to 𝑖 |1⟩ state and |1⟩
state to −𝑖 |0⟩ state. The Y Gate and its operation is as given below
0 −𝑖 1 0
𝑌|0⟩ = [ ] [ ] = [ ] = 𝑖|1⟩
𝑖 0 0 𝑖
0 −𝑖 0 −𝑖
𝑌|1⟩ = [ ] [ ] = [ ] = −𝑖|0⟩
𝑖 0 1 0
Thus the Y-Gate defines the transformation
𝑌 (𝛼 |0⟩ + 𝛽 |1⟩) = 𝛼𝑌 |0⟩ + 𝛽𝑌 |1⟩ = −𝑖𝛽 |0⟩ +𝑖𝛼 |1⟩
Quantum Y-Gate is represented by
𝛼 |0⟩ + 𝛽 |1⟩ Y −𝑖𝛽 |0⟩ +𝑖𝛼 |1⟩
Quantum Y Gate
Truth table of Quantum Y Gate
Input Output
|𝟎⟩ 𝑖|1⟩
|1⟩ -𝑖 |𝟎⟩
𝛼 |0⟩ + 𝛽 |1⟩ −𝑖𝛽 |0⟩ +𝑖𝛼 |1⟩
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iii) Pauli Z Gate
The Z-gate is represented by Pauli Matrix or 𝑍. Z Gate maps input state |𝑘⟩ to (−1)|𝑘⟩.
1. For input |0⟩ the output remains unchanged.
2. For input |1⟩ the output is − |1⟩.
The Matrix representation and the operation of Z-Gate on |0⟩ and |1⟩ are as follows
1 0 1 1
𝑍 |0⟩ = [ ] [ ] = [ ] = |0⟩
0 −1 0 0
1 0 0 0
𝑍|1⟩ = [ ] [ ] = [ ] = −|1⟩
0 −1 1 −1
(𝛼 |0⟩ + 𝛽 |1⟩) = 𝛼𝑍 |0⟩ + 𝛽𝑍 |1⟩ = 𝛼 |0⟩ − 𝛽 |1⟩
The circuit symbol and the truth table of Z-Gate are as follows
𝛼 |0⟩ + 𝛽 |1⟩ Z 𝛼 |0⟩ - 𝛽 |1⟩
Truth table of Quantum Z Gate
Input Output
|𝟎⟩ |𝟎⟩
|1⟩ -|1⟩
𝛼 |0⟩ + 𝛽 |1⟩ 𝛼 |0⟩ - 𝛽 |1⟩
3) Hadamard Gate
The Hadamard Gate is a truly quantum gate and is one of the most important in Quantum
Computing. It is has similar characteristics of √ 𝑁𝑂𝑇 Gate. It is a self-inverse gate. It is used to
create the superposition of |0⟩ and |1⟩ states.
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1 1 1
The Matrix representation of Hadamard Gate is as follows 𝐻 = √2 [ ].
1 −1
The Hadamard Gate and the output states for the |0⟩ and |1⟩ input states are represented as follows.
The Hadamard Gate satisfies Unitary Condition. 𝐻 †𝐻 = 𝐼
|0⟩ H 𝟏
= √𝟐 |0⟩ +
𝟏
|1⟩
√𝟐
𝟏 𝟏
|1⟩ H = √𝟐 |0⟩ - |1⟩
√𝟐
The truth-table for the Hadamard Gate is as follows.
Input Output
|0⟩ + |1⟩
|0⟩
√2
|0⟩ − |1⟩
|1⟩
√2
|0⟩ + |1⟩ |0⟩ − |1⟩
𝛼 |0⟩ + 𝛽 |1⟩ 𝛼 + 𝛽
√2 √2
4) Phase Gate or S Gate
The phase gate turns a |0⟩ into |0⟩ and a |1⟩ into 𝑖 |1⟩ .
The Matrix representation of the S gate is given by
1 0
S=[ ]
0 𝑖
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The effect of S gate on input |0⟩ is given by
1 0 1 1
𝑆 |0⟩ = [ ] [ ] = [ ] = |0⟩
0 𝑖 0 0
Similarly the effect of S gate on input |1⟩ is given by
1 0 0 0
𝑆|1⟩ = [ ] [ ] = [ ] = 𝑖|1⟩
0 𝑖 1 𝑖
The transformation of state |𝜓⟩ is given by
𝑆 |𝜓⟩ = 𝑆 (𝛼 |0⟩ + 𝛽 |1⟩) = 𝛼𝑆 |0⟩ + 𝛽𝑆 |1⟩ = 𝛼 |0⟩ + 𝑖𝛽 |1⟩
The symbol of S gate is given by
𝛼 |0⟩ + 𝛽 |1⟩ S 𝛼 |0⟩ + 𝒊 𝛽|1⟩
The Truth table for S gate is as follows
Input Output
|0⟩ |0⟩
|1⟩ 𝑖|1⟩
𝛼 |0⟩ + 𝛽 |1⟩ 𝛼 |0⟩ + 𝑖 𝛽|1⟩
𝛑
5) T -Gate / Gate
𝟖
The T Gate is represented by the matrix as follows
1 0 1 0
T= [ ] = [0
𝑖𝜋 1+𝑖]
0 𝑒 4 √𝟐
The Operation of T- gate on |0⟩ and |1⟩ are given by
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1 0 1 1
T|0⟩ = [0 1+𝑖] [ ] = [ ] = |0⟩
√𝟐
0 0
1 0 0 0 1+𝑖
T|1⟩ = [0 1+𝑖] [ ] = [1+𝑖] = |1⟩
√𝟐 1 √𝟐
√𝟐
π
T -Gate is also called 8 Gate is shown below
𝑖𝜋
𝑖𝜋 −
𝑒 [𝑒 0]
8
T= 8
𝑖𝜋
0 𝑒8
The symbolic representation of T-gate is given by
1+𝑖
𝛼 |0⟩ + 𝛽 |1⟩ T 𝛂 |𝟎⟩ + 𝛃|𝟏⟩
√𝟐
The Truth table for T- gate is as follows
Input Output
|0⟩ |0⟩
1+𝑖
|1⟩ |1⟩
√𝟐
1+𝑖
𝛼 |0⟩ + 𝛽 |1⟩ α |0⟩ + β|1⟩
√2
Note: Important feature of T- gate is it could be related to S gate as 𝑇 2 = S
Multiple Qubit Gates
Multiple Qubit Gates operate on Two or More input Qubits. Usually on of them is a control qubit
and other is target qubit.
Controlled Gates
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The Gate with operation of kind "If ’𝐴’ is True then do ’𝐵’" is called Controlled Gate. The |𝐴⟩
Qubit is called control qubit and |𝐵⟩ is the Target qubit. The target qubit is altered only when the
control qubit state is |1⟩. The control qubit remains unaltered during the transformations.
1. Controlled Not Gate or CNOT Gate
The CNOT gate is a typical multi-qubit logic gate and the circuit is as follows.
The matrix representation of CNOT gate is given by
The Transformation could be expressed as |𝐴, 𝐵⟩ → |𝐴, 𝐵 ⊕ 𝐴⟩
Consider the operations of CNOT gate on the four inputs |00⟩, |01⟩,|10⟩ and |11⟩.
Operation of CNOT Gate for input |00⟩
Here in the inputs to the CNOT Gate the control qubit is |0⟩. Hence no change in the state of
Target qubit |0⟩.|00⟩ → |00⟩
Operation of CNOT Gate for input |01⟩
Here in the inputs to the CNOT Gate the control qubit is |0⟩. Hence no change in the state of
Target qubit |1⟩.|01⟩ → |01⟩
Operation of CNOT Gate for input |10⟩
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Here in the inputs to the CNOT Gate the control qubit is |1⟩. Hence the state of Target qubit flips
from |0⟩ to |1⟩. |10⟩ → |11⟩
Operation of CNOT Gate for input |11⟩
Here in the inputs to the CNOT Gate the control qubit is |1⟩. Hence the state of Target qubit flips
from |1⟩ to |0⟩. |11⟩ → |10⟩
The Truth Table of operation of CNOT gate is as follows.
2. Swap Gate
The SWAP gate is two-qubit operation. Expressed in basis states, the SWAP gate swaps the state
of the two qubits involved in the operation. The Matrix representation of the Swap Gate is as
follows
The schematic symbol of swap gate circuit is as follows
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The swap gate is a combined circuit of 3 CNOT gates and the overall effect is that two input qubits
are swapped at the output. The Action and truth table of the swap gate is as follows.
Truth table of SWAP gate
Input Output
|00⟩ |00⟩
|01⟩ |10⟩
|10⟩ |01⟩
|11⟩ |11⟩
3. Controlled Z Gate
In Controlled Z Gate, The operation of Z Gate is controlled by a Control Qubit. If the control
Qubit is |𝐴⟩ is equal to |1⟩ then only the Z gate transforms the Target Qubit |𝐵⟩ as per the Pauli-Z
operation.
The action of Controlled Z-Gate could is specified by a matrix as follows.
The schematic circuit of controlled Z gate and the truth table are as follows
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Input Output
|00⟩ |00⟩
|01⟩ |01⟩
|10⟩ |10⟩
|11⟩ -|11⟩
4. Toffoli Gate
The Toffoli Gate is also known as CCNOT Gate (Controlled-Controlled-Not). It has three inputs
out of which two are Control Qubits and one is the Target Qubit. The Target Qubit flips only when
both the Control Qubits are |1⟩. The two Control Qubits are not altered during the operation.
The matrix representation of Toffoli Gate is given by
The schematic circuit of Toffoli Gate is as follows
The truth table for Toffoli gate is as follows
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The Toffolli matrix is unitary. The Toffolli Gate is its own inverse. It could be used for NAND
Gate Simulation.
*************************************
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MODULE - 03
QUANTUM COMPUTING
1. State and explain Moore’s law. Elucidate the differences between Classical and
Quantum computing.
2. Define a bit and qubit and explain the properties of qubit.
3. Explain the representation of qubit using Bloch sphere.
4. What is an identity operator? Explain the matrix representation of 0 and 1 states and
apply identity operator I to |𝟎⟩ and|𝟏⟩ states.
5. Explain the following matrices with examples: (i) Unitary, (ii) Transpose, and (iii)
Conjugate.
𝟏 𝟒 + 𝟑𝒊
6. Check if, matrix A=[ ] is Hermitian.
𝟒 − 𝟑𝒊 𝟓
7. State the Pauli matrices and apply Pauli Matrices on the state |𝟎⟩ and|𝟏⟩.
8. Explain Orthogonality and Orthonormality with an example for each.
9. Explain Single qubit gate and multiple qubit gate with an example for each.
10. Discuss Quantum NOT gate mentioning its matrix representation and truth table.
11. Discuss Pauli’s X, Y and Z gate mentioning its matrix representation and truth table.
12. Show that Hadamard gate is Unitary.
13. Discuss the working of phase gate and T gate mentioning its matrix representation and
truth table.
14. Discuss the CNOT gate and its operation on four different input states.
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MODULE 4
ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS AND APPLICATIONS
Assumptions of classical free electron theory:
A metal is imagined as the structure of 3-dimensional array of ions in between which, there are
free moving valence electrons confined to the body of the material. Such freely moving
electrons cause electrical conduction under an applied field and hence referred to as conduction
electrons
The free electrons are treated as equivalent to gas molecules and they are assumed to obey the
laws of kinetic theory of gases. In the absence of the field, the energy associated with each
electron at a temperature T is given by 3/2 kT, where k is a Boltzmann constant.
It is related to the kinetic energy.
3/2 kT = ½ mvth2
Where vth is the thermal velocity same as root mean square velocity.
The electric potential due to the ionic cores is taken to be essentially constant throughout the
body of the metal and the effect of repulsion between the electrons is considered insignificant.
The electric current in a metal due to an applied field is a consequence of the drift velocity in a
direction opposite to the direction of the field.
Drift velocity (vd):
The average velocity of occupied by the electrons in the steady state in an applied electric field is
called drift velocity.
𝑒𝐸𝜏
The drift velocity vd =
𝑚
Thermal velocity(Vth ):
The velocity of electrons in random motion due to thermal agitation called thermal velocity.
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Mean free path ():
The average distance travelled by the conduction electrons between any two successive collisions
with lattice ions.
Temperature dependence of resistivity of a metal:
All metals are good conductors of electricity. The electrical conductivity of metal varies with the
temperature. The electrical resistance of a metal, to the flow of current, is due to scattering of
conduction electrons by lattice vibrations. When the temperature increases the amplitude of lattice
vibrations also increases, thereby increasing the resistance. The dependence of resistance of metal
(non-superconducting state) is shown in figure. The resistance decreases with temperature and
reaches a minimum value at T = 0K. The residual resistance at T = 0K is due to impurities in the
metal.
By Matthiessen’s rule
ρ = ρo + ρ(T)
Where ‘ρ’ is the resistivity of the given material, ‘ρo’is the residual resistivity and ‘ρ (T)’ is the
temperature dependent part of resistivity.
“The total resistivity of a metal is the sum of the resistivity due to phonon scattering which
is temperature dependent and the resistivity due to scattering by impurities which is
temperature dependent”
Expression for electrical conductivity of conductor according to classical free electron theory
According to classical free electron theory the expression for electrical conductivity is given by
ne2 τ
σCFET = m
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Where σ - Electrical conductivity
n- Electron density
τ − mean collision time
m- mass of electron
Failures of classical free electron theory:
Electrical and thermal conductivities can be explained from classical free electron theory. It fails
to account the facts such as specific heat, temperature dependence of conductivity and dependence
of electrical conductivity on electron concentration.
i) Specific heat: The molar specific heat of a gas at constant volume is
3
Cv = R
2
As per the classical free electron theory, free electrons in a metal are expected to behave just as
gas molecules. Thus the above equation holds good equally well for the free electrons also.
But experimentally it was found that, the contribution to the specific heat of a metal by its
conduction electrons was
CV=10-4RT
which is for lower than the expected value. Also according to the theory the specific heat is
independent of temperature whereas experimentally specific heat is proportional to temperature.
ii)Temperature dependence of electrical conductivity:
Experimentally, electrical conductivity σ is inversely proportional to the temperature T.
1
i.e. σexp α → (1)
T
According to the assumptions of classical free electron theory
Since Vth α √T
1 1
But τα Vth, τα ,
√T
substituting in conductivity equation we get
ne2 τ ne2
σCFET = =m
m √T
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1
Or σCFET α →(2)
T
From equations (1) & (2) it is clear that the experimental value is not agreeing with the theory.
iii) Dependence of electrical conductivity on electron concentration:
According to classical free electron the theory
ne2
σ= i.e., σ α n, where n is the electron concentration,
m
Consider copper and aluminum. Their electrical conductivities are 5.88×107/Ωm and
3.65x107/Ωm. The electron concentrations for copper and aluminum are 8.45×1028/m3and
18.06x1028/m3. Hence the classical free electron theory fails to explain the dependence of σ on
electron concentration.
Experimental results:
Metals Electron concentration(n) conductivity (σ)
Copper 8.45×1028/m3 5.88x107/Ωm
Aluminium 18.06x1028/m3 3.65x107/ Ωm
Quantum free electron theory:
Assumptions of quantum free electron theory:
The energy values of the conduction electrons are quantized. The allowed energy values are
realized in terms of a set of energy values.
The distribution of electrons in the various allowed energy levels occur as per Pauli’s exclusion
principle.
The electrons travel with a constant potential inside the metal but confined within its boundaries.
The attraction between the electrons and the lattice ions and the repulsion between the electrons
themselves are ignored.
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Density of states g(E):
Density of states is defined as the number of allowed energy states per unit energy range per unit
volume in the valance band of a material. It is denoted as g(E).
A graph of g(E) verses E is shown below.
Consider an energy band spread in an energy interval between E1 and E2. Below E1 and above E2
there are energy gaps. g(E) represents the density of states at E. As dE is small, it is assumed that
g(E) is constant between E and E+dE. The density of states in range E and (E+dE) is denoted by
g(E)dE.
3
1
g(E)dE = 8 2 m E 2 dE
2
i.e.
h3
It is clear g(E) is proportional to √E in the interval dE
Fermi energy and Fermi level:
The energy of electrons corresponding to the highest occupied energy level at absolute 0°K is
called Fermi energy and the energy level is called Fermi level.
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Fermi factor:
Fermi factor is the probability of occupation of a given energy state by the electrons in a material
at thermal equilibrium.
The probability f(E) that a given energy state with energy E is occupied by the electrons at a steady
temperature T is given by
1
f (E) ( E EF )
e kT
1
f(E) is called the Fermi factor.
Dependence of Fermi factor with temperature and energy:
The dependence of Fermi factor on temperature and energy is as shown in the figure.
i) Probability of occupation for E<EF at T=0K:
When T=0K and E<EF
1 1
f(E) = e−∞ +1 = 0+1 = 1
The probability of occupation of energy state is 100%
f(E)=1 for E<EF.
f(E)=1 means the energy level is certainly occupied and E<EF applies to all energy levels below
EF. Therefore at T=0K all the energy levels below the Fermi level are occupied.
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ii) Probability of occupation for E>EF at T=0K:
When T=0K and E>EF
1 1
f(E) = e∞+1 = ∞ = 0
The probability of occupation of energy state is 0%
f(E)=0 for E>EF
... At T=0K, all the energy levels above Fermi levels are unoccupied. Hence at T=0K the variation
of f(E) for different energy values, becomes a step function as shown in the above figure.
iii) The probability of occupation at ordinary temperature( for E≈EF at T>0K)
At ordinary temperatures though the value of probability remains 1, for E<E F it starts reducing
from 1 for values of E close to but lesser than EF as in the figure.
The values of f(E)becomes ½ at E=EF
This is because for E=EF
e(E−Ef )⁄kT = e0 = 1
1 1 1
.. . f(E) = = 1+1 = 2
e(E−Ef )⁄kT +1
The probability of occupation of energy state is 50%
Further for E>EF the probability value falls off to zero rapidly.
Hence, the Fermi energy is the most probable or the average energy of the electrons across which
the energy transitions occur at temperature above zero degree absolute.
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Super Conductivity:
Super conductivity is the phenomenon observed in some metals and materials. Kammerlingh
Onnes in 1911 observed that the electrical resistivity of pure mercury drops abruptly to zero at
about 4.2K .This state is called super conducting state. The material is called superconductor .The
temperature at which they attain superconductivity is called critical temperature Tc.
Temperature dependence of resistivity of a superconductor:
One of the most interesting properties of solid at low temperature is that electrical resistivity of
metals and alloys vanish entirely below a certain temperature. This zero resistivity or infinite
conductivity is known as superconductivity. Temperature at which transition takes place is known
as transition temperature or critical temperature (Tc). Above the transition temperature, the
substance is in the normal state and below it will be in superconducting state. Tc value is different
for different materials.
“The resistance offered by certain materials to the flow of electric current abruptly drop to zero
below a threshold temperature. This phenomenon is called superconductivity and threshold
temperature is called “critical temperature”.
Meissner effect:
A superconducting material kept in a magnetic field expels the magnetic flux out of its body when
it is cooled below the critical temperature and thus becomes perfect diamagnet. This effect is called
Meissner effect.
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Fig: Superconductor sample subjected to an applied magnetic field with temperature (i) above
and (ii) below TC. The flux expulsion below Tc is called Meissner effect
When the temperature is lowered to Tc, the flux is suddenly and completely expelled, as the
specimen becomes superconducting. The Meissner effect is reversible. When the temperature is
raised the flux penetrates the material, after it reaches Tc. Then the substance will be in the normal
state.
The magnetic induction inside the specimen
B = µo (H + M)
Where 'H' is the intensity of the magnetizing field and ‘M’ is the magnetization produced within
the material.
For T < Tc, B=0
µ0 (H + M) = 0
M = -H
M/H = -1= χ
Susceptibility is -1 i.e. it is perfect diamagnetism.
Hence superconducting material do not allow the magnetic flux to exist inside the material.
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Experimental demonstration of Meissner effect:
Consider a primary coil and a secondary coil, wound on a superconducting material. The primary
coil is connected to a battery and a key. The secondary coil is connected to ballistic galvanometer
(BG). When the key is closed the current flows through the primary coil and the magnetic field is
produced. This flux is linked with the secondary coil and the current flows through the secondary
coil which makes a deflection in the galvanometer. If the primary current is steady the magnetic
flux and the flux linked with the coil will become steady. As the temperature of the specimen is
decreased below the critical temperature, BG suddenly shows a deflection indicating that the flux
linked with the secondary coil is changed. This is due to the expulsion of the magnetic flux from
the specimen.
Effect of magnetic field:
Superconductivity can be destroyed by applying magnetic field. The strength of the magnetic field
required to destroy the superconductivity below the Tc is called critical field. It is denoted by Hc(T).
If ‘T’ is the temperature of the superconducting material, ‘Tc’ is the critical temperature, ‘Hc’ is
the critical field and ‘Ho’ is the critical field at 0oK.
They are related by
Hc = Ho[1-(T/Tc)2]
By applying magnetic field greater than Ho, the material can never become superconductor
whatever may be the low temperature. The critical field need not be external but large current
flowing in superconducting ring produce critical field and destroys superconductivity.
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Types of superconductors:
There are two types of superconductors. They are type-I superconductors and type-II
superconductors.
i)Type-I superconductors:
Type-I superconductors exhibit complete Meissner effect. Below the critical field it behaves as
perfect diamagnetic. If the external magnetic field increases beyond Hc the superconducting
specimen gets converted to normal state. The magnetic flux penetrates and resistance increase
from zero to some value. As the critical field is very low for type-I superconductors, they are not
used in construction of solenoids and superconducting magnets.
ii) Type-II superconductors
Type-II superconductors are hard superconductors. They exist in three states
i) Superconducting state
ii) Mixed state
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iii) Normal state
They are having two critical fields Hc1 and Hc2. For the field less then Hc1, it expels the magnetic
field completely and becomes a perfect diamagnetic. Between Hc1 and Hc2 the flux starts
penetrating throughout the specimen. This state is called vortex state. Hc2 is 100 times higher than
Hc1. At Hc2 the flux penetrates completely and becomes normal conductor. Type-II
superconductors are used in the manufacturing of the superconducting magnets of high magnetic
fields above 10 Tesla.
BCS theory superconductivity:
Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer (BCS) in 1957 explained the phenomenon of superconductivity
based on the formation of cooper pairs. It is called BCS theory. It is a quantum mechanical
concept.
When a current flow in a superconductor, electrons come near a positive ion core of lattice, due
to attractive force. The ion core also gets displaced from its position, which is called lattice
distortion. The lattice vibrations are quantized in a term called Phonons.
Now an electron which comes near that place will interact with the distorted lattice. This tends
to reduce the energy of the electron. It is equivalent to interaction between the two electrons
through the lattice. This leads to the formation of cooper pairs.
“Cooper pairs are a bound pair of electrons formed by the interaction between the electrons with
opposite spin and momentum in a phonon field”.
When the electrons flow in the form of cooper pairs in materials, they do not encounter any
scattering and the resistance factor vanishes or in other words conductivity becomes infinity
which is called as superconductivity.
In superconducting state electron-phonon interaction is stronger than the coulomb force of
attraction of electrons. Cooper pairs are not scattered by the lattice points. They travel freely
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without slow down as their energy is not transferred. Due to this they do not possess any
electrical resistivity.
High temperature superconductors:
The term high-temperature superconductor was first used to designate the new family of cuprate-
perovskite ceramic materials discovered by Bednorz and Müller in 1986. The first high-
temperature superconductor, LaBaCuO, with a transition temperature of 30 K and in the same year
LSCO (La2-xSrxCuO4) discovered with TC of 40K. In 1987 it was shown that superconductors
with Tc greater than 77K could be prepared, this temperature is greater than the liquid helium
temperature. YBa2Cu3O7 was discovered to have a Tc of 92 K. Bismuth/lead strontium Calcium
Copper (Bi Pb)2Sr2 Ca2Cu3Ox (x<0.1) with Tc=105K. Thallium barium Calcium copper oxide (Tl
Ba2Ca2Cu3O4) of Tc=115K. Mercury barium calcium copper oxide (Hg Ba2Ca2Cu3O4) with
Tc=135K.
All high temperature superconductors are different types of oxides of copper, and bear a particular
type of crystal structure called Perovskite crystal structure. The number of copper layers increases
the Tc value increases. The current in the high TC materials is direction dependent. It is strong in
parallel to copper-oxygen planes and weak in perpendicular to copper-oxygen planes.
High Tc materials are Type-II superconductors and they are brittle and don’t carry enough current.
The formation of electron pairs is not due to interaction of electron lattice as in the BCS theory.
Still it is not clear what does cause the formation of pairs. Research is being conducting in this
direction. The high temperature superconductors are useful in high field applications. It can carry
high currents of 105 to 106 amps in moderate magnetic fields. They are used in military
applications, Josephson junction in SQUIDS, under sea communication, submarines.
Quantum Tunneling:
Consider two superconductors separated by insulating barrier of thickness less than 10-20 Å, then
the cooper pairs tunneling through the insulating barrier is known as Josephson superconducting
quantum tunneling. The junction between the two superconductors with insulating barrier is
known as Josephson junction.
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Josephson junction is an arrangement of two superconductors separated by an insulating barrier.
When the barrier is thin enough, cooper pairs from one superconductor can tunnel through the
barrier and reach the other superconductor.
Josephson proposed that this kind of tunneling leads to three kinds of effect, namely
1. dc Josephson effect
2. ac Josephson effect
3. quantum interference
1. dc Josephson effect
As per dc Josephson Effect, the tunneling of cooper pairs through the junction occurs without any
resistance, which results in a steady dc current without any application of voltage between the two
superconductors.
The super current through the junction is given by,
IS = IC sin Ф0
Where, Ф0 = phase difference between the wave functions describing the cooper pairs on both the
sides of the junction.
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IC = critical current at zero voltage which depends on the thickness and width of the insulating
layer.
2. ac Josephson effect
When a dc voltage is applied across the junction, the tunneling of cooper pairs occur in such a way
than an ac current would develop in the junction and this effect is called as ac Josephson Effect.
When a potential difference of ‘V’ is applied between the two sides of the junction then a radio
frequency (RF) current oscillations across the junction is generated.
I = IC sin(Ф0 + ∆Ф)
The energies of the cooper pairs on both sides of the barrier difference is E = hν = 2eV (Calculated
using quantum mechanical concept).
2 eV
Therefore it can be shown that, ∆Ф = ωt = 2πt ( )
h
2 eV
Hence, I = IC sin (Ф0 + 2πt ( ))
h
2 eV
I = Alternating current of frequency ν = h
It shows that a photon of frequency ν is emitted or absorbed when a cooper pair crosses the
junction. Thus when a voltage is applied across the junction, an ac current gets generated. This is
known as ac Josephson Effect.
SQUID
SQUID is an acronym for Superconducting Quantum Interference Device.
It is an Ultra-sensitive measuring instrument used for the detection of very weak magnetic fields
of the order of 10-14 T.
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A SQUID is formed by incorporating two Josephson’s junction in the loop of a superconducting
material.
When a magnetic field is applied to this superconducting circuit, it induces a circulating current
which produces just that much opposing magnetic field so as to exclude the flux from the loop.
[Note: The flux remains excluded as long as the junction current do not exceed a critical value.
But the circuit switches to resistive phase and thereby the flux passes into the loop once the current
in either of the junction or in both the junction exceed the critical value. Thus the loop acts like a
gate to allow or exclude the flux]
DC Squids
DC Squids are nothing but a double junction SQUIDS.
A DC SQUID consists of two Josephson junctions connected in parallel on a closed
superconducting loop as shown in the Fig.
In this device the two weak links are not shorted by superconductor path; therefore the dc
current-voltage characteristics can be observed.
This device applies current slightly greater than the critical current and one can monitor the
voltage drop across the device.
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RF SQUIDS
The single junction SQUIDS are also known as RF SQUIDS.
The junction is shorted by superconductor path; therefore the voltage response is obtained by
coupling the loop to a RF bias tank circuit.
The RF (Radio Frequency) SQUID is a one-junction SQUID loop that can be used as a
magnetic field detector.
In this configuration, the RF SQUID is inductively coupled to the inductance LT of an
LC tank circuit. The tank circuit is driven by an rf current, and the resultant rf voltage is
periodic in the flux applied to the SQUID loop with period Φ0.
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MODULE - 04
ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS AND APPLICATIONS
1. Explain the failures of Classical free electron theory and Enumerate the assumptions of
quantum free electron theory.
2. Explain the temperature dependence of resistivity of a metal and Matthiessen’s rule.
3. Define fermi energy and fermi factor. Discuss the variation of fermi energy with
temperature and energy.
4. Explain the phenomenon of superconductivity and discuss qualitatively the BCS theory
of superconductivity.
5. Explain the temperature dependence of resistivity of a superconductor.
6. Describe Meissner’s effect and the variation of critical field with temperature.
7. Classify superconductors into Soft and Hard superconductors using M-H graphs.
OR
Explain the Type-I and Type-II superconductors using M-H graphs.
8. What is Quantum Tunneling? Explain DC and AC/RF Josephson effects.
9. What are SQUIDS? Explain DC and AC/RF SQUIDS with the help of neat diagram.
10. Mention the applications of superconductivity in quantum computing.
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MODULE-5
APPLICATIONS OF PHYSICS IN COMPUTING
Physics of Animation:
Animation: The word Animation has derived from the word Animate, which means to bring life.
It is a method of photographing successive drawings, models, or even puppets, to create an illusion
of movement in a sequence. The first animated film was made by Emile Chol in 1907; he is referred
to as the father of animation.
Taxonomy of physics-based animation methods:
The physics-based animation and simulation can roughly be subdivided into two groups:
1. Kinematics is the study of motion without consideration of mass or forces.
2. Dynamics is the study of motion taking mass and forces into consideration. Kinematics and
dynamics come in two subgroups:
1. Inverse is the study of motion knowing the starting and ending points.
2. Forward is the study of motion solely given the starting point.
Frames:
A frame is a single image in a sequence of pictures. A frame contains the image to be displayed at
a unique time in the animation. In general, one second of a video is comprised of 24 or 30 frames
per second also known as FPS. The frame is a combination of the image and the time of the image
when exposed to the view. An extract of frames in a row makes the animation.
Frames per Second:
There are two standard television images: 30 frames per second (National Television Standards
Committee) NTSC for the United States and 25 frames per second (Phase Alternate Line) PAL for
Europe. An animated film with 25 frames per second is played on television at 24 frames per
second would result in a black bar rolling up the screen. Then Digital Converts are to be used to
transfer one speed of the film to another speed of the video.
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The most important thing to find out when animating something is what speed the animation will
be played back at.
Sl. No. System Frames Per Second
1 PAL (Australia, Middle East, Africa) 25
2 NTSC(America, West Indies, Specific Rim Countries) 30
Size and Scale:
Size: Size is simply how small or big an element is in relation to other objects within a design.
Generally, we use size to make a particular element stand out or to give it importance. However,
size becomes a much more powerful design tool when it is considered alongside the scale.
Scaling Properties:
Larger or heavier objects move slower while lighter or smaller objects move faster. When
designing characters, you can run into different situations having to do with size and scale, such
as:
1. Human or animal-based characters that are much larger than we see in our everyday experience.
Superheroes, Greek gods and monsters.
2. Human or animal-based characters that are much smaller than we are accustomed to, such as
fairies and elves.
3. Characters that need to be noticeably larger, smaller, older, heavier, lighter, or more energetic
than other characters.
4. Characters that are child versions of older characters.
Proportion and Scale: creating a larger or smaller character is not just a matter of scaling
everything about the character uniformly.
Example: When you scale a cube, its volume changes much more dramatically than its surface
area. Let us say each edge of the cube is 1 unit in length. The area of one side of the cube is 1
square unit, and the volume of the cube is 1 cubed unit. If you double the size of the cube along
each dimension, its height increases by 2 times, the surface area increases by 4 times and its volume
increases by 8 times.
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Weight and Strength:
Weight: Two objects can appear to be different weights by manipulating their timing. For example,
if you were to hit a croquet ball and a balloon with a mallet, the result would be two different
actions. The croquet ball would require more force to place it into motion, would go farther, and
need more force to stop it. On the other hand, the balloon would require far less force to send it
flying, and because of its low mass and weight, it wouldn't travel as far, and would require less
force to stop it.
Strength: Strength is the maximum force a muscle or group of muscles can apply against a
resistance in a push, pull or lift motion. Body weight is proportional to volume. The abilities of
your muscles and bones, however, increase by area because their abilities depend more on the
cross-sectional area than volume. To increase a muscle or bone’s strength, you need to increase its
cross-sectional area.
Motion and Timing in Animations
Introduction to Motion:
Motion is an essential component in games and animations. The motion is governed by the
newton’s laws and kinematic equations. When animating a scene, there are several types of motion
to consider. These are the most common types of motion:
1. Linear motion.
2. Parabolic motion.
3. Circular motion.
4. Wave motion.
Motion and timing go hand in hand in animation. Motion Lines and Paths Individual drawings or
poses have a line of action, which indicates the visual flow of action at that single image. Motion
has a path of action, which indicates the path along which the object or character moves. The path
of action refers to the object’s motion in space. While it can help show timing, its primary function
is to see the direction and path of the motion, and not necessarily its timing.
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Timing: The timing is the choice of when something should be done; the regulation of occurrence
and pace to achieve a desired effect. Animators have the ability to move forward and backward in
time to place objects when and where they are to be.
Timing Tools: In animation, timing of action consists of placing objects or characters in particular
locations at specific frames to give the illusion of motion. Animators work with very small
intervals of time; most motion sequences can be measured in seconds or fractions of seconds.
Frame intervals between keys are usually smaller than one second
Linear Motion Timing: Linear motion refers to motion in a straight line, always in the same
direction. An object moving with linear motion might speed up or slow down as it follows a linear
path. A heavy ball rolling on a table or incline is an example of linear motion. The all is rotating,
but its center of gravity follows a linear path. A heavy ball rolling on a table or incline is an example
of linear motion. The ball is rotating, but its center of gravity follows a linear path.
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Uniform Motion Timing:
Line of Action Path of Action When uniform motion occurs, the net force on the object is zero.
Net force is the total of all forces added up. There might be several forces acting on the object, but
when both the magnitude and direction of the forces are added up, they add up to zero. Uniform
motion is the easiest to animate because the distance the object travels between frames is always
the same. Uniform motion is a type of linear motion with constant speed and no acceleration or
deceleration. The object moves the same distance between consecutive frames. The longer the
distance between frames, the higher the speed.
Slow in and slow out:
When motion is accelerating or decelerating, we refer to this type of motion as a slow in or slow
out. This type of motion is sometimes called ease in or ease out. In this book, we use the
hyphenated forms slow-in and slow-out for easier understanding.
1. Slow in, ease in—The object is slowing down, often in preparation for stopping.
2. Slow out, ease out—The object is speeding up, often from a still position.
The term slow out can be confusing, since it essentially means “speed up.” one can think of slow
out as the same as ease out, as in easing out of a still position and speeding up to full speed.
For example, a ball rolling down an incline or dropping straight down is slowing out, as it goes
from a still position or slow speed to a fast speed. A ball rolling up an incline is slowing in.
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Acceleration Timing: Timing for acceleration can be calculated very accurately when the net force
being exerted is constant. Let’s take a look at the forces and how they can be used to calculate the
animation’s timing.
Constant Force: A constant force is a force that doesn’t vary over time.Examples of constant forces
include:
1. Gravity pulling an object to the ground
2. Friction bringing an object to a stop
Constant force and Acceleration: Constant forces result in constant acceleration. Because the
acceleration is constant, we can figure out the timing for such sequences using a few principles of
physics. The resulting acceleration depends on the direction of the force and motion, if there is any
motion at all to begin with.
1. When constant net force is applied to an unmoving object, the result is acceleration.
2. When constant net force is applied to a moving object in the same direction as the motion, the
result is acceleration.
3. When constant net force is applied in the direction opposite the existing motion, the result is
deceleration (acceleration in the opposite direction).
Forces exerted by Characters: Forces exerted by people’s bodies are rarely constant throughout an
entire motion. For the purposes of animation, however, one can break the character motion into
short time segments and consider each of these segments to be responding to constant net force.
This will make it easier for one to calculate the timing for each individual segment.
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As an example, let’s look at the push for a jump. The force a character exerts during the push is
somewhat constant and the timing is very short (less than half a second). In such a case the timing
for a constant force is an excellent starting point, and in most cases will do the job as is.
A character walking and pushing a rock is not exerting a constant force throughout the entire
sequence, but during each short part of the walk cycle the net force could be considered to be a
different constant value.
The Odd Rule:
When acceleration is constant, one can use the Odd Rule to time the frames. With this method,
one calculates the distance the object moves between frames using a simple pattern of odd
numbers. Between consecutive frames, the distance the object moves is a multiple of an odd
number. For acceleration, the distance between frames increases by multiples of 1, 3, 5, 7, etc.
The Odd Rule is a multiplying system based on the smallest distance traveled between two frames
in the sequence.
For a slow-out, this is the distance between the first two frames;
For a slow-in, it is the distance between the last two frames. This distance, the base distance, is
used in all Odd Rule calculations.
For deceleration, the multiples start at a higher odd number and decrease, for example, 7, 5, 3, 1
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Odd Rule Multipliers
The Odd Rule in its simplest form, as described above, is just one way to use it. For example, one
can instead calculate the distance from the first frame to the current frame and use these distances
to place the object on specific frames.
Calculating the distance for a large number of frames and a chart like this isn’t practical, one can
figure out the odd number multiplier for consecutive frames with this formula:
Odd number multiplier for consecutive frames = ((frame # – 1) * 2) – 1.
In the charts above, note that the distances in the last column are squared numbers: 4 = 22, 9 = 32,
16 = 42, and so on.
One of the benefits of the Odd Rule is one can calculate the total distance traveled from the start
point to the current frame with the following formula:
Multiplier for distance from first frame to current frame = (current frame # – 1) 2.
When setting the keys, one can use either the consecutive key multipliers or total distance
multipliers but need to choose the one that’s easiest to use for the animated sequence.
Odd Rule Scenarios: Here are a few different scenarios for calculating the distance an object travels
between keys in a slow-in or slow-out.
Base Distance known speeding up: If the object is speeding up, the first frame distance is the base
distance. If one knows the base distance, figuring out the distance the object travels at each frame
is pretty straightforward. Just multiply the base distance by 3, 5, 7, etc. to get the distances between
consecutive frames, or use squares to multiply the base distance to get the total distance traveled
on each frame.
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Base Distance Known Slowing down: Suppose one wants an object to slow down, and one knows
the distance between the last two frames before it stops. For slow-ins, the base distance is the
distance between the last two frames. The solution is to work backward, as if the object were
speeding up in the opposite direction. Working backward, multiply the base distance by 3, 5, 7,
etc. to get the distances between each previous frame in the sequence.
Total Distance and Number of Frames Known, Speeding Up: If one wants know the total distance
and the total number of frames, one can find the base distance with this formula:
Base distance = Total distance/(Last frame number – 1) 2.
Suppose there is a jump push (takeoff) with constant acceleration over 5 frames, and the total
distance traveled is 0.4m. Using the formula above, we find the base distance.
Base distance = 0.4m/(5 – 1) 2 = 0.4m/16 = 0.025m.
Using the base distance, one can calculate the distances between each frame. If one adds up the
distances traveled, one will find that they add up to exactly 0.4m.
First Key Distance Known Slowing down: Suppose one has a moving object that one wants to
slow down, and one has set the first frame of the slow-in to give an idea of the pacing for the
sequence. In this case, one can consider that the distance the object moved between the last two
frames before the slow-in is part of the calculation— the distance between them becomes the first
frame distance, and the first slow-in frame becomes the second frame in the sequence.
One feature of the Odd Rule is that the base distance is always half the difference between any
two adjacent distances.
To find the base distance, one can simply calculate: (0.5m – 0.35m)/2 = 0.07m To figure out how
many frames are in the slow-in, divide the first distance by the base distance to find out which odd
number it corresponds to. 0.5/0.07 = 7.
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This means the first distance corresponds to 7 in the 7, 5, 3, 1 sequence, making the sequence four
frames long.
Now it can work back the other way, multiplying the base distance by odd numbers to get the
distances for the rest of the slow-in frames.
Motion Graphs:
A motion graph plots an object’s position against time. If one is using animation software,
understanding and using motion graphs is a key skill in animating anything beyond the simplest
of motions. If one is drawing the animation, drawing motion graphs before animating can help one
to visualize the motion. On a motion graph, the time goes from left to right across the bottom of
the graph, while the object’s position is plotted vertically against the time. Each axis in 3D space
(X, Y, Z) has its own line showing the object’s position along that axis. At the very least, one will
need to understand the types of lines in a motion graph and what they represent in terms of visible
motion. one can also look at motion graphs to get a better understanding of any difficulties one is
having with the timing or action.
Examples of Character Animation Jumping and Walking:
Jumping: A jump is an action where the character’s entire body is in the air, and both the
character’s feet leave the ground at roughly the same time. A jump action includes a takeoff, free
movement through the air, and a landing.
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Parts of Jump A jump can be divided into several distinct parts:
∙ Crouch - A squatting pose taken as preparation for jumping.
∙ Takeoff-Character pushes up fast and straightens legs with feet still on the ground. The distance
from the character’s center of gravity (CG) in the crouch to the CG when the character’s feet are
just about to leave the ground is called the push height. The amount of time (or number of frames)
needed for the push is called the push time.
∙ In the air-Both the character’s feet are off the ground, and the character’s center of gravity (CG)
moves in a parabolic arc as any free-falling body would. First it reaches an apex, and then falls
back to the ground at the same rate at which it rose. The height to which the character jumps, called
the jump height, is measured from the CG at takeoff to the CG at the apex of the jump. The amount
of time the character is in the air from takeoff to apex is called the jump time. If the takeoff pose
and the landing pose are similar, then the jump height and jump time are about the same going up
as they are going down.
∙ Landing-Character touches the ground and bends knees to return to a crouch. The distance from
the character’s CG when her feet hit to the ground to the point where the character stops crouching
is called the stop height. The stop height is not always exactly the same as the push height.
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Calculating Jump Actions:
When working out the timing for a jump, one will need to first decide on:
1. Jump height or jump time
2. Push height
3. Stop height
4. Horizontal distance the character will travel during the jump, from these factors, one can
calculate the timing for the jump sequence.
Calculating Jump Timing: When planning the jump animation, the most likely scenario is that you
know the jump height, expressed in the units you are using for the animation (e.g., inch or cm).
Placement and timing for frames while the character is in the air follow the same rules as any
object thrown into the air against gravity. Using the tables in the Gravity chapter (or an online
calculator), one can figure out the jump time for each frame. Look up the amount of time it takes
an object to fall that distance due to gravity, and express the jump time in frames based on the FPS
one is using.
Example:
Jump height = 1.2m
Jump time for 1.2m = 0. 5 seconds
Jump time at 30fps = 0. 5 * 30 = 15 frames
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Jump Magnification : When calculating the remainder of the timing for the entire jump action, you
can use a factor called jump magnification (JM).
The JM can be used to calculate the push timing and stop timing. The JM is the ratio of the jump
height to the push height.
JM= Jump Height /Push Height
Since you already know the jump height and push height, you can calculate the JM.
Then you can use the JM to calculate other aspects of the jump.
Example: Jump Height = 1m
Push Height = 0.33m
JM = Jump Height/Push Height = 3
Jump Magnification and Acceleration : Jump Magnification is in fact an exact ratio that tells one
how much the character has to accelerate against gravity to get into the air. The JM, besides being
the ratio of jump-to-push vertical height and time, is also the ratio of push-to-jump vertical
acceleration.
Opposite the other ratios: while a longer jump time means a shorter push time, a higher jump
acceleration means a much, much higher push acceleration. Knowing about this can help you make
more informed decisions about your push timing.
To see how this works, let’s look at the formula for JM and relate it to acceleration: JM = Jump
Time / Push Time =
JM = Jump Height / Push Height
JM = Push Acceleration /Jump Acceleration.
The magnitude of jump acceleration is always equal to gravitational acceleration, with deceleration
as the character rises and acceleration as it falls.
JM = Push Acceleration /Jump Acceleration
JM = Push Acceleration /Gravitational Acceleration
Your landing speed is the same as the velocity of any falling object, which you can easily calculate
from the free fall time. Since acceleration due to gravity is 10 m/sec2, this means that after one
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second a falling object is traveling at 10m/sec, after two seconds at 20m/sec, after three seconds at
30m/sec, and so on.
Since takeoff speed is the same as landing speed, you need to get up to that same speed when
taking off for a jump. If your landing speed is 10m/sec, then during your takeoff you need to get
up to a speed of 10m/sec in that little bit of push time.
The general formula for calculating the velocity of an accelerating object is: Velocity =
Acceleration * Time
Physics shorthand: v = at
Let’s relate this back to our jump. If the landing velocity is the same as the push velocity, we
know that: v = Jump Acceleration * Jump Time
Therefore Jump Acceleration * Jump Time = Push Acceleration * Push Time.
Moving things around with a bit of algebra, we arrive at this equation:
Jump Time/Push Time = Push Acceleration/Jump Acceleration (Gravity).
Look, it’s the JM and it is equal to the ratio of the push acceleration to gravity. Increase your jump
time and the push acceleration goes up. Decrease your push time and the push acceleration goes
up.
Distance (or in this case, jump or push height) is also related to velocity:
Distance = Average Velocity * Time,
Physics shorthand: d = vt With some algebra, we make this into yet another formula for the
average velocity: v = d/t. Because the average velocity is the same for both the push and jump, we
can say that d/t is the same for both jump and push: Jump Height/Jump Time = Push Height/Push
Time and with a little more algebra: Jump Height /Push Time = Push Height/ Push Time.
The JM also gives you the ratio of the jump time to the push time.
JM = Jump Time/Push Time.
Working a little algebra, we can express the equation in a way that directly calculates the push
time: Push Time = Jump Time/JM
Example: JM = 3
Jump Time: 15 frames
Push Time = 15/3 = 5 frames
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Landing : The forces on landing are similar to takeoff. If the landing has faster timing, the forces
will be larger than for a longer timing.
Stop Time: The stop height is often a bit larger than the push height, but the timing of the push
and stop are the same in the sense that the CG moves the same distance per frame in the push and
stop. If the stop height is larger than the push height, you’ll just need more frames for the stop than
the push.
Push Height/Push Frames = Stop Height/Stop Frames.
This can also be expressed as:
Push Height/Push Time = Stop Distance/Stop Time.
You can also flip everything over and express it as:
Push Time/Push Height = Stop Time/Stop Distance
Using algebra, we can get the following equation for stop time:
Stop Time = (Push Time * Stop Distance)/Push Height
Example: Push Time: 5 frames
Push Height: 0.4m
Stop Height: 0.5m
Stop Time = (5 * 0.5) / 0.4 = 6 frames
Strides and Steps
A step is one step with one foot. A stride is two steps, one with each foot. Stride length is the
distance the character travels in a stride, measured from the same part of the foot. Step and stride
length indicate lengthwise spacing for the feet during a walk. Gait is the timing of the motion for
each foot, including how long each foot is on the ground or in the air. During a walk, the number
of feet the character has on the ground changes from one foot (single support) to two feet (double
support) and then back to one foot. You can plot the time each foot is on the ground to see the
single and double support times over time. A normal walking gait ranges from 1/ 3 to 2/3 of a
second per step, with 1/2 second being average.
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Walk Timing : Walking is sometimes called “controlled falling.” Right after you move past the
passing position, your body’s center of gravity is no longer over your base of support, and you
begin to tip. Your passing leg moves forward to stop the fall, creating your next step. Then the
cycle begins again. The horizontal timing for between the four walk poses is not uniform. The CG
slows in going from the contact to passing position, then slows out from passing to contact. The
CG also rises and falls, rising to the highest position during passing and the lowest during contact.
The head is in the highest position during passing.
Statistical Physics for Computing
Statistical physics is a branch of physics that evolved from a foundation of statistical
mechanics, which uses methods of probability theory and statistics, particularly the
mathematical tools for dealing with large populations and approximations, in solving physical
problems.
Descriptive statistics: The term “descriptive statistics” refers to summarizing and
organizing the characteristics of a data set. A data set is a collection of responses or
observations from a sample or entire population.
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In quantitative research, after collecting data, the first step of statistical analysis is to describe
characteristics of the responses, such as the average of one variable (e.g., age), or the relation
between two variables (e.g., age and creativity). Descriptive statistics comprises three main
categories – Frequency Distribution, Measures of Central Tendency and Measures of variability.
Inferential Statistics is a method that allows us to use information collected from a sample to
make decisions, predictions, or inferences from a population. The major inferential statistics are
based on statistical models such as Analysis of Variance, chi-square test, student’s t distribution,
regression analysis, etc.
Methods of inferential statistics:
Estimation of parameters t esting of hypothesis
Variable: A variable is any property, characteristic, number, or quantity that increases or decreases
over time or can take on different values in different situations. Variables in a programming
language are names given to computer memory locations in order to store data in a program. This
data can be known or unknown based on the assignment of value to the variables.
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Discrete Variable: A discrete variable is a mathematical term used to describe variable that can
only take on a finite number of values.
Examples
⮚ The number of accidents in the twelve months.
⮚ The number of mobile cards sold in a store within seven days.
⮚ The number of patients admitted to a hospital over a specified period.
Continuous Variable: A continuous variable may take on an infinite number of intermediate values
along a specified interval.
Examples:
⮚ The sugar level in the human body
⮚ Blood pressure reading
⮚ Temperature
⮚ Height or weight of the human body
⮚ Rate of bank interest
Poisson Distribution:
A Poisson distribution is a discrete probability distribution. It gives the probability of an event
happening a certain number of times (k) within a given interval of time or space.
A Poisson distribution measures how many times an event is likely to occur within an “x” period
of time.
Probability mass function: A Poisson distribution is a discrete probability distribution, meaning
that it gives the probability of a discrete (i.e., countable) outcome.
For Poisson distributions, the discrete outcome is the number of times an event occurs, represented
by k. The Poisson distribution has only one parameter, λ (lambda), which is the mean number of
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events. A discrete random variable X is said to have a Poisson distribution, with parameter, if it
has a probability, Mass Function is given by
𝜆𝐾 𝑒 −𝜆
𝑓(𝑘: 𝜆) =
𝑘!
Where k - is the number of occurrences,
e - is Euler’s Number,
! - Is the factorial function.
The positive real number λ is equal to the expected value of X and also to its Variance
Example of probability for Poisson distributions
On a particular river, overflow floods occur once every 100 years on average. Calculate the
probability of k = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6 overflow floods in a 100-year interval, assuming the Poisson
model is appropriate. Because the average event rate is one overflow flood per 100 years, λ =1
𝜆𝐾 𝑒 −𝜆
𝑓(𝑘: 𝜆) =
𝑘!
𝜆𝐾 𝑒 −𝜆 1𝑘 𝑒 −1
𝑃 (𝐾 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑑𝑠 𝑖𝑛 100 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠) = =
𝐾! 𝐾!
𝜆𝐾 𝑒 −𝜆 10 𝑒 −1 𝑒 −1
𝑃 (𝐾 = 0 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑑𝑠 𝑖𝑛 100 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠) = = = = 0.368
𝐾! 0! 1
𝜆𝐾 𝑒 −𝜆 11 𝑒 −1 𝑒 −1
𝑃 (𝐾 = 1 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑑𝑠 𝑖𝑛 100 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠) = = = = 0.368
𝐾! 1! 1
𝜆𝐾 𝑒 −𝜆 12 𝑒 −1 𝑒 −1
𝑃 (𝐾 = 2 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑑𝑠 𝑖𝑛 100 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠) = = = = 0.184
𝐾! 2! 2
Proton Decay:
Proton decay is a rare type of radioactive decay of nuclei containing excess protons, in which a
proton is simply ejected from the nucleus. The mechanism of the decay process is very similar to
alpha decay. Proton decay is also a quantum tunneling process.
Modeling the Probability for Proton Decay- the probability of observing a proton decay can be
estimated from the nature of particle decay and the application of Poisson Statistics. The number
of protons N can be modeled by the decay equation
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𝑁 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆 𝑡
Where: N0: is the initial quantity of the element
λ : is the radioactive decay constant t: is time
N (t): is the quantity of the element remaining after time t.
Here 𝜆 = 1/𝑡 = 10−33/ 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 is the probability that any given proton will decay in a year.
Since the decay constant λ is so small, the exponential can be represented by the first two terms of
the exponential series
𝑥2 𝑥3
𝑒𝑥 = 1 − 𝑥 + + + ⋯……..∞
2! 3!
Similarly 𝑒 −𝜆 𝑡 = 1 − 𝜆 𝑡
𝑁 = 𝑁0 (1 − 𝜆 𝑡 )
Most recently the experiment on proton decay has been done by Super Kamiokande, Japan which
started observation in 1996. It is a large water Cherenkov detector which is the most sensitive
detector in the world used to examine proton decay with the huge source with 7.5×1033 protons
For one year of observation, the number of expected proton decays is then
𝑁0 − 𝑁 = 𝑁0 𝜆 𝑡
𝑁0 − 𝑁 = 7.5 × 1033 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠 × (10−33 /𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟) × 1𝑌𝑒𝑎𝑟 = 7.5
Proton decay has not been detected experimentally till now probably because of fact that the event
is extremely rare.
Assuming that λ = 3 observed decays per year is mean, then the Poisson distribution function tells
us that the probability for zero observations of decay is
𝜆𝐾 𝑒 −𝜆 30 𝑒 −3
𝑃(𝐾) = = = 0.05
𝑘! 0!
This low probability for a null result suggests that the proposed lifetime of 1033 years is too short.
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Normal Distribution and Bell Curve:
A bell curve is a common type of distribution for a variable, also known as the normal distribution.
The term "bell curve" originates from the fact that the graph used to depict a Normal Distribution
consists of a symmetrical bell-shaped curve.
The highest point on the curve, or the top of the bell, represents the most probable event in a series
of data (its Mean, Mode and Median in this case), while all other possible occurrences are
symmetrically distributed around the mean, creating a downward-sloping curve on each side of
the peak. The width of the bell curve is described by its Standard Deviation.
The term "bell curve" is used to describe a graphical depiction of a normal probability distribution,
whose underlying standard deviations from the mean create the curved bell shape. A standard
deviation is a measurement used to quantify the variability of data dispersion, in a set of given
values around the mean. The mean, in turn, refers to the average of all data points in the data set
or sequence and will be found at the highest point on the bell curve
Standard Deviations:
The Standard Deviation is a measure of how spread out numbers are. 68% of values are within 1
standard deviation of the mean. 95% of values are within 2 standard deviations of the mean. 99.7%
of values are within 3 standard deviations of the mean
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Monte-Carlo Method:
Monte Carlo Simulation, also known as the Monte Carlo Method or a multiple probability
simulation, is a mathematical technique, which is used to estimate the possible outcomes of an
uncertain event. The Monte Carlo Method was invented by John von Neumann and Stanislaw
Ulam during World War II to improve decision-making under uncertain conditions. It was named
after a well-known casino town, called Monaco. The statistical method of understanding complex
physical or mathematical systems by using randomly generated numbers as input into those
systems to generate a range of solutions.
How to use Monte Carlo methods
1. Set up the predictive model, identifying both the dependent variable to be predicted and the
independent variables that will drive the prediction.
2. Specify probability distributions of the independent variables.
3. Run simulations repeatedly, generating random values of the independent variables. Do this
until enough results are gathered to make up a representative sample of the nearly infinite number
of possible combinations.
Estimation of Pi (𝜋):
The idea is to simulate random (x, y) points in a 2-D plane with the domain as a square of side 2r
units centered on (0,0). Imagine a circle inside the same domain with the same radius r and
inscribed into the square. We then calculate the ratio of the number of points that lay inside the
circle and the total number of generated points. Refer to the image below:
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We know that the area of the circle πr2, while that of square 4r2. The ratio of these two areas is as
follows:
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝜋 𝑟2 𝜋
= =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 4 𝑟2 4
𝑛𝑜𝑤 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑖𝑠
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝜋
=
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 4
𝜋
4 𝑋 = 𝜋
4
Thus, the title is “Estimating the value of Pi” and not “Calculating the value of Pi”. Below is the
algorithm for the method:
The Algorithm
1. Initialize circle points, square points and interval to 0.
2. Generate random point x.
3. Generate random point y.
4. Calculate d = x*x + y*y.
5. If d <= 1, increment circle points.
6. Increment square points.
7. Increment interval.
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8. If increment < NO-OF-ITERATIONS, repeat from 2.
9. Calculate pi = 4*(circle points/square points).
OR
Monte-Carlo Method:
Monte Carlo methods vary, but tend to follow a particular pattern:
1. Define a domain of possible inputs
2. Generate inputs randomly from a probability distribution over the domain
3. Perform a deterministic computation on the inputs
4. Aggregate the results
Monte Carlo method applied to approximating the value of π.
For example, consider a quadrant inscribed in a unit square.
Given that the ratio of their areas is π/ 4, the value of π can be approximated using a Monte Carlo
method:
1. Draw a square, then Inscribe a quadrant within it
2. Uniformly scatter a given number of points over the square
3. Count the number of points inside the quadrant, i.e. having a distance from the origin of < 1
4. The ratio of the inside-count and the total-sample-count is an estimate of the ratio of the two
areas, π/ 4. Multiply the result by 4 to estimate π.
In this procedure the domain of inputs is the square that circumscribes the quadrant. We generate
random inputs by scattering grains over the square then perform a computation on each input (test
whether it falls within the quadrant). Aggregating the results yields our final result, the
approximation of π.
There are two important considerations:
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1. If the points are not uniformly distributed, then the approximation will be poor.
2. There are many points. The approximation is generally poor if only a few points are randomly
placed in the whole square.
On average, the approximation improves as more points are placed. Uses of Monte Carlo methods
require large amounts of random numbers, and their use benefited greatly from Pseudo random
number generators, which were far quicker to use than the tables of random numbers that had been
previously used for statistical sampling.
*****************************
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MODULE-5
APPLICATIONS OF PHYSICS IN COMPUTING
1. Elucidate the importance of size & scale and weight & strength in animations.
2. Discuss timing in linear motion, uniform motion, slow in and slow out.
3. Illustrate the odd rule and odd rule multipliers with a suitable example.
4. Describe the calculation of Push time and Stop time with examples
5. Sketch & explain the motion graphs for linear, easy in and easy out cases of animation.
6. Describe jumping and parts of jump.
7. Distinguish between Descriptive and Inferential Statistics.
8. Discuss modelling the probability for proton decay.
9. Discuss the salient features of Normal distribution using bell curves.
10. Mention the general pattern of Monte Carlo method and hence determine the value of π.
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