HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE?

Why do organisms Reproduce?

Reproduction sustains the species so that it does not become extinct.
Sexual Reproduction helps in mixing of genes creating variations. This is necessary for the organisms to
adapt to the environment.
Do organisms create exact copies of themselves?
Reproduction at its most basic level involves making copies of the blueprints of body design.
The chromosomes in the nucleus of a cell contain information for the inheritance of features from parents to
the next generation in the form of DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) molecules.
The DNA in the cell nucleus is the information source for making proteins. If the information is changed,
different proteins will be made. Different proteins will eventually lead to altered body designs.
The cells use chemical reactions to build copies of their DNA. This creates two copies of the DNA in a
reproducing cell, and they will need to be separated from each other.
To ensure that, a cell divides itself into two cells, each cell containing its own DNA and cellular apparatus.
Though both these cells will be identical, copying of the DNA will not be 100% identical.
There might be some variations in the chemical reaction which means organisms cannot create exact copies
of themselves.
• Reproduction:
The ability to produce a new organism is known as reproduction. There are two types of
reproduction-asexual reproduction and sexual reproduction.
The Importance of Variation:
• Populations of organisms occupy well-defined places, niches (positions / the functional role played
by an organism in an ecosystem) by using their ability to reproduce.
• The DNA that is inherited from these organisms to their offspring will be consistent as it is needed
for the maintenance of their body’s adaptation which is required to allow the organism to live in that
particular environment.
• Reproduction is therefore linked to the stability of populations of species.
• These niches however, change due to various reasons such as drastic change in climate, temperature
changes, getting hit by a meteor or a sudden natural disaster.
• It is due to these that the variations are created to suit the environment they live in.
Example: If there were a population of bacteria living in temperate waters, and if the water temperature were
to be increased by global warming, most of these bacteria would die, but the few variants resistant to heat
would survive and grow further. Variation is thus useful for the survival of species over time.
● What is the importance of DNA copying in reproduction?
● It ensures that each daughter cell produced at the end of cell division receives an identical amount of
DNA.
● It causes evolution by generating variety during sexual reproduction.
 ● It aids the transmission of information or traits from parents to children.
● Why is variation beneficial to the species but not necessarily for the individual?
● Variations can be defined as the variations in DNA sequences.
● It makes one organism different from the other organism. Variations are essential for natural
selection.
● Variations in a species of an organism helps to adapt in the environment, it also prevents the
extinction of a species.
● Variations are beneficial to the species than individual because sometime for a species, the
environmental conditions change so drastically that their survival becomes difficult.
● During that period, only few variants that are resistant would be able to survive. Thus, variants help
in survival of the species.
● What is Asexual Reproduction?
Asexual reproduction is a mode of reproduction in which a new offspring is produced by a single parent.
The bread mould grows profusely on a moist bread slice rather than on a dry bread slice because moisture is
an important factor for the growth of hyphae. Moistened bread slice offers both moisture and nutrients to the
bread mould, hence it grows profusely.
Fission
● Unicellular organisms divide or reproduce by the method called fission/binary fission.
● Fission is cell division.
● Many bacteria and protozoa simply split into two equal halves, the equal halves then develop into
new individual single celled organisms.
● In Amoeba, binary fission can occur in any plane.
● However, some unicellular organisms show somewhat more organisation of their bodies, such as is
seen in Leishmania (which cause kala-azar), which have a whip-like structure at one end of the cell.
● In Leishmania, binary fission occurs in a definite orientation. Nuclear division is followed by the
appearance of a constriction in the cell membrane. The membrane grows transversely inwards from
the middle of the dividing cell.
● Other single-celled organisms, such as the malarial parasite, Plasmodium, divide into many daughter
cells simultaneously by multiple fission.
 Fission in Leishmania

● Yeast, on the other hand, can put out small buds that separate and grow further.
Fragmentation is another mode of asexual reproduction in which an organism breaks into pieces and each
piece gives rise to a new organism. For example, Spirogyra, Planaria.
REGENERATION:
Some organisms, when cut into many pieces, grow their parts into new individuals from those pieces.
For example, simple animals like Hydra and Planaria can be cut into any number of pieces and each piece
grows into a complete organism.
This is known as regeneration.
Regeneration is carried out by specialised cells called pluripotent stem cells. These cells proliferate and
make large numbers of cells. From this mass of cells, different cells undergo changes to become various cell
types and tissues. These changes take place in an organised sequence referred to as development.
Regeneration is not the same as reproduction, as depending on being cut up is not considered an ideal
condition for reproduction.

BUDDING:
● Organisms such as Hydra use regenerative cells for reproduction in the process of budding.
 ● In Hydra, a bud develops as an outgrowth due to repeated cell division at one specific site
● These buds develop into tiny individuals and when fully mature, detach from the parent body and
become new independent individuals.

VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION:
In some plants, parts such as roots, stem and leaves can develop into new plants under appropriate
conditions.
This kind of reproduction is called Vegetative propagation.
Grafting is an artificial vegetative reproduction method in which the stem part(scion) of one plant is fixed on
another plant having roots(stock). Apple and mango are two plants grown through grafting.
It helps in preservation of characters of the plants through successive generation (all plants produced are
genetically similar enough to the parent plant to have all its characteristics)
Seedless plants can be grown through vegetative reproduction. Through cutting and grafting methods,
flowers and fruits can be grown in a shorter time.
It is cheaper, easier and more rapid method of plant propagation.
Similarly buds produced in the notches along the leaf margin of Bryophyllum fall on the soil and develop
into new plants .
SPORE FORMATION:
Rhizopus is a genus of common saprophytic fungi.
Rhizopus reproduces by spore formation which is a type of asexual reproduction.
The body of the fungus is composed of hyphae which develop the sporangium. The sporangium is a tiny
blob-on-a stick-like structures which are involved in reproduction.
The blobs contain spores which are covered by thick walls that protect them until they come in contact with
moist surface and can begin to grow.

What is sexual reproduction?

The production of new living organisms by combining genetic information from two individuals of different
types (sexes). In most higher organisms, one sex (male) produces a small motile gamete which travels to
fuse with a larger stationary gamete produced by the other (female).
Significance of Sexual Reproduction
● When two new cells are formed from one cell, the DNA, cellular apparatus has to be copied.
● However, the copying of the DNA is not always accurate.
● These lead to variations, and the individual organism cannot be protected by variation, but they are
useful for a population as the variation could help them adapt to adversities.
● New combinations or varients are formed from two different individuals in sexual reproduction.
● Sexual reproduction is the source of variation.
● Sexual reproduction involves the mating of germ cells also known as gametes.
● These gametes are haploid, that is, they have a half set of chromosomes.
● These gametes are formed through the process of meiosis.
● When male gametes and female gametes each with a haploid set of chromosomes combine they will
form a diploid zygote.
● Zygotes undergo repeated divisions to form a new organism.
● In humans, the male gamete is small and motile whereas the female gamete is large and non-motile.
Angiosperms, or flowering seed plants, form seeds in ovaries. As the seeds develop, the ovaries may
develop into fruits. Flowers attract pollinators, and fruits encourage animals to disperse the seeds.
Parts of a Flower
A flower consists of male and female reproductive structuresy include the stamen, pistil, petals, and sepals.
The stamen is the male reproductive structure of a flower. It consists of a stalk-like filament that ends in
an anther. The anther contains pollen sacs, in which meiosis occurs and pollen grains form that are yellowish
in colour. You must have seen this yellowish powder that often sticks to our hands if we touch the stamen of
a flower. The filament raises the anther up high so its pollen will be more likely to blow in the wind or be
picked up by an animal pollinator.

The pistil, or carpel are the female reproductive structures of a flower. It consists of a stigma, style,
and ovary. The stigma is raised and sticky to help it catch pollen. The style is the elongated part of te pistil
and supports the stigma and connects it to the ovary, which contains the egg. A carpel contains a single
ovary. If a flower has multiple ovaries it will have multiple carpels, which may be seen as several separate
pistils or a fused, compound pistil.
Petals / corolla : attract pollinators to the flower. Petals are often brightly colored so pollinators will notice
them.
Sepals / calyx : protect the developing flower while it is still a bud. Sepals are usually green, which
camouflages the bud from possible consumers.
In order to produce a seed which is necessary for the reproduction of plants, fertilization between the male
gamete which is germ cell in the pollen grand and the female gamete which is the egg cell in the ovule of the
ovary needs to take place. This is achieved by pollination.
What is pollination?
the transfer of pollen to a stigma, ovule, flower, or plant to allow fertilization.
TYPES OF POLLINATION:
SELF POLLINATION
The pollination of a flower by pollen from the same flower or from another flower on the same plant.
CROSS POLLINATION:
pollination of a flower or plant with pollen from another flower or plant.

Gametogenesis
● The formation of gametes is known as gametogenesis.
● The male gamete is pollen grains whereas the female gamete is present inside the ovary.
● The ovary contains an ovule.
● Ovule contains the female gametophyte.
● Ovule also consists of outer layers known as integuments, nucellus and female gametophyte.
● Male and female gametes are produced and they are haploid in nature.
● There are two types of gametes- homogametes and heterogametes. When male and female gametes
cannot be differentiated morphologically. They are known as homogametes.
● For example, gametes in Cladophora, Algae. When male and female gametes can be differentiated
morphologically, they are known as heterogametes.
Post Fertilisation Events:
● The most important post-fertilization structure is the embryo and seeds.
● Zygote forms the embryo. Zygote first forms a pro-embryo which later converts into a mature
embryo.
● Seeds are the result of sexual reproduction.
● Ovules mature into seeds whereas the ovary develops into fruits.
Double Fertilisation
● In flowering plants, one sperm fertilises the egg cell, whereas the other sperm fuses with the two
polar nuclei forming the endosperm. This is known as double fertilisation as two fertilisation events are
taking place.
● The zygote divides to form 7 celled and 8 nucleated embryo sacs. Out of these 7 cells and 8 nuclei,
there are two synergids with egg cells, 3 antipodals and two polar nuclei.
● Two polar nuclei fuse with one sperm and the other sperm fuse with the egg cell to form the zygote.

REPRODUCTION IN HUMAN BEINGS:

• Humans undergo many changes from the infant stage to the old age.
• Changes like increase in height, intellect, milk teeth being replaced by permanent teeth etc.
• When we reach teenage stage, we reach puberty.
• Puberty is the period during which adolescents reach sexual maturity and become capable of
reproduction.
• Puberty in females usually begins between the ages of 8 and 13 and lasts for several years. It is the
time where your body develops and matures. Puberty prepares your body so one day you will be able
to have a baby. The changes are caused by natural substances in your body called hormones.
• Puberty in males include development of reproductive organs, hair grows in the pubic area and
armpits. Muscles grow, the voice deepens, and facial hair develops as puberty continues.
• Why do people get pimples/acne during puberty?
Acne is caused by overactive oil glands in the skin and a buildup of oil, dead skin cells, and bacteria, which
leads to inflammation (swelling and redness) in the pores. Oil glands get stimulated when hormones become
active during puberty. That's why people are likely to get acne in their teens.
 • All of these changes take place slowly, over a period of months and years. They do not happen all at
the same time in one person, nor do they happen at an exact age. In some people, they happen early
and quickly, while in others, they can happen slowly.
• Germ cell refers to the sex cells (eggs and sperm) that sexually reproducing organisms use to pass on
their genomes from one generation to the next (parents to offspring). Egg and sperm cells are called
germ cells, in contrast to the other cells of the body, which are called somatic cells.
• In cellular biology, a somatic cell (from Ancient Greek σῶμα (sôma) 'body'), or vegetal cell, is any
biological cell forming the body of a multicellular organism other than a gamete, germ cell.
• Humans are placental mammals. The development of the embryo takes place inside the mother’s
womb, the placenta which transports the nutrients and oxygen to the baby from the mother is present.
The mothers breast feed their offspring after delivery/parturition.
MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM:
• The male reproductive system comprises a pair of the testis, glands, accessory ducts, and male
genitalia.
• The testis is the site where male gametes or germ cells are produced.
• They are located outside the abdominal cavity in a sac-like structure known as the scrotum. This is to
maintain the lower temperature required for the formation of sperm.
• Testis produces the male hormone testosterone needed for the development of secondary sexual
characteristics in males such as the formation of beard and moustaches and also in the development
of sperm.
• Vas deferens is a duct that transports sperm to the urethra, which is a common passage for both urine
and sperm ejaculation.
• Prostate glands and seminal vesicles are also found in males to nourish and for easy transport of
sperm in the female genital tract.

• Cowper’s gland (which is also called bulbourethral gland) produces mucus-like fluid that neutralises
the acidity of the female vagina. All these secretions along with sperm form the semen.
• The formation of male gametes or sperm in testes is known as spermatogenesis.
• Sperms are haploid in nature. Seminiferous tubules are the site for spermatogenesis.
 • Testis produces a male hormone known as testosterone needed for the male secondary sexual
characteristics as well as for spermatogenesis.
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM:
• The female reproductive system consists of a pair of ovaries, uterus, cervix, vagina, and external
genitalia.
• Female eggs or ova are produced in the ovaries.
• The formation of ova in the ovaries is known as Oogenesis.
• The ovary produces female hormones such as oestrogen, progesterone.
• These hormones are needed for female sexual development as well as for pregnancy.
• The fallopian tube carries ova from the ovary to the womb.
• Two oviducts joined to form the uterus. Uterus then opens into Vagina via the cervix.
• Sperm enters into the female vagina at the time of coitus.
• Then the sperm reaches the fallopian tube where it fuses the ova to form a zygote. This is known as
fertilisation.
• Then the zygote divides to form an embryo.
• The embryo gets implanted into the uterus. The embryo development occurs in the uterus to form the
foetus.

• Mother supplies nutrition to the growing foetus via the placenta. The placenta helps in the exchange
of nutrients, gases and the removal of excretory products.
• The development of a child inside the womb of the mother takes place for about 9 months.
• Then the rhythmic uterine contraction leads to the delivery of the baby outside the female body.
• If the egg is not fertilised, it lives for about one day. Since the ovary releases one egg every month,
the uterus also prepares itself every month to receive a fertilised egg. Thus its lining becomes thick
and spongy. This would be required for nourishing the embryo if fertilisation had taken place. Now,
however, this lining is not needed any longer sincethe egg is not fertilised, the uterine lining is shed
off in the form of blood and mucous known as menstrual fluid from the vagina. This is known as
menstruation. It lasts for about 2 to 8 days.
Reproductive Health
● It is defined as the state of well-being in terms of safe sex, reproductive fitness as well as the absence
of any reproductive diseases.
● Unsafe sex leads to different diseases which are known as sexually transmitted diseases.
● Some of the sexually transmitted diseases are as follows-
❖ Gonorrhoea is caused by bacteria

❖ Syphilis is caused by bacteria

❖ AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome) is caused by a virus HIV(human immunodeficiency

virus)

In-vitro Fertilisation (IVF)

● IVF is an infertility treatment method. In this case, the egg is fertilised with sperm outside the female
body.
● Ovum is removed from the female body and is allowed to fertilise with sperm outside the body in
In-vitro conditions.
Birth Control Methods
For a country like India where the population is increasing continuously, there is a need for birth control
methods.
● Condoms and diaphragms are barrier methods for birth control. They prevent the binding of sperm to
the ovum.
● The chemical method of birth control includes oral pills and vaginal pills.
● Intrauterine contraceptive devices are also there to prevent the implantation of embryos in the uterus.
● Surgical methods include vasectomy in males and tubectomy in females. Vasectomy is done by
cutting the Vas deferens and then tying them up. Tubectomy involves cutting and tying a small
portion of oviducts.