Threads of Exploitation: Analysing Labour Practices and Worker

Rights in the Indian Fashion Industry

Abstract:
The Indian fashion industry is vibrant and cultural but on the other hand has triumphant and
ghastly experiences of exploitation and violation of labour rights underlying it. The current
research paper attempts to provide an overview of these labour practices in the sector that are
and cannot be defined due to an overwhelming number of economic, global, and socio-
political factors that are allowing such practices to thrive. Poverty, abuse and oppression are
experienced by the majority of garment workers and even though India has an impressive
history of textiles many women work for very low pay, long hours and with little or no legal
protection. A considerable proportion of such individuals, who are women in most cases, are
already deeply affected by forced labour abuse in the form of harassment among other things.
The issues have intensified with the growth of the fast fashion business which is more
focused on cutting down on expenses and increasing the speed of turnover than the labour
ethics during production. This paper further states that unless the reforms are serious for
instance with the presence of strict supply chain management and labour laws, it is the cycle
of exploitation that will prevail. Moreover, it also tackles the problem of consumers’
awareness and their activism which in some way facilitates the improvement of the situation
in the industry. By examining the literature and current practices related to labour, this
research aims to fill the gap in the fashion industry that is characterized by the exploitation of
workers and environmental destruction.

Keywords:
Fast fashion, Labour Rights, Exploited Workers, Environmental Destruction.

Overview of Labour Practices in the Indian Fashion Industry:

Deep rooted in history, the Indian fashion industry is one of the strongest pillars of the
economy and cultural identity of the country. Known for its intricate craftsmanship and rich
designs, India's textile legacy is centuries old. But the industry is shifted a lot nowadays; the
major threats are the conditions of labour under which garment workers work. Fast fashion
and globalization tend to aggravate the problems even further making it all the more complex
entering into territory where tradition guards with exploitation.1
The report concerns a more historical background, current labour practices, and socio-
economic implications on the labour force affirming the urgent need of systemic reform.
1
Insights into working conditions in India’s garment industry (2024) International Labour Organization.
Available at: https://www.ilo.org/publications/insights-working-conditions-indias-garment-industry (Accessed:
27 November 2024).
Allusion of historical context: From craftsmanship to commoditization: By now India had
established itself as a land of master craftsmen who spun silk, cotton, and wool into excellent
textiles. Varanasi, Surat, Kanchipuram are names that immediately evoke the minds of many
high-quality craft cities. However, it is the colonial exploitation initiated from the British era
which has now caused a major upheaval in the flourishing handloom industry. Mass imports
of British-made textiles and suppression of local production changed the whole course of
Indian textiles, including relegating art and artisans to the fringes of an economy2.
The Indian independence ushered in an understanding or rather concerted efforts of Indian
government to rejuvenating the textile industry both of which were considered future wealth
creators. They were to be the major engines post-independence in the 1990s: a liberalized
economy, together with the fast-paced global trend of fashion, turned towards mass
production and cost-effective making, moving most industries away from the thrust on
quality craftsmanship. Today, much of India's textile production takes place illegally and in
informal settings, where labour rights are often trampled on, creating continuity in cycles of
poverty and abuse.

Exploitative Labour Practices in the Modern Era:

Exploitative labour practices are being unchecked: Absenteeism or unregulated employment.
Informality is a salient feature of employment in the Indian garment Industry, marking
significant portions of the workforce as unregistered small-unregistered establishments,
which is not within the purview of the regulations under labour laws. All these establishments
do not meet the standards of the minimum wage law, health and safety regulations, and social
security provisions.
Economic Injustice and Wage Divergences of Migrants: Reports reveal that as much as 85%
of contracted workers from garments in India earn below the computed minimum wage. A
good number among them also earn about Rs 5,000-6,000 monthly (around USD 60 to 75),
which is considerably lower than the living wage. Such state of financial deterioration
induces workers toward an informal credit market and, thus, insecurity of income.
Prolonged Working Hours and Unsafe Environment: Most of the garment factories have
working hours of more than 12 hours in a day. In these factories, the workers are set to work
in very competitive shifts, with inadequate break time, and there is hardly any overtime
remuneration provided. The places of work are poorly lighted; very little ventilation is there,
and they lack protective equipment; hence it creates further choking suffocation. In most
cases, they are exposed to hazardous chemicals observed in workplaces without any
protection, leading to health problems in later years of life.
Discrimination in relation to gender: In India, female garment workers seem to be in the
majority, with more than 60% of the workers being women in this industry. Although these
opportunities have been made available, the workers have to face many pre-employment
vulnerabilities; wage discrimination, sexual harassment, and non-availability of maternity

2
Insights into working conditions in India’s garment industry (2024) International Labour Organization.
Available at: https://www.ilo.org/publications/insights-working-conditions-indias-garment-industry (Accessed:
27 November 2024).
benefits. In reality, women suffer from two types of exploitation: exploitation because of
their domestic responsibilities, which gives no chance for betterment.

Factors Contributing to Exploitation:

Transforming global supply chains are the fast fashion industry’s revolution. Indeed, this
globalization is shifting the balance of power toward the nation and international brands and
retailers, which again only erect stringent demands for cost-effective rates in production,
which finally result in hardly any cost-effective benefits to the workers but also its own
miserable living and working conditions.
India boasts of quite good labour laws but leaves very much to be desired when it comes to
their implementation. Among the laws which exist is the Minimum Wages Act 3 and, among
others, the Factories Act4.
This also adds to the deep well of disheartenment in the garment workers with respect to the
low unionization rate associated with the industry. Cost-cutting measures would include
retaliation against union-registered workers, threatening behaviour and, in some cases,
complete non-recognition of an independent union, frustrating what little might be left of
collective bargaining with extremely low skills relative to any outcome regarding earnings or
conditions.
Socio-Economic Effects on Workers: These forms of labour exploitations that have been
cemented in the tenure of the Indian garment industry have injured the workers and their
families into a net of poverty and deprivation. Sub-minimum wage has still been left
unattended for employees as it does not even meet the basic requirements, like food, health
care, housing, etc. Most are now going to informal lenders who would gleefully soak them
into high-interest debts, which would further deepen their insecurity. In poverty, there is
usually little disposable income left for one to invest in the future and is thus rendered
vulnerable to economic conditions.
Poor working conditions coupled with poverty bring much suffering to a worker’s body and
even psyche. Working amidst dangerous levels of dust, poor ventilation, toxic chemicals, and
intolerable noise directly leads to chronic ailments like respiratory problems, skin diseases,
and muscle problems.
The consequences of socio-economic impacts affect not just the workers but also the families
that depend on those affected workers, especially children, who mostly go through the
hurdles of chronic poverty. Schooling is mostly disrupted, and many kids prefer to work so
additional earnings can come to the household rather than publish an intergenerational
poverty cycle. There are even worse cases of women-labourers, for they constitute the major
workforce. They are under oppression at the workplace, which deprives them of their ability
to achieve personal or professional empowerment because of the domestic duties. These

3
(No date a) Minimum wages act, 1948. Available at:
https://clc.gov.in/clc/sites/default/files/MinimumWagesact.pdf (Accessed: 27 November 2024).
4
(No date a) Minimum wages act, 1948. Available at:
https://clc.gov.in/clc/sites/default/files/MinimumWagesact.pdf (Accessed: 27 November 2024).
conditions only warrant immediate reforms to break such a vicious cycle and improve life
quality among garment workers and their families5.

Calls for Reform: Toward Ethical Labour Practices:

Systematically alleviating the Indian garment industry needs all players, be it governments,
businesses, or civil society organizations. Workers' rights are to be secured through effective
enforcement of labour laws. India has a lot of labour legislation, but the implementation is
undulating. Inspection, strict penalty, and mechanisms to bring informal workers into the
purview of law would pave the way for a more equal place of work. In this sense, the
government should also make reforms for making legal processes facilitating the accessibility
of the workers into a redress mechanism.
Another major reform addresses increased unionization and collective bargaining. The ability
of unionized workers to negotiate fair wages and safe conditions as well as other entitlements
is further developed as well. Unfortunately, intimidation and retaliation against union
members have been among the usual practices against which the formation of unions will be
counselled. Legislation for the right to organize and freedom of association for the worker
and against any act or failure to act hindering or interfering with the exercise of such rights is
very critical.
Corporate accountability could be yet another force ushering in a paradigm shift. Now, with
the advent of a global market, brands and retailers must be able to afford ethical sourcing.
Such approaches may include transparency in supply chains, appropriate remuneration
practices, and shutting down subcontracting to unregulated conditions. Improvements would
thus be taken to condition labour. With regards to employee engagement, companies need to
have different kinds of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) 6 initiatives that will emphasize
the welfare of workers, such as health benefits, skills training, and pathways for upward
mobility.
Consumer awareness could yet be an additional agent of change. It has brought consumers
more closely to a demand shift into a non-faddism practice-the shift to ethically produced
goods and thus moved businesses into getting competitive through sustainable and fair labour
practices. Advocacy campaigns while well as certification to the ethically produced clothes
can enable making a consumer base that supports such labour-friendly brands.
Last but not least, the empowerment of workers through education and training would
enhance much their capacity to fight against exploitation. Thus, workshops on labour rights
and grievance mechanism would enlighten the workers on their entitlements and recourse
mechanisms.

Drivers of Economic Exploitation:

5
Afun, Lilian & Kilu, Rufai & Sanda, M. & Alacovska, Ana. (2022). Beyond Fashion Consumption: Mapping
the Functional Systems of the Psychologists In Socio-Environmental Issues of the Fashion Industry.
6
Delaney, Annie & Tate, Jane. (2015). Forced Labour and Ethical Trade in the Indian Garment Industry.
10.1057/9781137460417_18.
Fast fashion has dramatically altered the global fashion industry, and the same has affected
the labour dynamics for garment workers in countries such as India. Fast fashion refers to
rapid production cycles and cost efficiency, which usually mean trampling underfoot the
rights and welfare of workers. The demands of fast fashion and the implications they have for
outsourcing globally reflect structural forces that entrench injustices in labour.
Impact of Fast Fashion’s on Labour Exploitation: Marketing and production models of fast
fashion rest on the speed, price, and volume for their positioning. The collection was quickly
rolled out to bombard consumers with incessant supply of new offerings. The pressure is built
on manufacturers to maximize production and make cost-effective supply possible with such
a short turnaround time. What one continuously gets with this kind of process is a rat race
towards bottom-feeding production costs so slim that the saving is only passed on to workers.
What the employers and managers do to fulfil these demands is to compromise salary and
working environment. Many workers are paid below minimum wage, overtime is usually
forced without pay, with long production targets requiring workers to remain at least 12 long-
hours under very extreme physical and hazardous conditions, and last but never least,
productivity output must be high as an icing on the cake.
Because of the nature of fast fashion not even allow the manufacturer to vie against such
conditions. They give contracts to factories competing against one another and having the
lowest of costs and then getting many from the brand. This encouragement gives a minus to
the suppliers in terms of misconduct since he or she does not want to earn through narrowing
the base or abusing workers by losing thousands of dollars from their competing factories.
Cost pressure coming from above not only sleep labour rights but also contribute to structural
inequalities within the system7.
Role of Global Supply Chains in Affording Exploitation: Supply chains are the most
dominant aspects of the fashion industry in the present world. Production is spread across
many countries altogether in order to benefit from regional differences of cost. Outsourcing
provides international brands with a much better cut in costs than say India, considering the
low pay earned by a large and informal labour market.
By distance and disorganization, they also create an impediment to accountability and
facilitation of exploitative practices. In such cases, production is often subcontracted by
brands to an intermediary company. They then dynamically rattle the project out to small
unregistered units outside the complete purview of the supplier. The worse kinds of abuses
occur beneath these horrific informal factories where the least come to carry out work.
Such fragmented supply chains unfortunately do not add to good bargaining rights to the
workers. Workers are not directly employed by the brands which earn profit from their
labour, thus making it quite difficult for them to demand good conditions or wages. And the
very fear that production might be diverted to cheaper labour markets tends to discourage the
governments from imposing stringent labour laws as the business would close down and
move to a friendlier place8.

7
The economic drivers of human trafficking. Available at:
https://www.econstor.eu/obitstream/10419/39939/1/38_trebesch.pdf (Accessed: 27 November 2024).
8
Zwolinski, M., Ferguson, B. and Wertheimer, A. (2022a) Exploitation, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Available at: https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/exploitation/ (Accessed: 27 November 2024).
Legal Framework of Labour Laws in India:
India is reforming the labour laws in absolutely a different angle that focuses on protecting
labour rights through fair treatment, a good environment for work, and sufficient salaries.
Some among the core central statutes dealing with these aspects are the Factories Act, 1948,
and the Minimum Wages Act, 1948. The Factories Act primarily is for safety, health, and
welfare of workers in industrial establishments and prescribes standard norms for that
environment. The underpinning of the Minimum Wages Act is the base wage determined and
prescribed by the government, which guarantees the safeguarding of wage levels. But
revolutionary were the provisions and although there are progressive purposes in them, these
laws have not produced ends according to expectations because of systemic enforcement
issues9.
Fragmented Labour Laws: Disintegrated Labour Laws Among other considerable barriers to
effective enforcement are disintegrated labour legislation in India. According to this country,
there are more than 40 central labour laws and most probably several state laws that are often
overlapping, inconsistent, and confusing in their application.
Corruption Keeps down the Inspection Mechanism: The most injured aspect of the inspection
system is in the labour law inspection whereby the whole inspection gets highly stained by
corruption. There is a lot of factory inspections that take place mainly under bribery deals;
this is why an employer is found to know loopholes by being bribed with the inspector. Most
of the time, violations such as unsafe working conditions, underpayment of wages, and
absence of welfare facilities are not known because of the collusion of regulatory officials.
Most of the time, the employers go scot-free while the workers continue to be subjected to
exploitation.
There are blanks glaring in the enforcement of labour laws in India. Many factories operate
without licenses, and they escape the very inspections meant to determine compliance for
them. The inconsistency in oversight has really given employers a free hand in violating all
laws, exposing the workers to all the forms of exploitation. This is compounded with the low
level of legal literacy among workers. Most of the workforce is unaware of specific rights
according to their labour laws, whereas those who understood their rights are deterred from
seeking redress.

Gender-based Discrimination and Violation in the Fashion Industry/

Garment Industry:
Discrimination and Violence against Women- the Garment Industry The garment industry
relies heavily on women; women comprise an important part of the workforce which
performs every function in production, but they are met with systematic discrimination and
violence-making their suffering agonizing. The subtopic centres around two main areas: first,

9
(No date b) OHCHR. Available at:
https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/HRBodies/CRC/Documents/Recommandations/exploit.pdf (Accessed:
27 November 2024).
wage discrimination, second, types of harassment at the workplace. These issues shed light
on both aspects and highlight their effects on women in the apparel industry.
The Salary Inequality in the Garment Industry: The garment industry is known by having the
greatest number of women employees doing various operations that could be linked to a
majority of the production activity within the industry. However, it is noted that women earn
less than the actual wages that should be allocated for them based on the amount of work
performed. Research proves that female garment workers earn as low as 30% less than their
male counterparts even while performing similar or sometimes more labour-intensive work 10.
It is justified that this wage difference accords with certain fixed notions about the roles that
women play in families, where they are expected to earn as much additional income as would
be expected to be primary income for the family. However, this view directly deludes real
hard truth perceived by most female garment workers. Actually, these persons go through
poverty of being single or earn a substandard salary for the household-main breadwinners.
Harassment and Safety Problems in the Office: The other problem affecting women in the
textile business is health hazards at places of work. Research done on this by Action Aid
shows that nearly 50% of female garment workers have experienced some form of
harassment at the workplace. Types of harassments reported include verbal abuse,
inappropriate comments, really bad physical assaults, and sexual violence. Some do not speak
out because of fears of reprisal
Barriers Structural and Cultural: Structural and cultural factors usually come with gender and
violence/discrimination in the garment industry. In this context, quite normalised or quiet
about the abuses there is an expectation of difference that specifies the "correct" behaviour
between women and men. Further complicating the scenario is the absence of proper
enforcement mechanisms against wage discrimination and harassment, allowing employers to
remain unaccountable for their actions11.

Consumer Awareness and Labour Practices in Fashion Industry:

The consumer role and their behaviour as most important in labour practice issues in the
fashion industry is their trying to create awareness on the ethical dilemmas that fast fashion
has with consumer activism having the potential of evolving into an avenue for rights-based
voicing to demand higher labour standards12.
Effects of knowledge of consumers on labour practices: Consumer awareness starts from
knowing the latest batch of fast fashion exploitation-permeated labour to their changes in

10
How to achieve gender equality in global garment supply chains (no date) InfoStories. Available at:
https://webapps.ilo.org/infostories/en-GB/Stories/discrimination/garment-gender (Accessed: 27 November
2024).
11
(No date a) Gender based violence in the gap garment supply chain. Available at:
https://globallaborjustice.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/GBV-Gap-May-2018.pdf (Accessed: 27 November
2024).
12
Cleaner and responsible consumption (no date) Cleaner and Responsible Consumption | Journal |
ScienceDirect.com by Elsevier. Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/cleaner-and-responsible-
consumption (Accessed: 27 November 2024).
purchase behaviour. The movement like "Fashion Revolution" 13 has contributed this change
significantly. Such movement asks for the accountability of diversity in the brands by
shedding light on the supply chain. The call is, in short, to visibility- visibility into "Who
made my clothes?" a phrase coined by Fashion Revolution14.
Research states that brands focusing on the demands of consumers regarding work ethics
with respect to production enjoy stronger relationships and loyalty from customers.
Conservation on the other hand is spoiled by sweet reports but can backfire by causing
boycotting and customer loss. Such above-the-line accountability operations have motivated
a number of fashion brands to adopt fair trade certifications, improve conditions of workers,
and make their sustainability strategies public. Enlightening consumers is truly not an
inactive pattern, but, in fact, very vibrant changing the doctrines of labour within the fashion
industry.
Hurdles to Consumer Activism: Nevertheless, there are hurdles that prevent consumer
activism from flourishing. The primary one is that ethical fashion is somehow more luxurious
than fast fashion. Then, of course, there is the fact that people may have their own proper
understanding of what their purchases really affect because of their ignorance, or they may
have been green washed by the brands. These barriers can then be overcome by better
regulation, which assures more transparency in marketing claims and makes ethical fashion
more accessible to different groups of people.

Permanent Devastating Outcomes of COVID-19 on Labour Rights:

The actual defects in the garment workforce have been made more manifest by the pandemic.
Factory locks-out have thrown thousands out of work, some losing a portion of their pay due
to a failure to sever severance payment (ILO) 15. In addition to the existing problems, a home
screen employment status without social protections is one of the most grievous oversights
for welfare during the nature of deepening recession. Recovery hence provides a new venue
for stakeholders at government-at-large, brands, and industry leaders to rethink labour
models. Fair wages and social protections as well as a new ethical supply chain could go on
to make a more sustainable recovery that builds rather than recycles exploitation norms for
workers, creating a new threshold and reinventing labour practices at this joint opportunity.

Conclusion:
The development of this sector has played a critical role in fostering global manufacturing
and job creation. Yet, systemically, problems are rife within the backbone of this industry.
The pandemic has made these exploitative practices and all forms of gender-discrimination in
13
Naked fashion (no date) Google Books. Available at: https://books.google.co.in/books?
hl=en&lr=&id=7IC1ez4UkFcC&oi=fnd&pg=PA9&dq=fashion%2Brevolution%2Bresearch
%2Bpaper&ots=Ww1P9ZyJkx&sig=0c6ykoGw5nxELqRQUWJm5k-s06I#v=onepage&q&f=false (Accessed:
27 November 2024).
14
(No date a) Research : Fashion revolution. Available at: https://www.fashionrevolution.org/tag/research/
(Accessed: 27 November 2024).
15
(No date a) ILO. Available at: https://www.ilo.org/sites/default/files/wcmsp5/groups/public/@ed_norm/
@ipec/documents/publication/wcms_757247.pdf (Accessed: 27 November 2024).
terms of wage differences more tangible, making it appear as if it could not be more easily
captured. This awful manifestation has exposed the inequity of a workforce whose gender
considers women as the most vulnerable in any job loss and pay cut Event.
On the other hand, consumer consciousness and activism should function as counter voices to
demand greater accountability and ethics in the industry. Awareness campaigns such as
"Fashion Revolution" illustrate how interestingly informed consumers can put pressure on
brands to guarantee measures for the rights of employees used in their operations. The post-
pandemic recovery creates an opportunity window for all those involved to relook and
rework their processes in fair employment standards. Joint strategies of stricter enforcement,
consumer advocacy, and inclusive reforms have the potential to impact positively toward a
better future for workers in the garment sector.
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