f4 Chemistry Simplified Notes Sp

CHEMISTRY NOTES
FORM 4 SIMPLIFIED VERSION
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ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

A.ACIDS AND BASES
At a school laboratory:
(i)An acid may be defined as a substance that turn litmus red.
(ii)A base may be defined as a substance that turn litmus blue.
Litmus is a lichen found mainly in West Africa. It changes its colour depending on whether the
solution it is in, is basic/alkaline or acidic.It is thus able to identify/show whether
1. An acid is a substance that dissolves in water to form H+/H3O+ as the only positive ion/cation.
This is called the Arrhenius definition of an acid. From this definition, an acid dissociate/ionize in
water releasing H+ thus:
HCl(aq) -> H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)
HNO3(aq) -> H+ (aq) + NO3- (aq)
CH3COOH(aq) -> H+ (aq) + CH3COO-(aq)
H2SO4(aq) -> 2H+ (aq) + SO42-(aq)
H2CO3(aq) -> 2H+ (aq) + CO32-(aq)
H3PO4(aq) -> 3H+ (aq) + PO43-(aq)
2.A base is a substance which dissolves in water to form OH- as the only negatively charged
ion/anion.
This is called Arrhenius definition of a base.
From this definition, a base dissociate/ionize in water releasing OH- thus:
KOH(aq) -> K+(aq) + OH-(aq)
NaOH(aq) -> Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
NH4OH(aq) -> NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)
Ca(OH)2(aq) -> Ca2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)
Mg(OH)2(aq) -> Mg2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)

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3. An acid is a proton donor.

A base is a proton acceptor.
This is called Bronsted-Lowry definition of acids and bases.
From this definition, an acid donates H+ .
H+ has no electrons and neutrons .It contains only a proton.
Examples
I. From the equation:
HCl(aq) + H2O(l) === H3O+(aq) + Cl- (aq)
(a)(i)For the forward reaction from left to right, H 2O gains a proton to form H3O+ and thus H2O is a
proton acceptor .It is a Bronsted-Lowry base
(ii) For the backward reaction from right to left, H3O+ donates a proton to form H2O and thus H3O+
is an ‘opposite’ proton donor. It is a Bronsted-Lowry conjugate acid
(b)(i)For the forward reaction from left to right, HCl donates a proton to form Cl - and thus HCl is a
proton donor .
It is a Bronsted-Lowry acid
(ii) For the backward reaction from right to left, Cl- gains a proton to form HCl and thus Cl- is an
‘opposite’ proton acceptor.
It is a Bronsted-Lowry conjugate base.
Every base /acid from Bronsted-Lowry definition thus must have a conjugate product/reactant.
II. From the equation:

HCl(aq) + NH3(aq) === NH4+(aq) + Cl- (aq)
(a)(i)For the forward reaction from left to right, NH 3 gains a proton to form NH4+ and thus NH3 is a
proton acceptor .
It is a Bronsted-Lowry base
(ii) For the backward reaction from right to left, NH4+ donates a proton to form NH3 and thus NH4+
is an ‘opposite’ proton donor.
It is a Bronsted-Lowry conjugate acid

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(b)(i)For the forward reaction from left to right, HCl donates a proton to form Cl- and thus HCl is a
proton donor .
It is a Bronsted-Lowry acid
(ii) For the backward reaction from right to left, Cl- gains a proton to form HCl and thus Cl- is an
‘opposite’ proton acceptor.
It is a Bronsted-Lowry conjugate base.
4. Acids and bases show acidic and alkaline properties/characteristics only in water but not in other
solvents e.g.
(a)Hydrogen chloride gas dissolves in water to form hydrochloric acid Hydrochloric acid
dissociates/ionizes in water to free H+(aq)/H3O+(aq) ions. The free H3O+(aq) / H+(aq) ions are
responsible for:
(i)turning blue litmus paper/solution red.
(ii)show pH value 1/2/3/4/5/6
(iii)are good electrolytes/conductors of electricity/undergo electrolysis.
(iv)react with metals to produce /evolve hydrogen gas and a salt. i.e.
Ionically:
-For a monovalent metal: 2M(s) + 2H+(aq) -> 2M+(aq) + H2(g)
-For a divalent metal: M(s) + 2H+(aq) -> M2+(aq) + H2(g)
-For a trivalent metal: 2M(s) + 6H+(aq) -> 2M3+(aq) + 3H2(g)
Examples:
-For a monovalent metal: 2Na(s) + 2H+(aq) -> 2Na+(aq) + H2(g)
-For a divalent metal: Ca(s) + 2H+(aq) -> Ca2+(aq) + H2(g)
-For a trivalent metal: 2Al(s) + 6H+(aq) -> 2Al3+(aq) + 3H2(g)
(v)react with metal carbonates and hhydrogen carbonates to produce /evolve carbon(IV)oxide gas
,water and a salt. i.e.
Ionically:
-For a monovalent metal: M2CO3(s)+ 2H+(aq) -> 2M+(aq) + H2O (l)+ CO2(g)
MHCO3(s)+ H+(aq) -> M+(aq) + H2O (l)+ CO2(g)

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-For a divalent metal: MCO3(s)+ 2H+(aq) -> M2+(aq) + H2O (l)+ CO2(g)
M(HCO3) 2(aq)+2H+(aq) ->M2+(aq)+2H2O(l)+2CO2(g)
Examples:
-For a monovalent metal: K2CO3(s)+ 2H+(aq) -> 2K+(aq) + H2O (l)+ CO2(g)
NH4HCO3(s)+ H+(aq) -> NH4+(aq) + H2O (l)+ CO2(g)
-For a divalent metal: ZnCO3(s)+ 2H+(aq) -> Zn2+(aq) + H2O (l)+ CO2(g)
Mg(HCO3) 2(aq)+2H+(aq) ->Mg2+(aq)+2H2O(l)+2CO2(g)
(vi)neutralize metal oxides/hydroxides to salt and water only. i.e.
Ionically:
-For a monovalent metal: M2O(s) + 2H+(aq) -> 2M+(aq) + H2O (l)
MOH(aq) + H+(aq) -> M+(aq) + H2O (l)
-For a divalent metal: MO(s) + 2H+(aq) -> M2+(aq) + H2O (l)
M(OH) 2(s) + 2H+(aq) -> M2+(aq) + 2H2O(l)
-For a trivalent metal: M2O3(s) + 6H+(aq) -> 2M3+(aq) + 3H2O (l)
M(OH) 3(s) + 3H+(aq) -> M3+(aq) + 3H2O(l)
Examples:
-For a monovalent metal: K2O(s) + 2H+(aq) -> 2K+(aq) + H2O (l)
NH4OH(aq) + H+(aq) -> NH4+(aq) + H2O (l)
-For a divalent metal: ZnO (s) + 2H+(aq) -> Zn2+(aq) + H2O (l)
Pb(OH) 2(s) + 2H+(aq) -> Pb2+(aq) + 2H2O(l)
(b)Hydrogen chloride gas dissolves in methylbenzene /benzene but does not dissociate /ionize into
free ions.
It exists in molecular state showing none of the above properties.
(c)Ammonia gas dissolves in water to form aqueous ammonia which dissociate/ionize to free NH 4+
(aq) and OH-(aq) ions.
This dissociation/ionization makes aqueous ammonia to:
(i)turn litmus paper/solution blue.
(ii)have pH 8/9/10/11
(iii)be a good electrical conductor
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(iv)react with acids to form ammonium salt and water only.
NH4OH(aq) + HCl(aq) -> NH4Cl(aq) + H2O(l)
(d)Ammonia gas dissolves in methylbenzene/benzene /kerosene but does not dissociate into free ions
therefore existing as molecules
6. Solvents are either polar or non-polar.

A polar solvent is one which dissolves ionic compounds and other polar solvents.
Water is polar solvent that dissolves ionic and polar substance by surrounding the free ions as
below:
H ð+ H ð+ O ð-
H ð+ H ð+
H ð+ O ð- H ð+ H ð+
H ð+
O ð- H+ O ð- O ð- Cl - O ð-
ð+ ð+
H H
ð+ ð- ð+ + ð+
H O H H H
H ð+ H ð+ O ð-
Beaker
Cl-
Cl- H+ water
+
H
Cl- H+ Free ions
Note:Water is polar .It is made up of :

Oxygen atom is partially negative and two hydrogen atoms which are partially positive.
They surround the free H+ and Cl- ions.

A non polar solvent is one which dissolved non-polar substances and covalent compounds.

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If a polar ionic compound is dissolved in non-polar solvent ,it does not ionize/dissociate into free ions
as below:
H-Cl
H-Cl
methyl benzene
H-Cl
H-Cl
Covalent bond
7. Some acids and bases are strong while others are weak.
(a)A strong acid/base is one which is fully/wholly/completely dissociated / ionized into many free H+
/OH- ions i.e.
I. Strong acids exists more as free H+ ions than molecules. e.g.
HCl(aq) H+(aq) + Cl- (aq)
(molecules) (cation) (anion)
HNO3(aq) H+(aq) + NO3-(aq)
H2SO4(aq) 2H+(aq) + SO42-(aq)
II. Strong bases/alkalis exists more as free OH- ions than molecules. e.g.
KOH(aq) K+(aq) + OH- (aq)
NaOH(aq) Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)

(b) A weak base/acid is one which is partially /partly dissociated /ionized in water into free OH - (aq)
and H+(aq) ions.

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I. Weak acids exists more as molecules than as free H+ ions. e.g.

CH3COOH(aq) H+(aq) + CH3COO- (aq)
H3PO4(aq) 3H+(aq) + PO43-(aq)
H2CO3(aq) 2H+(aq) + CO32-(aq)
II. Weak bases/alkalis exists more as molecules than free OH- ions. e.g.
NH4OH(aq) NH4+(aq) + OH- (aq)
Ca(OH)2(aq) Ca2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)

Mg(OH)2(aq) Mg2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)
8. The concentration of an acid/base/alkali is based on the number of moles of acid/bases dissolved in

a decimeter(litre)of the solution.
An acid/base/alkali with more acid/base/alkali in a decimeter(litre) of solution is said to be
concentrated while that with less is said to be dilute.
9. (a) (i)strong acids have pH 1/2/3 while weak acids have high pH 4/5/6.
(ii)a neutral solution have pH 7
(iii)strong alkalis/bases have pH 12/13/14 while weak bases/alkalis have pH 11/10 /9 / 8.
(b) pH is a measure of H+(aq) concentration in a solution.
The higher the H+(aq)ions concentration ;
-the higher the acidity
-the lower the pH
-the lower the concentration of OH-(aq)
-the lower the alkalinity
At pH 7 , a solution has equal concentration of H+(aq) and OH-(aq).

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Beyond pH 7,the concentration of the OH-(aq) increases as the H+(aq) ions decreases.
10.(a) When acids /bases dissolve in water, the ions present in the solution conduct electricity.
The more the dissociation the higher the yield of ions and the greater the electrical conductivity of the
solution.
A compound that conducts electricity in an electrolyte and thus a compound showing high electrical
conductivity is a strong electrolyte while a compound showing low electrical conductivity is a weak
electrolyte.
(b) Practically, a bright light on a bulb ,a high voltage reading from a voltmeter high ammeter
reading from an ammeter, a big deflection on a galvanometer is an indicator of strong
electrolyte(acid/base) and the opposite for weak electrolytes(acids/base)
11. Some compounds exhibit/show both properties of acids and bases/alkalis.
A substance that reacts with both acids and bases is said to be amphotellic.
The examples below show the amphotellic properties of:
(a) Zinc (II)oxide(ZnO) and Zinc hydroxide(Zn(OH)2)

(i)When ½ spatula full of Zinc(II)oxide is placed in a boiling tube containing 10cm3 of either 2M
nitric(V)acid or 2M sodium hydroxide hydroxide solution, it dissolves on both the acid and the
alkali/base to form a colourless solution. i.e.
(i) when reacting with nitric(V)acid, the oxide shows basic properties by reacting with an acid to
form a simple salt and water only.
Basic oxide + Acid -> salt + water
Examples:
Chemical equation
ZnO(s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Zn(NO3) 2 (aq) + H2O(l)
ZnO(s) + 2HCl(aq) -> ZnCl2 (aq) + H2O(l)
ZnO(s) + H2SO4(aq) -> ZnSO4 (aq) + H2O(l)
Ionic equation
ZnO(s) + 2H+ (aq) -> Zn 2+ (aq) + H2O(l)
(ii) when reacting with sodium hydroxide, the oxide shows acidic properties by reacting with a base to
form a complex salt.

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Basic oxide + Base/alkali + Water -> Complex salt

Examples:
Chemical equation
1.When Zinc oxide is reacted with sodium hydroxide the complex salt is sodium
tetrahydroxozincate(II) complex salt.
ZnO(s) + 2NaOH(aq) + H2O(l) -> Na2Zn(OH) 4(aq)
2.When Zinc oxide is reacted with potassium hydroxide the complex salt is potassium
ZnO(s) + 2KOH(aq) + H2O(l) -> K2Zn(OH) 4(aq)
Ionic equation
ZnO(s) + 2OH-(aq) + H2O(l) -> 2[Zn(OH) 4]2- (aq)
(ii)When Zinc(II)hydroxide is placed in a boiling tube containing 10cm3 of either 2M nitric(V)acid or
2M sodium hydroxide hydroxide solution, it dissolves on both the acid and the alkali/base to form a
colourless solution. i.e.
(i) when reacting with nitric(V)acid, the hydroxide shows basic properties. It reacts with an acid to
Basic hydroxide + Acid -> salt + water
Examples:
Chemical equation
Zn(OH) 2 (s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Zn(NO3) 2 (aq) + 2H2O(l)
Zn(OH) 2 (s) + 2HCl(aq) -> ZnCl2 (aq) + 2H2O(l)
Zn(OH) 2 (s) + H2SO4(aq) -> ZnSO4 (aq) + 2H2O(l)
Ionic equation
Zn(OH) 2 (s) + 2H+ (aq) -> Zn 2+ (aq) + 2H2O(l)
(ii) when reacting with sodium hydroxide, the hydroxide shows acidic properties by reacting with a
base to form a complex salt.
Basic hydroxide + Base/alkali -> Complex salt
Examples:
Chemical equation
1.When Zinc hydroxide is reacted with sodium hydroxide the complex salt is sodium
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Zn(OH) 2 (s) + 2NaOH(aq) -> Na2Zn(OH) 4(aq)

2.When Zinc hydroxide is reacted with potassium hydroxide the complex salt is potassium
Zn(OH) 2 (s) + 2KOH(aq) -> K2Zn(OH) 4(aq)
Ionic equation
Zn(OH) 2 (s) + 2OH-(aq) -> 2[Zn(OH) 4]2- (aq)
(b) Lead (II)oxide(PbO) and Lead(II) hydroxide (Pb(OH)2)

(i)When ½ spatula full of Lead(II)oxide is placed in a boiling tube containing 10cm3 of either 2M
form a simple salt and water only. All other Lead salts are insoluble.
Chemical equation
PbO(s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Pb(NO3) 2 (aq) + H2O(l)
Ionic equation
PbO(s) + 2H+ (aq) -> Pb 2+ (aq) + H2O(l)
Chemical equation
1.When Lead(II) oxide is reacted with sodium hydroxide the complex salt is sodium
tetrahydroxoplumbate(II) complex salt.
PbO(s) + 2NaOH(aq) + H2O(l) -> Na2Pb(OH) 4(aq)
2.When Lead(II) oxide is reacted with potassium hydroxide the complex salt is potassium
PbO(s) + 2KOH(aq) + H2O(l) -> K2Pb(OH) 4(aq)
Ionic equation
PbO(s) + 2OH-(aq) + H2O(l) -> 2[Pb(OH) 4]2- (aq)

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(ii)When Lead(II)hydroxide is placed in a boiling tube containing 10cm3 of either 2M nitric(V)acid or
2M sodium hydroxide hydroxide solution, it dissolves on both the acid and the alkali/base to form a
colourless solution. i.e.
(i) when reacting with nitric(V)acid, the hydroxide shows basic properties. It reacts with the acid to
Chemical equation
Pb(OH) 2 (s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Pb(NO3) 2 (aq) + 2H2O(l)
Ionic equation
Pb(OH) 2 (s) + 2H+ (aq) -> Pb 2+ (aq) + 2H2O(l)
(ii) when reacting with sodium hydroxide, the hydroxide shows acidic properties. It reacts with a base
to form a complex salt.
Chemical equation
1.When Lead(II) hydroxide is reacted with sodium hydroxide the complex salt is sodium
Pb(OH) 2 (s) + 2NaOH(aq) -> Na2Pb(OH) 4(aq)
2.When Lead(II) hydroxide is reacted with potassium hydroxide the complex salt is potassium
Pb(OH) 2 (s) + 2KOH(aq) -> K2Pb(OH) 4(aq)
Ionic equation
Pb(OH) 2 (s) + 2OH-(aq) -> 2[Pb(OH) 4]2- (aq)
(c)Aluminium(III)oxide(Al2O3) and Aluminium(III)hydroxide(Al(OH)3)

(i)When ½ spatula full of Aluminium(III)oxide is placed in a boiling tube containing 10cm3 of either
2M nitric(V)acid or 2M sodium hydroxide hydroxide solution, it dissolves on both the acid and the
Chemical equation
Al2O3 (s) + 6HNO3(aq) -> Al(NO3)3 (aq) + 3H2O(l)
Al2O3 (s) + 6HCl(aq) -> AlCl3 (aq) + 3H2O(l)
Al2O3 (s) + 3H2SO4(aq) -> Al2(SO4)3 (aq) + 3H2O(l)
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Ionic
equation
Al2O3 (s) + 3H+ (aq) -> Al 3+ (aq) + 3H2O(l)
Chemical equation
1.When Aluminium(III) oxide is reacted with sodium hydroxide the complex salt is sodium
tetrahydroxoaluminate(III) complex salt.
Al2O3 (s) + 2NaOH(aq) + 3H2O(l) -> 2NaAl(OH) 4(aq)
2.When Aluminium(III) oxide is reacted with potassium hydroxide the complex salt is potassium
tetrahydroxoaluminate(II) complex salt.
Al2O3 (s) + 2KOH(aq) + 3H2O(l) -> 2NaAl(OH) 4(aq)
Ionic equation
Al2O3 (s) + 2OH-(aq) + 3H2O(l) -> 2[Al(OH) 4]- (aq)
(ii)When Aluminium(III)hydroxide is placed in a boiling tube containing 10cm3 of either 2M
(i) when reacting with nitric(V)acid, the hydroxide shows basic properties. It reacts with the acid to
Chemical equation
Al(OH) 3 (s) + 3HNO3(aq) -> Al(NO3)3 (aq) + 3H2O(l)
Al(OH)3 (s) + 3HCl(aq) -> AlCl3 (aq) + 3H2O(l)
2Al(OH)3 (s) + 3H2SO4(aq) -> Al2(SO4)3 (aq) + 3H2O(l)
Ionic equation
Al(OH)3 (s) + 3H+ (aq) -> Al 3+ (aq) + 3H2O(l)
(ii) when reacting with sodium hydroxide, the hydroxide shows acidic properties. It reacts with a base
to form a complex salt.
Chemical equation
1.When aluminium(III) hydroxide is reacted with sodium hydroxide the complex salt is sodium

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Al(OH) 3 (s) + NaOH(aq) -> NaAl(OH) 4(aq)

2.When aluminium(III) hydroxide is reacted with potassium hydroxide the complex salt is potassium
Al(OH) 3 (s) + KOH(aq) -> KAl(OH) 4(aq)
Ionic equation
Al(OH) 3 (s) + OH-(aq) -> [Al(OH) 4]- (aq)
Summary of amphotellic oxides/hydroxides

Oxide Hydroxide Formula of simple salt from Formula of complex salt
nitric (V)acid from sodium hydroxide
ZnO Zn(OH)2 Zn(NO3)2 Na2Zn(OH)4
[Zn(OH)4]2-(aq)
Sodium tetrahydroxozincate(II)
PbO Pb(OH)2 Pb(NO3)2 Na2Pb(OH)4

[Pb(OH)4]2-(aq)
Sodium tetrahydroxoplumbate(II)
Al2O3 Al(OH) 3 Al(NO3)3 NaAl(OH)4

[Al(OH)4]-(aq)
Sodium tetrahydroxoaluminate(II)
12.(a) A salt is an ionic compound formed when the cation from a base combine with the anion
derived from an acid.
A salt is therefore formed when the hydrogen ions in an acid are replaced wholly/fully or
partially/partly ,directly or indirectly by a metal or ammonium radical. (b) The number of
ionizable/replaceable hydrogen in an acid is called basicity of an acid.

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Some acids are therefore:
(i)monobasic acids generally denoted HX e.g.
HCl, HNO3,HCOOH,CH3COOH.
(ii)dibasic acids ; generally denoted H2X e.g.
H2SO4, H2SO3, H2CO3,HOOCOOH.
(iii)tribasic acids ; generally denoted H3X e.g.
H3PO4.
(c) Some salts are normal salts while other are acid salts.
(i)A normal salt is formed when all the ionizable /replaceable hydrogen in an acid is replaced by a
metal or metallic /ammonium radical.
(ii)An acid salt is formed when part/portion the ionizable /replaceable hydrogen in an acid is
replaced by a metal or metallic /ammonium radical.
Table showing normal and acid salts derived from common acids
Acid name Chemical Basicity Normal salt Acid salt
formula
Hydrochloric acid HCl Monobasic Chloride(Cl-) None
Nitric(V)acid HNO3 Monobasic Nitrate(V)(NO3-) None
Nitric(III)acid HNO2 Monobasic Nitrate(III)(NO2-) None
Sulphuric(VI)acid H2SO4 Dibasic Sulphate(VI) (SO42-) Hydrogen sulphate(VI)

(HSO4-)
Sulphuric(IV)acid H2SO3 Dibasic Sulphate(IV) (SO32-) Hydrogen sulphate(IV)

(HSO3-)
Carbonic(IV)acid H2CO3 Dibasic Carbonate(IV)(CO32-) Hydrogen carbonate(IV)

(HCO3-)

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Phosphoric(V) H3PO4 Tribasic Phosphate(V)(PO43-) Dihydrogen phosphate(V)
acid (H2PO42-)
Hydrogen diphosphate(V)
(HP2O42-)
The table below show shows some examples of salts.

Base/alkali Cation Acid Anion Salt Chemical name of salts
NaOH + HCl - NaCl Sodium(I)chloride

Na Cl
Mg(OH)2 2+ H2SO4 2- MgSO4 Magnesium sulphate(VI)
Mg SO4
Mg(HSO4)2 Magnesium hydrogen sulphate(VI)
Pb(OH)2 2+ HNO3 - Pb(NO3)2 Lead(II)nitrate(V)

Pb NO3
Ba(OH)2 2+ HNO3 - Ba(NO3)2 Barium(II)nitrate(V)

Ba NO3
Ca(OH)2 2+ H2SO4 2- MgSO4 Calcium sulphate(VI)

Ba SO4
NH4OH + H3PO4 3- (NH4 )3PO4 Ammonium phosphate(V)

NH4 PO4
(NH4 )2HPO4 Diammonium phosphate(V)
Ammonium diphosphate(V)
NH4 H2PO4
KOH + H3PO4 3- K3PO4 Potassium phosphate(V)

K PO4
Al(OH)3 3+ H2SO4 2- Al2(SO4)2 Aluminium(III)sulphate(VI)

Al SO4
Fe(OH)2 2+ H2SO4 2- FeSO4 Iron(II)sulphate(VI)

Fe SO4
Fe(OH)3 3+ H2SO4 2- Fe2(SO4)2 Iron(III)sulphate(VI)

Fe SO4

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(d) Some salts undergo hygroscopy, deliquescence and efflorescence.

(i) Hygroscopic salts /compounds are those that absorb water from the atmosphere but do not form a
solution.
Some salts which are hygroscopic include anhydrous copper(II)sulphate(VI), anhydrous
cobalt(II)chloride, potassium nitrate(V) common table salt.
(ii)Deliquescent salts /compounds are those that absorb water from the atmosphere and form a
solution.
Some salts which are deliquescent include: Sodium nitrate(V),Calcium chloride, Sodium hydroxide,
Iron(II)chloride, Magnesium chloride.
(iii)Efflorescent salts/compounds are those that lose their water of crystallization to the atmosphere.
Some salts which effloresces include: sodium carbonate decahydrate,
Iron(II)sulphate(VI)heptahydrate, sodium sulphate (VI)decahydrate.
(e)Some salts contain water of crystallization.They are hydrated.Others do not contain water of
crystallization. They are anhydrous.
Table showing some hydrated salts.

Name of hydrated salt Chemical formula
Copper(II)sulphate(VI)pentahydrate CuSO4.5H2O
Aluminium(III)sulphate(VI)hexahydrate Al2 (SO4) 3.6H2O
Zinc(II)sulphate(VI)heptahydrate ZnSO4.7H2O
Iron(II)sulphate(VI)heptahydrate FeSO4.7H2O
Calcium(II)sulphate(VI)heptahydrate CaSO4.7H2O
Magnesium(II)sulphate(VI)heptahydrate MgSO4.7H2O
Sodium sulphate(VI)decahydrate Na2SO4.10H2O
Sodium carbonate(IV)decahydrate Na2CO3.10H2O
Potassium carbonate(IV)decahydrate K2CO3.10H2O
Potassium sulphate(VI)decahydrate K2SO4.10H2O

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(f)Some salts exist as a simple salt while some as complex salts. Below are some complex salts.
Table of some complex salts
Name of complex salt Chemical formula Colour of the complex salt
Tetraamminecopper(II)sulphate(VI) Cu(NH3) 4 SO4 H2O Royal/deep blue solution
Tetraamminezinc(II)nitrate(V) Zn(NH3) 4 (NO3 )2 Colourless solution
Tetraamminecopper(II) nitrate(V) Cu(NH3) 4 (NO3 )2 Royal/deep blue solution
Tetraamminezinc(II)sulphate(VI) Zn(NH3) 4 SO4 Colourless solution
(g)Some salts exist as two salts in one. They are called double salts.
Table of some double salts
Name of double salts Chemical formula
Trona(sodium sesquicarbonate) Na2CO3 NaHCO3.2H2O
Ammonium iron(II)sulphate(VI) FeSO4(NH4) 2SO4.2H2O
Ammonium aluminium(III)sulphate(VI) Al2(SO4) 3(NH4) 2SO4.H2O
(h)Some salts dissolve in water to form a solution. They are said to be soluble. Others do not dissolve
in water. They form a suspension/precipitate in water.
Table of solubility of salts
Soluble salts Insoluble salts
All nitrate(V)salts
All sulphate(VI)/SO42- salts except Barium(II) sulphate(VI)/BaSO4
Calcium(II) sulphate(VI)/CaSO4
Lead(II) sulphate(VI)/PbSO4
All sulphate(IV)/SO32- salts except Barium(II) sulphate(IV)/BaSO3
Calcium(II) sulphate(IV)/CaSO3
Lead(II) sulphate(IV)/PbSO3
All chlorides/Cl- except Silver chloride/AgCl

Page | 19
Lead(II)chloride/PbCl2(dissolves in hot water)
All phosphate(V)/PO43-
All sodium,potassium and ammonium salts
All hydrogen carbonates/HCO3-
All hydrogen sulphate(VI)/ HSO4-
Sodium carbonate/Na2CO3, except All carbonates
potassium carbonate/ K2CO3,
ammonium carbonate (NH4) 2CO3
All alkalis(KOH,NaOH, NH4OH) except All bases
13 Salts can be prepared in a school laboratory by a method that uses its solubility in water.
(a) Soluble salts may be prepared by using any of the following methods:
(i)Direct displacement/reaction of a metal with an acid.

By reacting a metal higher in the reactivity series than hydrogen with a dilute acid,a salt is formed and
hydrogen gas is evolved.
Excess of the metal must be used to ensure all the acid has reacted.
When effervescence/bubbling /fizzing has stopped ,excess metal is filtered.
The filtrate is heated to concentrate then allowed to crystallize.
Washing with distilled water then drying between filter papers produces a sample crystal of the salt.
i.e.
M(s) + H2X -> MX(aq) + H2(g)
Examples
Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) -> MgSO4 (aq) + H2(g)
Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) -> ZnSO4 (aq) + H2(g)
Pb(s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Pb(NO3) 2(aq) + H2(g)
Ca(s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Ca(NO3) 2(aq) + H2(g)
Mg(s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Mg(NO3) 2(aq) + H2(g)
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) -> MgCl 2(aq) + H2(g)
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) -> ZnCl 2(aq) + H2(g)

Page | 20
(ii)Reaction of an insoluble base with an acid

By adding an insoluble base (oxide/hydroxide )to a dilute acid until no more dissolves, in the acid,a
salt and water are formed. Excess of the base is filtered off. The filtrate is heated to concentrate
,allowed to crystallize then washed with distilled water before drying between filter papers e.g.
PbO(s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Pb(NO3) 2(aq) + H2O (l)
Pb(OH)2(s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Pb(NO3) 2(aq) + 2H2O (l)
CaO (s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Ca(NO3) 2(aq) + H2O (l)
MgO (s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Mg(NO3) 2(aq) + H2O (l)
MgO (s) + 2HCl(aq) -> MgCl 2(aq) + H2O (l)
ZnO (s) + 2HCl(aq) -> ZnCl 2(aq) + H2O (l)
Zn(OH)2(s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Zn(NO3) 2(aq) + 2H2O (l)
CuO (s) + 2HCl(aq) -> CuCl 2(aq) + H2O (l)
CuO (s) + H2SO4(aq) -> CuSO4(aq) + H2O (l)
Ag2O(s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> 2AgNO3(aq) + H2O (l)
Na2O(s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> 2NaNO3(aq) + H2O (l)
(iii)reaction of insoluble /soluble carbonate /hydrogen carbonate with an

acid.
By adding an excess of a soluble /insoluble carbonate or hydrogen carbonate to adilute acid,
effervescence /fizzing/bubbling out of carbon(IV)oxide gas shows the reaction is taking place. When
effervescence /fizzing/bubbling out of the gas is over, excess of the insoluble carbonate is filtered
off. The filtrate is heated to concentrate ,allowed to crystallize then washed with distilled water
before drying between filter paper papers e.g.
PbCO3 (s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Pb(NO3) 2(aq) + H2O (l)+ CO2(g)
ZnCO3 (s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Zn(NO3) 2(aq) + H2O (l)+ CO2(g)
CaCO3 (s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> Ca(NO3) 2(aq) + H2O (l)+ CO2(g)
MgCO3 (s) + H2SO4(aq) -> MgSO4(aq) + H2O (l)+ CO2(g)
Cu CO3 (s) + H2SO4(aq) -> CuSO4(aq) + H2O (l) + CO2(g)
Ag2CO3 (s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> 2AgNO3(aq) + H2O (l) + CO2(g)
Na2CO3 (s) + 2HNO3(aq) -> 2NaNO3(aq) + H2O (l) + CO2(g)
K2CO3 (s) + 2HCl(aq) -> 2KCl(aq) + H2O (l) + CO2(g)

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NaHCO3 (s) + HNO3(aq) -> NaNO3(aq) + H2O (l) + CO2(g)
KHCO3 (s) + HCl(aq) -> KCl(aq) + H2O (l) + CO2(g)
(iv)neutralization/reaction of soluble base/alkali with dilute acid

By adding an acid to a burette into a known volume of an alkali with 2-3 drops of an indicator, the
colour of the indicator changes when the acid has completely reacted with an alkali at the end point.
The procedure is then repeated without the indicator .The solution mixture is then heated to
concentrate , allowed to crystallize ,washed with distilled water before drying with filter papers. e.g.
NaOH (aq) + HNO3(aq) -> NaNO3(aq) + H2O (l)
KOH (aq) + HNO3(aq) -> KNO3(aq) + H2O (l)
KOH (aq) + HCl(aq) -> KCl(aq) + H2O (l)
2KOH (aq) + H2SO4(aq) -> K2SO4(aq) + 2H2O (l)
2 NH4OH (aq) + H2SO4(aq) -> (NH4)2SO4(aq) + 2H2O (l)
NH4OH (aq) + HNO3(aq) -> NH4NO3(aq) + H2O (l)
(iv)direct synthesis/combination.
When a metal burn in a gas jar containing a non metal , the two directly combine to form a salt. e.g.
2Na(s) + Cl2(g) -> 2NaCl(s)
2K(s) + Cl2(g) -> 2KCl(s)
Mg(s) + Cl2(g) -> Mg Cl2 (s)
Ca(s) + Cl2(g) -> Ca Cl2 (s)
Some salts once formed undergo sublimation and hydrolysis. Care should be taken to avoid
water/moisture into the reaction flask during their preparation.Such salts include
aluminium(III)chloride(AlCl3) and iron (III)chloride(FeCl3)
1. Heated aluminium foil reacts with chlorine to form aluminium(III)chloride that sublimes away
from the source of heating then deposited as solid again
2Al(s) + 3Cl2(g) -> 2AlCl3 (s/g)
Once formed aluminium(III)chloride hydrolyses/reacts with water vapour / moisture present to form
aluminium hydroxide solution and highly acidic fumes of hydrogen chloride gas.
AlCl3(s)+ 3H2 O(g) -> Al(OH)3 (aq) + 3HCl(g)

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2. Heated iron filings reacts with chlorine to form iron(III)chloride that sublimes away from the
source of heating then deposited as solid again
2Fe(s) + 3Cl2(g) -> 2FeCl3 (s/g)
Once formed , aluminium(III)chloride hydrolyses/reacts with water vapour / moisture present to form
aluminium hydroxide solution and highly acidic fumes of hydrogen chloride gas.
FeCl3(s)+ 3H2 O(g) -> Fe(OH)3 (aq) + 3HCl(g)
(b)Insoluble salts can be prepared by reacting two suitable soluble salts to form one soluble and one
insoluble. This is called double decomposition or precipitation. The mixture is filtered and the
residue is washed with distilled water then dried.
CuSO4(aq) + Na2CO3 (aq) -> CuCO3 (s) + Na2 SO4(aq)
BaCl2(aq) + K2SO4 (aq) -> BaSO4 (s) + 2KCl (aq)
Pb(NO3)2(aq) + K2SO4 (aq) -> PbSO4 (s) + 2KNO3 (aq)
2AgNO3(aq) + MgCl2 (aq) -> 2AgCl(s) + Mg(NO3)2 (aq)
Pb(NO3)2(aq) + (NH4) 2SO4 (aq) -> PbSO4 (s) + 2NH4NO 3(aq)
BaCl2(aq) + K2SO3 (aq) -> BaSO3 (s) + 2KCl (aq)
14. Salts may lose their water of crystallization , decompose ,melt or sublime on heating on a Bunsen
burner flame.
The following shows the behavior of some salts on heating gently /or strongly in a laboratory school
burner:
(a)effect of heat on chlorides

All chlorides have very high melting and boiling points and therefore are not affected by laboratory
heating except ammonium chloride. Ammonium chloride sublimes on gentle heating. It dissociate
into the constituent ammonia and hydrogen chloride gases on strong heating.
NH4Cl(s) NH4Cl(g) NH3(g) + HCl(g)
(sublimation) (dissociation)

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(b)effect of heat on nitrate(V)

(i) Potassium nitrate(V)/KNO3 and sodium nitrate(V)/NaNO3 decompose on heating to form
Potassium nitrate(III)/KNO2 and sodium nitrate(III)/NaNO2 and producing Oxygen gas in each
case.
2KNO3 (s) -> 2KNO2(s) + O2(g)
2NaNO3 (s) -> 2NaNO2(s) + O2(g)
(ii)Heavy metal nitrates(V) salts decompose on heating to form the oxide and a mixture of brown
acidic nitrogen(IV)oxide and oxygen gases. e.g.
2Ca(NO3)2 (s) -> 2CaO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
2Mg(NO3)2(s) -> 2MgO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
2Zn(NO3)2(s) -> 2ZnO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
2Pb(NO3)2(s) -> 2PbO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
2Cu(NO3)2(s) -> 2CuO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
2Fe(NO3)2(s) -> 2FeO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
(iii)Silver(I)nitrate(V) and mercury(II) nitrate(V) are lowest in the reactivity series. They decompose
on heating to form the metal(silver and mercury)and the Nitrogen(IV)oxide and oxygen gas. i.e.
2AgNO3(s) -> 2Ag (s) + 2NO2(g) + O2(g)
2Hg(NO3)2 (s) -> 2Hg (s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
(iv)Ammonium nitrate(V) and Ammonium nitrate(III) decompose on heating to
Nitrogen(I)oxide(relights/rekindles glowing splint) and nitrogen gas respectively.Water is also
formed.i.e.
NH4NO3(s) -> N2O (g) + H2O(l)
NH4NO2(s) -> N2 (g) + H2O(l)
(c) effect of heat on nitrate(V)

Only Iron(II)sulphate(VI), Iron(III)sulphate(VI) and copper(II)sulphate(VI) decompose on heating.
They form the oxide, and produce highly acidic fumes of acidic sulphur(IV)oxide gas.
2FeSO4 (s) -> Fe2O3(s) + SO3(g) + SO2(g)
Fe2(SO4) 3(s) -> Fe2O3(s) + SO3(g)
CuSO4 (s) -> CuO(s) + SO3(g)

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(d) effect of heat on carbonates(IV) and hydrogen carbonate(IV).

(i)Sodium carbonate(IV)and potassium carbonate(IV)do not decompose on heating.
(ii)Heavy metal nitrate(IV)salts decompose on heating to form the oxide and produce
carbon(IV)oxide gas. Carbon (IV)oxide gas forms a white precipitate when bubbled in lime water.
The white precipitate dissolves if the gas is in excess. e.g. CuCO3 (s) -> CuO(s)
+ CO2(g)
CaCO3 (s) -> CaO(s) + CO2(g)
PbCO3 (s) -> PbO(s) + CO2(g)
FeCO3 (s) -> FeO(s) + CO2(g)
ZnCO3 (s) -> ZnO(s) + CO2(g)
(iii)Sodium hydrogen carbonate(IV) and Potassium hydrogen carbonate(IV)decompose on heating to

give the corresponding carbonate (IV) and form water and carbon(IV)oxide gas. i.e.
2NaHCO 3(s) -> Na2CO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
2KHCO 3(s) -> K2CO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
(iii) Calcium hydrogen carbonate (IV) and Magnesium hydrogen carbonate(IV) decompose on heating
to give the corresponding carbonate (IV) and form water and carbon(IV)oxide gas. i. e.
Ca(HCO3) 2(aq) -> CaCO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Mg(HCO3) 2(aq) -> MgCO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
15. Salts contain cation(positively charged ion) and anions(negatively charged ion).When dissolved in
polar solvents/water.
The cation and anion in a salt is determined/known usually by precipitation of the salt using a
precipitating reagent.
The colour of the precipitate is a basis of qualitative analysis of a compound.
16.Qualitative analysis is the process of identifying an unknown compound /salt by identifying the
unique qualities of the salt/compound.
It involves some of the following processes.

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(a)Reaction of cation with sodium/potassium hydroxide solution.

Both sodium/potassium hydroxide solutions are precipitating reagents.
The alkalis produce unique colour of a precipitate/suspension when a few/three drops is added and
then excess alkali is added to unknown salt/compound solution.
NB: Potassium hydroxide is not commonly used because it is more expensive than sodium hydroxide.
The table below shows the observations, inferences / deductions and explanations from the following
test tube experiments:
Procedure
Put about 2cm3 of MgCl2, CaCl2, AlCl3, NaCl, KCl, FeSO4, Fe2(SO4) 3, CuSO4, ZnSO4NH4NO3,
Pb(NO3) 2, Ba(NO3) 2 each into separate test tubes. Add three drops of 2M sodium hydroxide
solution then excess (2/3 the length of a standard test tube).
Observation Inference Explanation
No white precipitate Na+ and K+ Both Na+ and K+ ions react with OH- from 2M sodium
hydroxide solution to form soluble colourless solutions
Na+(aq) + OH-(aq) -> NaOH(aq)

K+(aq) + OH-(aq) -> KOH(aq)
No white precipitate NH4+ ions NH4+ ions react with 2M sodium hydroxide solution to
then pungent smell of produce pungent smelling ammonia gas
ammonia /urine
NH4+ (aq) + OH-(aq) -> NH3 (g) + H2O(l)
White precipitate Ba2+ ,Ca2+, Mg2+Ba2+ ,Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions react with OH- from 2M sodium
insoluble in excess ions hydroxide solution to form insoluble white precipitate of
their hydroxides.
Ba2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) -> Ba(OH) 2(s)

Ca2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) -> Ca(OH) 2(s)
Mg2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) -> Mg(OH) 2(s)

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White precipitate Zn2+ ,Pb2+, Al3+ Pb2+ ,Zn2+ and Al3+ ions react with OH- from 2M sodium
soluble in excess ions hydroxide solution to form insoluble white precipitate of
their hydroxides.
Zn (aq) + 2OH-(aq) -> Zn(OH) 2(s)
2+
Pb2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) -> Pb(OH) 2(s)

Al3+(aq) + 3OH-(aq) -> Al(OH) 3(s)
The hydroxides formed react with more OH- ions to form
complex salts/ions.
Zn(OH) 2(s) + 2OH(aq) -> [ Zn(OH) 4]2-(aq)
Pb(OH) 2(s) + 2OH(aq) -> [ Pb(OH) 4]2-(aq)
Al(OH) 3(s) + OH(aq) -> [ Al(OH) 4]-(aq)
Blue precipitate Cu2+ Cu2+ ions react with OH- from 2M sodium hydroxide
insoluble in excess solution to form insoluble blue precipitate of copper(II)
hydroxide.
Cu2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) -> Cu(OH) 2(s)
Green precipitate Fe2+ Fe2+ ions react with OH- from 2M sodium hydroxide
insoluble in excess solution to form insoluble green precipitate of Iron(II)
hydroxide.
On adding 3cm3 of
hydrogen peroxide, Fe2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) -> Fe(OH) 2(s)
brown/yellow Fe2+ oxidized to Hydrogen peroxide is an oxidizing agent that oxidizes
solution formed Fe3+ green Fe2+ oxidized to brown Fe3+
Fe(OH) 2(s) + 2H+ -> Fe(OH) 3(aq)

Brown precipitate Fe3+ Fe3+ ions react with OH- from 2M sodium hydroxide
insoluble in excess solution to form insoluble brown precipitate of Iron(II)
hydroxide.
Fe3+(aq) + 3OH-(aq) -> Fe(OH) 3(s)
(b)Reaction of cation with aqueous ammonia

Aqueous ammonia precipitating reagent that can be used to identify the cations present in a salt.
Like NaOH/KOH the OH- ion in NH4OH react with the cation to form a characteristic hydroxide .
Below are the observations ,inferences and explanations of the reactions of aqueous ammonia with
salts from the following test tube reactions.

Page | 27
Procedure
Put about 2cm3 of MgCl2, CaCl2, AlCl3, NaCl, KCl, FeSO4, Fe2(SO4) 3, CuSO4, ZnSO4NH4NO3,
Pb(NO3) 2, Ba(NO3) 2 each into separate test tubes.
Add three drops of 2M aqueous ammonia then excess ( 2/3 the length of a standard test tube).
No white precipitate Na+ and K+ NH4+,Na+ and K+ ions react with OH- from 2M aqueous
ammonia to form soluble colourless solutions
NH4+ (aq) + OH-(aq) -> NH4+OH(aq)
Na+(aq) + OH-(aq) -> NaOH(aq)
K+(aq) + OH-(aq) -> KOH(aq)
White precipitate Ba2+ ,Ca2+, Mg2+Ba2+ ,Ca2+,Mg2+ ,Pb2+ and Al3+, ions react with OH- from 2M
insoluble in excess ,Pb2+, Al3+, ions aqueous ammonia to form insoluble white precipitate of
their hydroxides.
Pb2+ (aq) + 2OH-(aq) -> Pb(OH) 2(s)

Al3+ (aq) + 3OH-(aq) -> Al(OH) 3(s)
Ba2+ (aq) + 2OH-(aq) -> Ba(OH) 2(s)
Ca2+ (aq) + 2OH-(aq) -> Ca(OH) 2(s)
Mg2+ (aq) + 2OH-(aq) -> Mg(OH) 2(s)
White precipitate soluble Zn2+ ions Zn2+ ions react with OH- from 2M aqueous ammonia to form
in excess insoluble white precipitate of Zinc hydroxide.
Zn2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) -> Zn(OH) 2(s)

The Zinc hydroxides formed react NH3(aq) to form a complex
salts/ions.
Zn(OH) 2(s) + 4NH3(aq)
->[ Zn(NH3) 4]2+(aq)+ 2OH-(aq)
Blue precipitate that Cu2+ Cu2+ ions react with OH- from 2M aqueous ammonia to form
dissolves in excess blue precipitate of copper(II) hydroxide.
ammonia solution to
form a deep/royal blue Cu2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) -> Cu(OH) 2(s)
solution The copper(II) hydroxide formed react NH3(aq) to form a
complex salts/ions.
Cu(OH) 2 (s) + 4NH3(aq)

->[ Cu(NH3) 4]2+(aq)+ 2OH-(aq)

Page | 28
Green precipitate Fe2+ Fe2+ ions react with OH- from 2M aqueous ammonia to form
insoluble in excess. insoluble green precipitate of Iron(II) hydroxide.
Fe2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) -> Fe(OH) 2(s)
On adding 3cm3 of
hydrogen peroxide, Hydrogen peroxide is an oxidizing agent that oxidizes green
2+
brown/yellow solution Fe oxidized to Fe2+ oxidized to brown Fe3+
formed Fe3+ Fe(OH) 2(s) + 2H+ -> Fe(OH) 3(aq)
Brown precipitate Fe3+ Fe3+ ions react with OH- from 2M aqueous ammonia to form
insoluble in excess insoluble brown precipitate of Iron(II) hydroxide.
Fe3+(aq) + 3OH-(aq) -> Fe(OH) 3(s)
Note
(i) Only Zn2+ ions/salts form a white precipitate that dissolve in excess of both 2M sodium hydroxide
and 2M aqueous ammonia.
(ii) Pb2+ and Al3+ ions/salts form a white precipitate that dissolve in excess of 2M sodium hydroxide
but not in 2M aqueous ammonia.
(iii) Cu2+ ions/salts form a blue precipitate that dissolve to form a deep/royal blue solution in excess
of 2M aqueous ammonia but only blue insoluble precipitate in 2M sodium hydroxide
(c)Reaction of cation with Chloride (Cl-)ions
All chlorides are soluble in water except Silver chloride and Lead (II)chloride (That dissolve in hot
water).When a soluble chloride like NaCl, KCl, NH4Cl is added to about 2cm3 of a salt containing
Ag+ or Pb2+ions a white precipitate of AgCl or PbCl2 is formed. The following test tube reactions
illustrate the above.
Experiment
Put about 2cm3 of silver nitrate(V) andLead(II)nitrate(V)solution into separate test tubes. Add five
drops of NaCl /KCl / NH4Cl/HCl. Heat to boil.
(i)White precipitate does Ag+ ions Ag+ ions reacts with Cl- ions from a soluble
not dissolve on heating chloride salt to form a white precipitate of
AgCl
(ii)White precipitate Pb2+ ions Pb2+ ions reacts with Cl- ions from a soluble
dissolve on heating chloride salt to form a white precipitate of
PbCl2. PbCl2 dissolves on heating.

Page | 29
Note
Both Pb2+ and Al3+ ions forms an insoluble white precipitate in excess aqueous ammonia. A white
precipitate on adding Cl- ions/salts shows Pb2+.
No white precipitate on adding Cl- ions/salts shows Al3+.
Adding a chloride/ Cl- ions/salts can thus be used to separate the identity of Al3+ and Pb2+.
(d)Reaction of cation with sulphate(VI)/SO42- and sulphate(IV)/SO32- ions

All sulphate(VI) and sulphate(IV)/SO32- ions/salts are soluble/dissolve in water except Calcium
sulphate(VI)/CaSO4, Calcium sulphate(IV)/CaSO3, Barium sulphate(VI)/BaSO4, Barium
sulphate(IV)/BaSO3, Lead(II) sulphate(VI)/PbSO4 and Lead(II) sulphate(IV)/PbSO3.When a soluble
sulphate(VI)/SO42- salt like Na2SO4, H2SO4, (NH4)2SO4 or Na2SO3 is added to a salt containing
Ca2+, Pb2+, Ba2+ ions, a white precipitate is formed.
The following test tube experiments illustrate the above.
Procedure
Place about 2cm3 of Ca(NO3)2, Ba(NO3)2, BaCl2 and Pb(NO3)2, in separate boiling tubes. Add six
drops of sulphuric(VI)acid /sodium sulphate(VI)/ammonium sulphate(VI)solution. Repeat with six
drops of sodium sulphate(IV).
White precipitateCa2+, Ba2+, Pb2+CaSO3 and CaSO4 do not form a thick precipitate as they are
ions sparingly soluble.
Ca (aq)+ SO32-(aq) -> CaSO3(s)
2+
Ca2+(aq)+ SO42-(aq) -> CaSO4(s)
Ba2+(aq)+ SO32-(aq) -> BaSO3(s)

Ba2+(aq)+ SO42-(aq) -> BaSO4(s)
Pb2+(aq)+ SO32-(aq) -> PbSO3(s)

Pb2+(aq)+ SO42-(aq) -> PbSO4(s)
(e)Reaction of cation with carbonate(IV)/CO32- ions

All carbonate salts are insoluble except sodium/potassium carbonate(IV) and ammonium
carbonate(IV).
They dissociate /ionize to release CO32- ions. CO32- ions produce a white precipitate when the soluble
carbonate salts is added to any metallic cation.

Page | 30
Procedure
Place about 2cm3 of Ca(NO3)2, Ba(NO3)2, MgCl2 ,Pb(NO3)2 andZnSO4 in separate boiling tubes.
Add six drops of Potassium /sodium carbonate(IV)/ ammonium carbonate (IV)solution.
Green precipitate Cu2+ ,Fe2+,ions Copper(II)carbonate(IV) and Iron(II) carbonate (IV) are
precipitated as insoluble green precipitates.
2-
CO3 (aq) Cu2+(aq)+ CO32-(aq) -> CuCO3(s)
Fe2+(aq)+ CO32-(aq) -> FeCO3(s)
When sodium carbonate(IV)is added to CuCO3(s) the CO32-

(aq) ions are first hydrolysed to produce CO2(g) and OH-
(aq)ions.
CO3 (aq) + H2O (l) -> CO2 (g) + 2OH- (aq)
2-
The OH-(aq) ions further react to form basic copper(II)

carbonate(IV). Basic copper(II) carbonate(IV) is the only
green salt of copper.
Cu (aq)+ CO32-(aq)+2OH- (aq)
2+
->CuCO3.Cu(OH)2 (s)
White precipitate CO32- White ppt of the carbonate(IV)salt is precipitated
Ca2+(aq) + CO32- (aq) -> CaCO3(s)
Mg2+(aq) + CO32- (aq) -> MgCO3(s)
Pb2+(aq) + CO32- (aq) -> PbCO3(s)
Zn2+(aq) + CO32- (aq) -> ZnCO3(s)
Note
(i)Iron(III)carbonate(IV) does not exist.
(ii)Copper(II)Carbonate(IV) exist only as the basic CuCO3.Cu(OH) 2
(iii)Both BaCO3 and BaSO3 are insoluble white precipitate. If hydrochloric acid is added to the white
precipitate;
I. BaCO3 produces CO2 gas. When bubbled/directed into lime water solution,a white precipitate is
formed.
II. I. BaSO3 produces SO2 gas. When bubbled/directed into orange acidified potassium
dichromate(VI) solution, it turns to green/decolorizes acidified potassium manganate(VII).

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(f) Reaction of cation with sulphide / S2- ions

All sulphides are insoluble black solids/precipitates except sodium sulphide/ Na2S/ potassium
sulphide/K2S.When a few/3drops of the soluble sulphide is added to a metal cation/salt, a black
precipitate is formed.
Procedure
Place about 2cm3 of Cu(NO3)2, FeSO4, MgCl2,Pb(NO3)2 and ZnSO4 in separate boiling tubes.
Add six drops of Potassium /sodium sulphide solution.
Black ppt S2- ions CuS, FeS,MgS,PbS, ZnS are black insoluble precipitates
Cu2+(aq) + S2-(aq) -> CuS(s)
Pb2+(aq) + S2-(aq) -> PbS(s)
Fe2+(aq) + S2-(aq) -> FeS(s)
Zn2+(aq) + S2-(aq) -> ZnS(s)
Sample qualitative analysis guide

You are provided with solid Y(aluminium (III)sulphate(VI)hexahydrate).Carry out the following tests
and record your observations and inferences in the space provided.
1(a) Appearance
Observations inference (1mark)
White crystalline solid Coloured ions Cu2+ , Fe2+ ,Fe3+ absent
(b)Place about a half spatula full of the solid into a clean dry boiling tube. Heat gently then strongly.
Observations inference (1mark)
Colourless droplets formed on the cooler Hydrated compound/compound
part of the test tube containing water of crystallization
Solid remains a white residue
(c)Place all the remaining portion of the solid in a test tube .Add about 10cm3 of distilled water. Shake
thoroughly. Divide the mixture into five portions.

Page | 32
Observation Inference (1mark)
Solid dissolves to form Polar soluble compound
a colourless solution Cu2+ , Fe2+ ,Fe3+ absent
(i)To the first portion, add three drops of sodium hydroxide then add excess of the alkali.
White ppt, soluble in excess Zn2+ , Pb2+ , Al3+
(ii)To the second portion, add three drops of aqueous ammonia then add excess of the alkali.
White ppt, insoluble in excess Pb2+ , Al3+
(iii)To the third portion, add three drops of sodium sulphate(VI)solution.

No white ppt Al3+
(iv)I.To the fourth portion, add three drops of Lead(II)nitrate(IV)solution. Preserve

White ppt CO32-, SO42-, SO32-, Cl-,
II.To the portion in (iv) I above , add five drops of dilute hydrochloric acid.
White ppt persist/remains SO42-, Cl-,
III.To the portion in (iv) II above, heat to boil.

White ppt persist/remains SO42-,
Note that:
(i)From test above, it can be deduced that solid Y is hydrated aluminium(III)sulphate(VI) solid
(ii)Any ion inferred from an observation below must be derived from previous correct observation and
inferences above. e.g.
Page | 33
Al3+ in c(iii) must be correctly inferred in either/or in c(ii) or c(i)above

SO42- in c(iv)III must be correctly inferred in either/or in c(iv)II or c(iv)I above
(iii)Contradiction in observations and inferences should be avoided.e.g.
“White ppt soluble in excess” to infer presence of Al3+ ,Ba2+ ,Pb3+
(iv)Symbols of elements/ions should be correctly capitalized. e.g.
“SO4-2” is wrong, “sO42-” is wrong, “cu2+” is wrong.
Sample solutions of salt were labeled as I,II, III and IV. The actual solutions, not in that order
are lead nitrate, zinc sulphate potassium chloride and calcium chloride.
a)When aqueous sodium carbonate was added to each sample separately, a white precipitate
was formed in I, III and IV only. Identify solution II.
b)When excess sodium hydroxide was added to each sample separately, a white precipitate was
formed in solutions III and I only.
Identify solution I
17.When solids/salts /solutes are added to a solvent ,some dissolve to form a solution.
Solute + Solvent -> Solvent
If a solution has a lot of solute dissolved in a solvent ,it is said to be concentrated.
If a solution has little solute dissolved in a solvent ,it is said to be dilute.
There is a limit to how much solute can dissolve in a given /specified amount of solvent/water at a
given /specified temperature.
The maximum mass of salt/solid/solute that dissolve in 100g of solvent/water at a specified
temperature is called solubility of a salt.
When no more solute can dissolve in a given amount of solvent at a specified temperature, a
saturated solution is formed.
For some salts, on heating, more of the salt/solid/solute dissolve in the saturated solution to form a
super saturated solution.
The solubility of a salt is thus calculated from the formula
Solubility = Mass of solute/salt/solid x 100
Mass/volume of water/solvent

Page | 34
Practice examples
(a)Calculate the solubility of potassium nitrate(V) if 5.0 g of the salt is dissolved in 50.0cm3 of
water.
Solubility = Mass of solute/salt/solid x 100 =>( 5.0 x 100 ) = 10.0 g /100g H2O
Mass/volume of water/solvent 50.0
(b)Calculate the solubility of potassium chlorate(V) if 50.0 g of the salt is dissolved in 250.0cm3
of water.
Solubility = Mass of solute/salt/solid x 100 =>( 50.0 x 100 ) = 20.0 g /100g H2O
Mass/volume of water/solvent 250.0
(c)If the solubility of potassium chlorate(V) is 5g/100g H2O at 80oC,how much can dissolve in
5cm3 of water at 80oC .
Mass of solute/salt/solid = Solubility x Mass/volume of water/solvent
100
=> 5 x 5 = 0.25g of KClO3 dissolve
100
(d)If the solubility of potassium chlorate(V) is 72g/100g H 2O at 20oC,how much can saturate 25g
of water at 20oC .
Mass of solute/salt/solid = Solubility x Mass/volume of water/solvent
100
=> 72 x 25 = 18.0g of KClO3 dissolve/saturate
100
(e) 22g of potassium nitrate(V) was dissolved in 40.0g of water at 10oC. Calculate the solubility
of potassium nitrate(V) at 10oC.
Solubility = Mass of solute/salt/solid x 100 =>( 22 x 100 ) = 55.0 g /100g H2O
Mass/volume of water/solvent 40.0.
(f)What volume of water should be added to 22.0g of water at 10oC if the solubility of KNO3 at
10oC is 5.0g/100g H2O?
Solubility is mass/100g H2O => 22.0g + x = 100cm3/100g H2O
X= 100 – 22 = 78 cm3 of H2O

Page | 35
18. A graph of solubility against temperature is called solubility curve.

It shows the influence of temperature on solubility of different substances/solids/salts.
Some substances dissolve more with increase in temperature while for others dissolve less with
increase in temperature
KNO3
KClO3
Saturated solution of KClO3

Solubility
/100g A
unsaturated solution of KClO3
water
B KClO3 NaCl
KClO3
Temperature (0C)
Note:
(i)solubility of KNO3 and KClO3 increase with increase in temperature.
(ii)solubility of KNO3 is always higher than that of KClO3 at any specified temperature.
(iii)solubility of NaCl decrease with increase in temperature.
(iv)NaCl has the highest solubility at low temperature while KClO3 has the lowest solubility at low
temperature.
(v)At point A both NaCl and KNO3 are equally soluble.
(vi)At point B both NaCl and KClO3 are equally soluble.
(vii) An area above the solubility curve of the salt shows a saturated /supersaturated solution.
(viii) An area below the solubility curve of the salt shows an unsaturated solution.
This is a Property of Mwalimu Consultancy Ltd. Contact Mr Isaboke
0746-222-000 for more Educational Materials.

Page | 36
19.(a) For salts whose solubility increases with increase in temperature, crystals form when the salt
solution at higher temperatures is cooled to a lower temperature.
(b) For salts whose solubility decreases with increase in temperature, crystals form when the salt
solution at lower temperatures is heated to a higher temperature.
The examples below shows determination of the mass of crystals deposited with changes in
temperature.
1.The solubility of KClO3 at 100oC is 60g/100g water .What mass of KClO3 will be deposited
at:
(i)75 oC if the solubility is now 39g/100g water.
At 100oC = 60.0g
Less at 75oC = - 39.0g
Mass of crystallized out 21.0g
(i)35 oC if the solubility is now 28 g/100g water.
At 100oC = 60.0g
Less at 35oC = - 28.0.0g
Mass of crystallized out 32.0g
2. KNO3 has a solubility of 42 g/100g water at 20oC.The salt was heated and added 38g more of
the solute which dissolved at100oC. Calculate the solubility of KNO3 at 100oC.
Solubility of KNO3 at 100oC = solubility at 20oC + mass of KNO3 added
=> 42g + 38g = 80g KNO3 /100g H2O
3. A salt solution has a mass of 65g containing 5g of solute. The solubility of this salt is 25g per
100g water at 20oC. 60g of the salt are added to the solution at 20 oC.Calculate the mass of the
solute that remain undissolved.
Mass of solvent at 20oC = mass of solution – mass of solute
=> 65 - 5 = 60g
Solubility before adding salt = mass of solute x 100
Volume of solvent

Page | 37
=> 5 x 100 = 8.3333g/100g water

60
Mass of solute to equalize with solubility = 25 – 8.3333g = 16.6667g
Mass of solute undissolved = 60.0 - 16.6667g = 43.3333 g
4. Study the table below

Salt Solubility in gram at
50oC 20oC
KNO3 90 30
KClO3 20 6
(i)What happens when the two salts are dissolved in water then cooled from 50 oC to 20oC.
(90 – 30) = 60.0 g of KNO3 crystals precipitate
(20 – 6) = 14.0 g of KClO3 crystals precipitate
(ii)State the assumption made in (i) above.

Solubility of one salt has no effect on the solubility of the other.
5. 10.0 g of hydrated potassium carbonate (IV) K2CO3.xH2O on heating leave 7.93 of the
hydrate.
(a)Calculate the mass of anhydrous salt obtained.
Hydrated on heating leave anhydrous = 7.93 g
(b)Calculate the mass of water of crystallization in the hydrated salt
Mass of water of crystallization = hydrated – anhydrous
=> 10.0 - 7.93 = 2.07 g
(c)How many moles of anhydrous salt are there in 10of hydrate? (K= 39.0,C=12.0.O= 16.0)
Molar mass K2CO3= 138
Moles K2CO3 = mass of K2CO3 => 7.93 = 0.0515 moles
Molar mass K2CO3 138
(d)How many moles of water are present in the hydrate for every one mole of K2CO3 ?

Page | 38
(H=1.0.O= 16.0)
Molar mass H2O = 18
Moles H2O = mass of H2O => 2.07 = 0.115 moles
Molar mass H2O 18
Mole ratio H2O : K2CO3 = 0.115 moles 2 = 2
0.0515 moles 1
(e)What is the formula of the hydrated salt?
K2CO3 .2 H2O
6. The table below shows the solubility of Potassium nitrate(V) at different temperatures.
Temperature(oC) 5.0 10.0 15.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0
mass KNO3/ 100g water 15.0 20.0 25.0 50.0 65.0 90.0 120.0
(a)Plot a graph of mass of in 100g water(y-axis) against temperature in oC

Page | 39
(b)From the graph show and determine

(i)the mass of KNO3 dissolved at:
I. 20oC
From a correctly plotted graph = 32g
II. 35oC
III. 55oC
(ii)the temperature at which the following mass of KNO3 dissolved:
I. 22g
From a correctly plotted graph =13.0oC
II. 30g
III.100g
(c)Explain the shape of your graph.
Solubility of KNO3 increase with increase in temperature/More KNO3 dissolve as temperature rises.
(d)Show on the graph the supersaturated and unsaturated solutions.
Above the solubility curve write; “supersaturated”
Below the solubility curve write; “unsaturated”
(e)From your graph, calculate the amount of crystals obtained when a saturated solution of
KNO3 containing 180g of the salt is cooled from 80oC to:
I. 20oC
Solubility before heating = 180 g
Less Solubility after heating(from the graph) = 32 g
Mass of KNO3crystals = 148 g
II. 35oC
III. 55oC
Page | 40

7. The table below shows the solubility of salts A and B at various temperatures.
Temperature(oC) 0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0 70.0 80.0
Solubility of A 28.0 31.0 34.0 37.0 40.0 43.0 45.0 48.0 51.0
Solubility of B 13.0 21.0 32.0 46.0 64.0 85.0 110.0 138.0 169.0
(a)On the same axis plot a graph of solubility (y-axis) against temperature for each salt.
(b)At what temperature are the two salts equally soluble.
The point of intersection of the two curves = 24oC
(c)What happens when a mixture of 100g of salt B with 100g if water is heated to 80 oC
From the graph, the solubility of B at 80oC is 169g /100g water. All the 100g crystals of B dissolve.
(d)What happens when the mixture in (c) above is then cooled from 50 oC to 20oC.
Method I.
Total mass before cooling at 50oC = 100.0 g
(From graph) Solubility/mass after cooling at 20 oC = 32.0 g
Mass of crystals deposited 68.0 g
Method II.
Mass of soluble salt crystals at 50oC added = 100 g
(From graph)Solubility/mass before cooling at 50 oC = 85.0 g
Mass of crystals that cannot dissolve at 50oC 15.0 g
(From graph) Solubility/mass before cooling at 50oC = 85.0 g
(From graph) Solubility/mass after cooling at 20 oC = 32.0 g
Mass of crystals deposited after cooling 53.0 g
Total mass of crystals deposited = 15.0 + 53.0 = 68.0 g

Page | 41
(e)A mixture of 40g of A and 60g of B is added to 10g of water and heated to 70 oC.The solution is
then allowed to cool to 10oC.Describe clearly what happens.
I.For salt A
Solubility of A before heating = mass of A x 100
Volume of water added
=> 40 x 100 = 400g/100g Water
10
(Theoretical)Solubility of A before heating = 400 g
Less (From graph ) Solubility of A after heating at 70 oC = 48g
Mass of crystals that can not dissolve at70oC = 352 g
(From graph ) Solubility of A after heating at 70 oC = 48g
Less (From graph ) Solubility of A after cooling to 10 oC = 31g
Mass of crystals that crystallize out on cooling to10oC = 17 g
Mass of crystals that can not dissolve at70oC = 352 g
Add Mass of crystals that crystallize out on cooling to10 oC = 17 g
Total mass of A that does not dissolve/crystallize/precipitate = 369 g
I.For salt B
Solubility of B before heating = mass of B x 100
Volume of water added
=> 60 x 100 = 600g/100g Water
10
(Theoretical)Solubility of B before heating = 600 g
Less (From graph ) Solubility of B after heating at 70 oC = 138g
Mass of crystals that cannot dissolve at70oC = 462 g
(From graph ) Solubility of B after heating at 70 oC = 138g
Less (From graph ) Solubility of B after cooling to 10 oC = 21g
Mass of crystals that crystallize out on cooling to10oC = 117 g
Mass of crystals that cannot dissolve at70oC = 462 g
Add Mass of crystals that crystallize out on cooling to10 oC = 117 g
Total mass of A that does not dissolve/crystallize/precipitate = 579 g
(f)State the assumption made in (e)above
Solubility of one salt has no effect on the solubility of the other
Page | 42
8. When 5.0 g of potassium chlorate (V) was put in 10cm3 of water and heated, the solid
dissolves. When the solution was cooled , the temperature at which crystals reappear was
noted. Another 10cm3 of water was added and the mixture heated to dissolve then cooled for
the crystals to reappear .The table below shows the the results obtained
Total volume of water added(cm3) 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0

Mass of KClO3 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0
Temperature at which crystals appear 80.0 65.0 55.0 45.0 30.0
Solubility of KclO3 50.0 25.0 16.6667 12.5 10.0
(a)Complete the table to show the solubility of KclO3 at different temperatures.

(b)Plot a graph of mass of KClO3 per 100g water against temperature at which crystals form.
(c)From the graph, show and determine ;
(i)the solubility of KClO3 at
I. 50oC
From a well plotted graph = 14.5 g KClO3/100g water
II. 35oC
From a well plotted graph = 9.0 g KclO3/100g water
(ii)the temperature at which the solubility is:
I.10g/100g water
From a well plotted graph = 38.0 oC
II.45g/100g water
From a well plotted graph = 77.5 oC
(d)Explain the shape of the graph.

Solubility of KClO3 increase with increase in temperature/more KclO3dissolve as temperature rises.
(e)What happens when 100g per 100g water is cooled to 35.0 oC
Solubility before heating = 100.0
(From the graph) Solubility after cooling = 9.0
Mass of salt precipitated/crystallization = 91.0 g

Page | 43
9. 25.0cm3 of water dissolved various masses of ammonium chloride crystals at different

temperatures as shown in the table below.
Mass of ammonium chloride(grams) 4.0 4.5 5.5 6.5 9.0
Temperature at which solid dissolved(oC) 30.0 50.0 70.0 90.0 120.0
Solubility of NH4Cl 16.0 18.0 22.0 26.0 36.0
(a)Complete the table

(b)Plot a solubility curve
(c)What happens when a saturated solution of ammonium chloride is cooled from 80 oC to 40oC.
(From the graph )Solubility at 80oC = 24.0 g
Less (From the graph )Solubility at 40oC = 16.8 g
Mass of crystallized/precipitated = 7.2 g
20. Solubility and solubility curves are therefore used
(i) to know the effect of temperature on the solubility of a salt
(ii)to fractional crystallize two soluble salts by applying their differences in solubility at different
temperatures.
(iii)determine the mass of crystal that is obtained from crystallization.
21.Natural fractional crystallization takes place in Kenya/East Africa at:

(i) Lake Magadi during extraction of soda ash(Sodium carbonate) from Trona(sodium
sesquicarbonate)
(ii) Ngomeni near Malindi at the Indian Ocean Coastline during the extraction of common salt(sodium
chloride).
22.Extraction of soda ash from Lake Magadi in Kenya

Page | 44
NOTE!
This is a Sample of the Well Organized Detailed Simplified Notes
Available.
Call/Text/WhatsApp 0746-222-000 for the Complete Notes.
CONTACT MR ISABOKE
0746-222-000

Page | 45
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CHEMISTRY NOTES

FORM 4 SIMPLIFIED VERSION

QUICK REVISION NOTES

THIS IS A FREE SAMPLE OF THE

CONTACT US FOR FULL VERSION OF THE NOTES

Mr Isaboke 0746 222 000

of brief quotations in a book review.

Mwalimu Consultancy Ltd.

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ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

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3. An acid is a proton donor.

II. From the equation:

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6. Solvents are either polar or non-polar.

Note:Water is polar .It is made up of :

They surround the free H+ and Cl- ions.

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NaOH(aq) Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)

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I. Weak acids exists more as molecules than as free H+ ions. e.g.

Ca(OH)2(aq) Ca2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)

8. The concentration of an acid/base/alkali is based on the number of moles of acid/bases dissolved in

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(a) Zinc (II)oxide(ZnO) and Zinc hydroxide(Zn(OH)2)

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Basic oxide + Base/alkali + Water -> Complex salt

Zn(OH) 2 (s) + 2NaOH(aq) -> Na2Zn(OH) 4(aq)

(b) Lead (II)oxide(PbO) and Lead(II) hydroxide (Pb(OH)2)

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(c)Aluminium(III)oxide(Al2O3) and Aluminium(III)hydroxide(Al(OH)3)

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Al(OH) 3 (s) + NaOH(aq) -> NaAl(OH) 4(aq)

Summary of amphotellic oxides/hydroxides

PbO Pb(OH)2 Pb(NO3)2 Na2Pb(OH)4

Al2O3 Al(OH) 3 Al(NO3)3 NaAl(OH)4

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Nitric(V)acid HNO3 Monobasic Nitrate(V)(NO3-) None

Nitric(III)acid HNO2 Monobasic Nitrate(III)(NO2-) None

Sulphuric(VI)acid H2SO4 Dibasic Sulphate(VI) (SO42-) Hydrogen sulphate(VI)

Sulphuric(IV)acid H2SO3 Dibasic Sulphate(IV) (SO32-) Hydrogen sulphate(IV)

Carbonic(IV)acid H2CO3 Dibasic Carbonate(IV)(CO32-) Hydrogen carbonate(IV)

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The table below show shows some examples of salts.

NaOH + HCl - NaCl Sodium(I)chloride

Pb(OH)2 2+ HNO3 - Pb(NO3)2 Lead(II)nitrate(V)

Ba(OH)2 2+ HNO3 - Ba(NO3)2 Barium(II)nitrate(V)

Ca(OH)2 2+ H2SO4 2- MgSO4 Calcium sulphate(VI)

NH4OH + H3PO4 3- (NH4 )3PO4 Ammonium phosphate(V)

KOH + H3PO4 3- K3PO4 Potassium phosphate(V)

Al(OH)3 3+ H2SO4 2- Al2(SO4)2 Aluminium(III)sulphate(VI)

Fe(OH)2 2+ H2SO4 2- FeSO4 Iron(II)sulphate(VI)

Fe(OH)3 3+ H2SO4 2- Fe2(SO4)2 Iron(III)sulphate(VI)

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(d) Some salts undergo hygroscopy, deliquescence and efflorescence.

Table showing some hydrated salts.

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Tetraamminecopper(II)sulphate(VI) Cu(NH3) 4 SO4 H2O Royal/deep blue solution

Tetraamminezinc(II)nitrate(V) Zn(NH3) 4 (NO3 )2 Colourless solution