Contents

Chapter 1: Organizing Concepts .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 4

1. What is a nation?......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4
2. What is national identity? ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4
3. What is a state? ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4
4. What is a nation-state? ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4
5. Distinguish nation-state from other forms of social organization such as tribe, city-state, empire, theocracy, etc. ............................................................. 4
Chapter 2: History ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5
The Victorian Era .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 5
When did the Victorian era start and end? Name three key features of the era. ........................................................................................................................ 5
American Civil War ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5
1. Name the major debate that motivated the American Civil War. ........................................................................................................................................ 5
2. During what years was the Civil War fought? ........................................................................................................................................................................ 5
3. What were the two opposing forces in the American Civil War? ......................................................................................................................................... 5
4. What was the name of the secessionist faction (phe phái chủ trương ly khai) of the Civil War? ....................................................................................... 5
5. Who was the President of the US at that time?..................................................................................................................................................................... 5
6. The Civil War resolved two matters that vexed Americans since 1776. What are they? ..................................................................................................... 5
World War I .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6
1. During what years was the war fought?................................................................................................................................................................................. 6
2. How did the UK enter World War I? ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 6
3. How did the US enter World War I? ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 6
4. Who was the US president during the war?........................................................................................................................................................................... 6
5. Did the US join the League of Nations? .................................................................................................................................................................................. 6
Roaring Twenties ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 6
1. What war ended right before the start of the Roaring Twenties? ........................................................................................................................................ 6

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 2. What is often said about the spirit of the Roaring Twenties? ............................................................................................................................................... 6
3. In the US, what style of music became popular during the Roaring Twenties? ................................................................................................................... 6
4. What event brought the Roaring Twenties to a grinding halt? ............................................................................................................................................. 6
World War II ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6
1. In what years was the war fought? ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 6
2. How did the UK enter World War II? ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 7
3. Who was the British Prime Minister during the war? ........................................................................................................................................................... 7
4. How did the US enter WWII? .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 7
5. What happened to the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki on August 6 and 9, 1945, respectively? ..................................................................... 7
6. Name the conference where the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) were
established....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 7
7. Name the conference where United Nations was formulated and negotiated among international leaders. ................................................................... 7
Chapter 3: National Beliefs and Values .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 8
1. What does the phrase “a city upon the hill” refer to? ............................................................................................................................................................... 8
2. What is the American Dream? .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 8
3. What is American exceptionalism? What are some examples of American exceptionalism? ................................................................................................. 8
Chapter 4: Political systems .................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 9
1. Describe the political systems of the UK & the US in terms of constitution, form of government, branches of government, political parties, and
election. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 9
2. What is a constitution? ............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 11
3. What is a constitutional monarchy? ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 11
4. What is a parliamentary democracy? ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 11
5. What is a representative democracy? ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 11
6. How are powers divided in American federalism? .................................................................................................................................................................. 11
7. What does ‘separation of powers’ refer to? ............................................................................................................................................................................ 11
8. What is a bill? ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 11
Chapter 5: Economic Systems ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 12
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 1. Name four or five economic activity sectors that are usually present in the descriptions of a nation’s economy. ............................................................. 12
2. What can be said about the shift in the growth pattern of economic sectors during the end of the 20th century in the UK and the US? ........................ 12
3. In the context of the UK, the decline of which sector is a major concern?............................................................................................................................. 12
4. Describe the current pattern of the mixed economy of public and private sectors in the UK. ............................................................................................. 13
5. Describe the situation of the budget deficit in the UK and the US. ........................................................................................................................................ 13
6. What does the devaluation of a country’s currency mean? .................................................................................................................................................... 14
7. When did the global financial crisis happen? What have been some of the symptoms/ consequences of the global financial crisis? .............................. 14
Chapter 6: Education systems ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 16
1. What is educationalization?...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 16
2. According to David Labaree (1997), what are the three goals of the American education system? Illustrate each goal with examples of educational
practices in the US. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 16
3. How did the 1944 Education Act Change the education system in England and Wales? ....................................................................................................... 16
4. Progressive education is a pedagogical movement that began in the late nineteenth century and has persisted in various forms to the present. What
was/were characteristic of progressive education? ........................................................................................................................................................................ 16
5. What is the significance of the Brown v. Board of Education case? ....................................................................................................................................... 17
6. In the US, what is affirmative action in education? ................................................................................................................................................................. 17
7. What are the features of No Child Left Behind? ...................................................................................................................................................................... 18

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Chapter 1: Organizing Concepts
1. What is a nation?
A nation is a country as a group of people with the same language, culture, and history, who live in a particular area under one government.
2. What is national identity?
National identity involves identification with representations of shared experiences and history as told through stories, literature, popular culture and the
media.
3. What is a state?
A state is a country when thought of as a large group of people living in a territory sharing the same politics. States may or may not be sovereign.
4. What is a nation-state?
A nation-state is a specific form of sovereign state (a political entity on a territory) that is guided by a nation (a cultural entity), and which derives its
legitimacy from successfully serving all its citizens. The nation-state implies that a state and a nation coincide.
5. Distinguish nation-state from other forms of social organization such as tribe, city-state, empire, theocracy, etc.

Nation-state Tribe City-state Empire Theocracy

A nation-state is sovereign state that A tribe is a group of A city-state is an independent Empire is an extensive A form of government in
is guided by a nation. It implies that a people that have city which has its own group of states/ which God or a deity is
state and a nation coincide, which common ancestry or a government, completely countries under a recognized as the supreme
means a state (a political entity) has common culture, and live separate from nearby single supreme civil ruler.
chosen to adopt a specific cultural in their own enclosed countries. authority.
group. society. (eg. Singapore)

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Chapter 2: History
The Victorian Era
When did the Victorian era start and end? Name three key features of the era.
The Victorian Era lasted 64 years, from 20 June 1837 until her death on 22 January 1901.
Three key features of the era:
• The UK was the biggest empire in the world after the end of the century.
• An enormous increase in wealth
• A change in attitude towards colonization (the White man’s burden):
✓ Before: Colonization: economic and political meaning
✓ Now: cultural meaning: mother land is civilizing the colony
• Most people lived in town or cities
• Reform in political (more of a nation-state) and public life (human rights recognized in laws)
• A turn from industrial lifestyle to the countryside.

American Civil War

1. Name the major debate that motivated the American Civil War.
In 1820, southern and northern politicians debated the question of whether slavery would be legal in the western territories. The Union: against slavery.
The Confederate: support slavery.
2. During what years was the Civil War fought?
1861-1865
3. What were the two opposing forces in the American Civil War?
The Union and the Confederate
4. What was the name of the secessionist faction (phe phái chủ trương ly khai) of the Civil War?
The Confederate States of America
5. Who was the President of the US at that time?
Abraham Lincoln
6. The Civil War resolved two matters that vexed Americans since 1776. What are they?
• It put an end to slavery
• It decided that the country was not a collection of semi-independent states but an indivisible whole.

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World War I
1. During what years was the war fought?
1914-1918
2. How did the UK enter World War I?

Britain and Belgium had a treaty to support each other if they were attacked. In 1914, Germany attacked France by moving through Belgium. Britain told
Germany to retreat, but Germany didn't listen; therefore, Britain declared war on Germany.

3. How did the US enter World War I?

In 1914, World War I erupted in Europe; President Woodrow Wilson urged a policy of strict American neutrality. Germany’s declaration of unrestricted
submarine warfare against all ships bound for Allied ports caused the US to enter WW I.
4. Who was the US president during the war?
Woodrow Wilson
5. Did the US join the League of Nations?
No. the US Senate did not ratify the treaty.
Roaring Twenties
1. What war ended right before the start of the Roaring Twenties?
World War I
2. What is often said about the spirit of the Roaring Twenties?
The spirit of the Roaring Twenties was marked by a general feeling of novelty associated with modernity and a break with traditions. Everything seemed
to be feasible through modern technology. New technologies, especially automobiles, moving pictures, and radio, brought "modernity" to a large part of
the population. Formal decorative frills were shed in favor of practicality in both daily life and architecture.
3. In the US, what style of music became popular during the Roaring Twenties?
Jazz and dancing rose in popularity
4. What event brought the Roaring Twenties to a grinding halt?
The Wall Street Crash of 1929 ended the era, as the Great Depression brought years of worldwide gloom and hardship.
World War II
1. In what years was the war fought?
1939 – 1945
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2. How did the UK enter World War II?
Germany invaded Poland on September 1, 1939. Since Great Britain had pledged military support to Poland if it were attacked by the Germans, it
subsequently declared war against Germany on September 3, 1939, hence beginning World War II.
3. Who was the British Prime Minister during the war?
Winston Churchill
4. How did the US enter WWII?
Again neutrality was the initial American response to the outbreak of war in Europe in 1939. But the bombing of Pearl Harbor naval base in Hawaii by the
Japanese in December 1941 brought the US into the war, first against Japan and then against its allies, Germany and Italy.
5. What happened to the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki on August 6 and 9, 1945, respectively?
The United States dropped nuclear weapons on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki on August 6 and 9, 1945, respectively.
6. Name the conference where the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) were
established.
The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) and International Monetary Fund (IMF) were established by delegates at the Bretton
Woods Conference in 1944 and became operational in 1946.
7. Name the conference where United Nations was formulated and negotiated among international leaders.
The Dumbarton Oaks Conference or, more formally, the Washington Conversations on International Peace and Security Organization was an
international conference at which the United Nations was formulated and negotiated among international leaders. The conference was held at Dumbarton
Oaks, in Washington, D.C., from August 21, 1944, to October 7, 1944.

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Chapter 3: National Beliefs and Values
1. What does the phrase “a city upon the hill” refer to?
✓ A city upon the hill refers to an idea community which enjoys an indisputable superiority in wealth and military power. It hence sets a model for
other nations to follow. It also refers to exceptionalism. (see question 3)
2. What is the American Dream?
✓ The American Dream is a national ethos (nét đặc biệt) of the United States, the set of ideals (democracy, rights, liberty, opportunity and equality) in
which freedom includes the opportunity for prosperity and success, as well as an upward social mobility for the family and children, achieved through
hard work in a society with few barriers.
✓ The American Dream is rooted in the Declaration of Independence, which proclaims that "all men are created equal" with the right to "life, liberty
and the pursuit of happiness."
3. What is American exceptionalism? What are some examples of American exceptionalism?
✓ American exceptionalism is one of three related ideas.
✓ The first is that American history is inherently different from that of other nations. It stems from the American Revolution, becoming “the first new
nation” and developing the uniquely American ideology of “Americanism” based on liberty, egalitarianism, individualism, republicanism, democracy,
and laissez-faire economics.
✓ The second is that the US has a unique mission to transform the world. American has a duty to ensure that “government of the people, by the people,
for the people shall not perish from the Earth.”
✓ The third is that the US history and mission gives it a superiority over other nations.

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Chapter 4: Political systems
1. Describe the political systems of the UK & the US in terms of constitution, form of government, branches of government, political parties, and election.

The UK The US
Constitution There is no single written document which can be appealed to as the highest law It was first written about 200 years ago
of land and the final arbiter in any matter of dispute. Defines the power of national and state governments, the
• No written constitution. functions and framework of each branch of governments and
the rights of individual citizens.
Form of Constitutional monarchy, Parliamentary democracy *Representative democracy: all government powers rests
government ultimately with the people, who direct policies by voting for
* A constitutional monarchy: a country governed by a king or queen who accepts government representatives.
the advice of parliament. * To prevent power concentration:
* A parliamentary democracy: a country whose government is controlled by a • The federal organization of government
parliament which has been elected by the people. • The separation of powers among different branches of
government
• A system of checks and balances to restrict the powers
of each branch.
Branches of The system resembles a balance of powers more than a formal separation of Legislative, Executive, Judicial
government three branches (fusion of power). *Executive branch (Hành pháp): administering the laws
* The executive branch: formulates and implements policy. passed by Congress.
+ The Crown (The Monarchy): in written law, the Queen has almost absolute • The President: elected to a 4-year term and can be
power but in fact little power. elected to a second term. Has many important powers:
+ The Government: single party government (all members of the government appoint secretaries of the major departments that make up
belong to the same political party) the president’s cabinet and senior officials of the many
=> Collective responsibility: every member of the government, however junior, agencies in the expansive bureaucracy, …
shares the responsibility for every policy made by the government. If no party • Vice-president: is assigned only two constitutional
wins majority seats in the House of Commons, the solution is a hung government duties: to preside over the Senate and to assume the
where the party that wins the largest number of seats forms a coalition with other presidency if the president dies, become disabled, or is
parties in order to gain a parliamentary majority. removed from office.
• Prime Minister: the position of a PM is in direct contrast to that of the • The Cabinet: is an advisory body made up of the head
Monarch. The PM appears not to have much power but in reality, has a very great of the 15 executive departments. All the members of the
deal indeed. Cabinet take the title Secretary, excepting the head of the
• The Cabinet: includes 20 ministers appointed by the PM (senior members Justice Department – Attorney General (Bộ tư pháp Hoa Kỳ).
of the government).
*The legislative branch: (Parliament) comprises [the Crown + the House of
Commons + the House of Lords]. *Legislative branch (Lập pháp): Congress: make laws

9
 Responsibility: makes new laws, gives authority for the government to raise and • House of Representatives: lawmakers from all the
spend money, keeps a close eye on government activities and discusses those states are elected to serve here. Each representative is elected
activities. Works in a large building called the Palace of Westminster (the Houses to a two-year term.
of Parliament). • The Senate: the smaller of the two bodies. Each state
• House of Commons: has 2 senators. The term is 6 years. Every 2 years, one-third of
- more important than the House of Lords. the Senate stands for election.
- Members (Members of Parliament, MPs)
- are elected every five years at a General Election. The party with the largest
number of members in the Commons forms the government.
- The Commons alone is responsible for making decisions on financial Bills, such
as proposed new taxes.
The Lords can consider these Bills but cannot block or amend them.
• House of Lords: members of the House of Lords (peers) are not elected:
+ “hereditary peers” – the holder of an inherited aristocratic title
+ “life peers” – the distinguished retired politicians who used to sit in the
Commons.
- A forum for public discussion, the place where proposals for new laws are
discussed in great detail, a check on a government that, through its control of the
Commons, could become too dictatorial. Has little real power. *Judicial branch (Tư pháp): determine whether laws of
*The judicial branch: the judges in the courts of law, those who hold judicial Congress or actions of the president violate the Constitution.
office in tribunals and the lay magistrates who staff the magistrates’ courts. The Supreme Court is the highest court. The Constitution does
Senior judicial appointments are made by the Crown. not stipulate the number of Supreme Court Justices; the
number is set by Congress.
Political Having a “two-party system”: the ruling party and the opposite party the Democratic and Republican Parties
parties Conservative + Labor parties
Election First-past-the-post Winner-take-all
• 2-party system • The Democratic and Republican parties. The balance
• The two parties did not exist to promote single, coherent political between the Democrats and Republicans has shifted back and
philosophies but to gain power by forming effective coalitions of interest groups forth.
and individuals. • Democrats generally believe that the federal
• First-past-the-post: a general election: choose MP (the person who will government and state governments should provide social and
represent their local area – constituency – in the House of Commons). The economic programs for those who need them.
political party that wins the most seats in the House of Commons at a general • Republicans do not necessarily oppose social
election forms the new government and its leader becomes PM. If no party wins programs, they believe that many social programs are too
a majority of the seats, a situation which is known as a “hung Parliament”, a costly for taxpayers. They tend to favor big business and
minority government or coalition may be formed. private enterprise and want to limit the role of government

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2. What is a constitution?

A constitution is a set of fundamental principles or established precedents (quyết định) according to which a state or other organization is governed.

3. What is a constitutional monarchy?

It is a country governed by a king or a queen who accepts the advice of parliament.
4. What is a parliamentary democracy?
It is a country whose government is controlled by Parliament which has been elected by the people.
5. What is a representative democracy?
It is a variety of democracy founded on the principle of elected officials representing a group of people, as opposed to direct democracy. In other words, all
government power rests ultimately with the people, who direct policies by voting for government representatives.
6. How are powers divided in American federalism?
Powers are divided between the central government and the individual states. The federal (national) government has powers over areas of wide concern.
Each state has its own executive, legislative and judicial institutions. There are concurrent powers (quyền lực đồng thời) which both share.
7. What does ‘separation of powers’ refer to?
Refers to the idea that the major institutions of state should be functionally independent and that no individual should have powers that span these
offices.
8. What is a bill?
A bill is a proposal for a new law or a change to an existing one.

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Chapter 5: Economic Systems
1. What is a free enterprise system?

A system allows private business the freedom to operate for profit with minimum government interference and regulation.

1. Name four or five economic activity sectors that are usually present in the descriptions of a nation’s economy.
✓ Manufactory sector – Service sector – Agriculture sector – Industrial sector
2. What can be said about the shift in the growth pattern of economic sectors during the end of the 20th century in the UK and the US?

During the end of the 20th century, the shift in the growth pattern of economic sectors in the UK and the US was the shift in production of goods to high technology
sector and services. In the UK, service sector includes banking, insurance, catering, leisure, finance, and information. On the other hand, in the US, it includes
banking, hotels and restaurants, and communication.

3. In the context of the UK, the decline of which sector is a major concern?

The decline of the manufacturing sector is the primary concern of both the government and people as the UK was the very first country to start industrialization
and it is considered a significant industrial and manufacturing country.

Why? (phan nay khong can hoc chi can doc de hieu thoi)

✓ Country’s budget: Balance-of-payment problems - the decline in manufacturing trades will lead to escalating import rates. This eventually leads to trade
deficit as well as UK’s dependence on other foreign countries
✓ National defense: Weapon industry will also be negatively influenced due to the decline in manufacturing trades, resulting in UK’s national defense falling
in a dangerous scenario.
✓ Service sector: Decline in goods manufactured for service activities are attributable for manufacturing decline.
• Describe the shift of how the government in the UK has intervened in economic life. When did the state become much involved in economic planning
and nationalize industry? When did the trend start going in the other direction?

Although British governments have historically tended to be somewhat laissez-faire (letting things take their own course) in economic matters, they become much
more involved in economic planning from the 1940s, and the performance of the economy has been increasingly tied to their fiscal, monetary and political policies.

From 1945 until 1980 the general trend was for the state to have more and more control. Various industries became nationalized, especially those concerned with
the production and distribution of energy. So too did the various forms of transport and communication services.

By 1980, ‘pure’ capitalism probably formed a smaller part of the economy than any other country in western Europe.

12
From 1980 the trend started going in other direction. A major part of the philosophy of the Conservative government of the 1980s was to let ‘market forces’ rule
(restricting the freedom of business as little as possible) and to turn state-owned companies into companies owned by individuals. This approach was a major
part of the thinking of Thatcherism.

Between 1980 and 1994 a large number of companies were privatized.

Nowadays, virtually the only services left in government hands are strictly social ones such as education, social welfare and healthcare.

4. Describe the current pattern of the mixed economy of public and private sectors in the UK.

- Public sector: includes the remaining state-run industries and public services, which now amount to under one-third of the economy.

- Private sector: belongs to people who have a financial stake in a company.

✓ It consists of small businesses owned by individuals; companies whose shares are sold to the public through the Stock Exchange; and large
companies whose shares are not offered for sale to the public. (most companies are private and small or medium-size)
✓ They are crucial to the economy and generate 50% of new jobs.
✓ accounts for over two-thirds and will increase with further privatization

The mixed economy in the UK includes public and private sectors. The public sector includes the remaining state-run industries and public services. On the contrary,
the private sector belongs to people who have a financial stake in a company. It consists of small businesses owned by individuals; companies whose shares are
sold to the public through the Stock Exchange; and larger companies whose shares are not offered for sale to the public. Most companies are private and small or
medium-size. They are crucial to the economy and generate 50 per cent of new jobs. The public sector accounts for under one-third of the economy and the private
sector accounts for over two-thirds and will increase with further privatization.

5. Describe the situation of the budget deficit in the UK and the US.

UK US
• Context: between 2007 and 2010, worst global recession since • Every year since 1930, the government has been spending
the Great Depression (1929). Individual consumers took out large more money than it has taken in à leads to inflation, high interest rates,
personal loan and incurring debts they were unable to repay and unemployment (Ex: high value of American dollar)
• Labour government bailout off banks that remained partly • Solution: Gramm Rudman deficit reduction plan (adopted in
state-owned. December 1985) = Yearly spending cuts of $36 billion until balance in
• The costs of this exercise: budget deficit was 178 billion 1991
pounds.

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 • Political parties and economists disagreed on measure to • Reason: sudden stock market crash in October 1987 which
reduce this number caused a drop in markets globally
• The government initiated a mixture of payment: cuts in public
spending + high taxation band of 50% on incomes à 2014: 80 billion
pounds

In the UK

Between 2007 and 2010, Britain suffered from the worst global recession since the Great Depression of 1929, when a credit crunch and crisis-ridden banks
suggested that the world’s economic structures were on the verge of collapse. Individual consumers had also contributed to the problem by taking out large
personal loans and incurring debts that they were unable to pay. The British system was rescued by a Labour government bailout of banks such as Northern Rock
and Royal Bank of Scotland, which remained partly state-owned. But in 2010 the country experienced the costs of this exercise. The budget deficit (the difference
between government spending and the income it receives through taxation and other sources) was £178 billion. Political parties and economies disagreed on
measures to reduce it, but the coalition government initiated a mixture payment, cuts in public spending and a higher taxation band of 50 per cent on incomes
over £150,000. Yet, this did not produce the required results, and in 2014 the deficit stood at £80 billion.

In the US

The enormous federal budget deficit greatly hampers economic growth domestically and affects the US’s ability to sell products overseas. Almost every year since
1930, the government has been spending more money than it has taken in. deficit spending in the Reagan administration exceeded $200 billion a year – nearly
three times greater than that of any administration. Such huge deficits can cripple the economy because they lead to inflation, high interest rates, and
unemployment. One important measure to control the budget deficit was the Gramm Rudman deficit reduction plan, adopted in December 1985. This act calls for
yearly spending cuts of $36 billion until a balanced budget is reached in 1991. Most Americans are doubtful these targets will be met. Whether the deficit will be
reduced depends on the ability of the president and Congress to agree on areas for spending cuts and/or tax increases.

6. What does the devaluation of a country’s currency mean?

✓ Definition: the currency’s exchange value was reduced
✓ Positive: boost exports by making them cheaper on the world market
✓ Negative: raise the cost of imports and dissuade people from buying foreign goods
In modern monetary policy, a devaluation is an official lowering of the value of a country's currency within a fixed exchange rate system, by which the
monetary authority formally sets a new fixed rate with respect to a foreign reference currency or currency basket. This boosted exports by making them
cheaper on the world market, but raised the cost of imports and dissuaded people from buying foreign goods.
7. When did the global financial crisis happen? What have been some of the symptoms/ consequences of the global financial crisis?

The global financial crisis happened between 2007 and 2008.

14
 Consequences: enormous budget deficit and devaluation

✓ The continuing development of the crisis prompted fears of a global economic collapse. The financial crisis was to yield the biggest banking
shakeout since the savings-and-loan meltdown.
✓ The Brookings Institution reported in June 2009 that US consumption accounted for more than a third of the growth in global consumption
between 2000 and 2007. "The US economy has been spending too much and borrowing too much for years and the rest of the world depended
on the US consumer as a source of global demand." With a recession in the US and the increased savings rate of US consumers, declines in growth
elsewhere were dramatic.
✓ Some developing countries that had seen strong economic growth saw significant slowdowns. According to the research by the Overseas
Development Institute, reductions in growth were attributed to falls in trade, commodity prices, investment and remittances sent from migrant
workers
✓ The greatest effect of the global economic crisis came in the form of lower oil prices, which remained the single most important determinant of
economic performance. Steadily declining oil prices would force them to draw down reserves and cut down on investments. Significantly lower oil
prices caused a reversal of economic performance as has been the case in past oil shocks.
✓ Initial impact was seen on public finances and employment for foreign workers.

While the collapse of large financial institutions was prevented by the bailout of banks by national governments, stock markets still dropped worldwide. In many
areas, the housing market also suffered, resulting in evictions, foreclosures, and prolonged unemployment. The crisis played a significant role in the failure of
key businesses, declines in consumer wealth estimated in trillions of US dollars, and a downturn in economic activity leading to the Great Recession of 2008–2012
and contributing to the European sovereign-debt crisis. The active phase of the crisis, which manifested as a liquidity crisis, can be dated from August 9, 2007,
when BNP Paribas terminated withdrawals from three hedge funds citing "a complete evaporation of liquidity".

The bursting of the US housing bubble, which peaked at the end of 2006, caused the values of securities tied to US real estate pricing to plummet, damaging
financial institutions globally. The financial crisis was triggered by a complex interplay of policies that encouraged home ownership, providing easier access to
loans for subprime borrowers, overvaluation of bundled subprime mortgages based on the theory that housing prices would continue to escalate, questionable
trading practices on behalf of both buyers and sellers, compensation structures that prioritize short-term deal flow over long-term value creation, and a lack of
adequate capital holdings from banks and insurance companies to back the financial commitments they were making. Questions regarding bank solvency, declines
in credit availability, and damaged investor confidence affected global stock markets, where securities suffered large losses during 2008 and early 2009. Economies
worldwide slowed during this period, as credit tightened and international trade declined. Governments and central banks responded with unprecedented fiscal
stimulus, monetary policy expansion and institutional bailouts. In the US, Congress passed the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009.

15
Chapter 6: Education systems
1. What is educationalization?

Can be used as the general concept to identify the overall orientation or trend toward thinking about education as the focal point for addressing or solving larger
human problems

2. According to David Labaree (1997), what are the three goals of the American education system? Illustrate each goal with examples of educational
practices in the US.

• Democratic equality: is the perspective of the citizen, from which education is seen as a public good, designed to prepare people for political roles.
Students are given the freedom of choice over their schools, the course and subjects as well as the classes. They are allowed to question teachers’ teaching

• Social efficiency: is the perspective of the taxpayer and employer, from which education is seen as a public good designed to prepare workers to fill
structurally necessary market roles. At school, students are taught subjects (3 Rs) to equip themselves with the common knowledge (calculating, read and
write) to make a living.

• Social mobility: is the perspective of the individual educational consumer, from which education is seen as a private good designed to prepare individuals
for successful social competition for the more desirable market. For example, at school, beside the common subjects, students are allowed to choose
vocational subjects (cooking, science, IT…)

3. How did the 1944 Education Act Change the education system in England and Wales?

It reorganized state primary and secondary schools in England and Wales

✓ Under the EAC, state schooling became free and compulsory up to the age of 15 and was divided into 3 stages: primary, secondary and further post-school
training. Before this Act, schools were only made compulsory until the age of 10. 2 types of schools resulted from the Act: county (provided by LEAs) and
voluntary (founded by religious and other groups).
✓ Most state secondary schools were divided into grammar schools, secondary modern schools and technical schools. The placement of students to these
schools depended upon eleven-plus examination (including linguistic, math and general knowledge) result.
✓ From 1964 until now, the debate between comprehensive (no test) and selective (11+ exam) has been going on.

4. Progressive education is a pedagogical movement that began in the late nineteenth century and has persisted in various forms to the present. What
was/were characteristic of progressive education?

• Emphasis on learning by doing: hands-on projects, • Integration of subjects such as PE, music, fine arts,
practical skills suited to students’ environment and the vocational subjects and electives (optional courses)
habits of discovering knowledge by themselves • Afterschool extra-curricular activities
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 • Introduce physical education, music and fine arts, and • Highly personalized learning accounting for each
vocational subjects as electives (optional courses) individual's personal goals
• Emphasis on learning by doing – hands-on projects, • Integration of community service and service learning
expeditionary learning, experiential learning projects into the daily curriculum
• Integrated curriculum focused on thematic units • Selection of subject content by looking forward to asking
• Integration of entrepreneurship into education what skills will be needed in future society
• Strong emphasis on problem-solving and critical thinking • De-emphasis on textbooks in favor of varied learning
• Group work and development of social skill resources
• Understanding and action as the goals of learning as • Emphasis on lifelong learning and social skills
opposed to rote knowledge • Assessment by evaluation of child's projects and
• Collaborative and cooperative learning projects productions
• Education for social responsibility and democracy
5. What is the significance of the Brown v. Board of Education case?

Overturned the provision of 1896 Plessy v. Ferguson decision, which had allowed for separate but equal public facilities as Brown v. Board of Education helped
break the back of state-sponsor segregation and provided a spark to the American civil rights movement.

6. In the US, what is affirmative action in education?

• Affirmative action (AA) programs aimed at improving women’s and minority groups’ access to education during the early 1970s. On the primary and
secondary levels of public education, AA first led to a redesigning of teaching programs and textbooks (showing positive role models and examples of
how women and minority had contributed to American history and culture).

• The hiring of staffs on all levels was also affected due to the requirements that educational institutions become equal-opportunity employers à hire
more teacher form teachers from minority groups at elementary and secondary schools and more women professors at universities and colleges.

Affirmative action in the United States is a set of laws, policies, GUIDELINES, and administrative practices "intended to end and correct the effects of a specific form
of discrimination. In education, it aimed to improve women’s and minority groups’ access to education.

• A redesigning of teaching programs and textbooks: discriminatory references to women and minorities were replaced with even-handed treatments or,
more often, with “positive role model” and examples of how women and minorities contributed to American history and culture.
• The hiring of staff on all levels: hiring more teachers from minorities groups at elementary and secondary schools and more women professors at universities
and colleges.
• 2 affirmative action programs were designed to help “disadvantaged” pupils succeed in primary and secondary schools:

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 + Head Start: provides preschool tutoring to children in educationally deprived families to help them begin formal schooling at the same level as those in
more fortunate families. => considered a success and continued to receive additional congressional appropriations.
+ Upward Bound: supplies remedial teaching, private tutoring and work-study programs for older children => suffered repeated funding restrictions.

7. What are the features of No Child Left Behind?

Based on five core principles: (1) strong accountability for results; (2) expanded flexibility and local control of schools; (3) an emphasis on teaching methods based
on scientific research; (4) expanded options for parents, particularly those whose children attend low-performing schools; and (5) highly qualified teachers.

• Appropriates more federal money for public education

• Involves an unprecedented degree of top-down federal intrusion into state and local control over public schools

• Requires the formulation of national and state standards of achievement in core curriculum subjects, greatly increased use of standardized testing
of pupils and teachers to hold individual schools accountable to these standards, and a system of sanctions against public schools that do not meet
annual targets for improvement.

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