AI3021 IT IN AGRICULTURAL SYSTEM

UNIT-1 PRECISION AGRICULTURE

Concepts and Techniques

Precision Farming: Everything You Need to Know

Precision farming is revolutionizing agriculture. So much so that most industry pundits considerthe advance of precision agriculture as
fundamentally disruptive to sustainable agriculture andfood production as was the invention of the John Deere steel plow in the mid-1800s.

Already the inclusion of new data-collection tools and the Internet of Things (IoT) combined withGPS, geographic information systems (GIS),
remote sensing and satellite imagery is enablingfarmers to optimize their decision-making.

A 2021 studypublished by the Association ofEquipment Manufacturers (AEM) concluded that precision farming technologies have already
increased farmers’ production by 4%, reduced their fertilizer use by 7%, decreased herbicideapplications by 9%, lowered fossil fuel use by 6%
and gained a 4% savings in water use.According to the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), as more and more farmersadopt
precision ag techniques and new technologies, agricultural systems will use fewerresources and ultimately be more sustainable.

What Is Precision Farming?

Precision farming is also known as site-specifc crop management. It merges data collection andremote sensing with Global Positioning
Systems (GPS) and Geographic Information Systems(GIS) to allow farmers to respond to in-feld variability with their crop
management.Farmers can get extremely precise in their crop management while not sacrifcing crop yields.

They can vary the amount of seed planted or fertilizer spread to not just sections of a feld but bythe square meter and even square centimeter
of a feld. This means they can place the preciseamount of seed and fertilizer to optimize production based on feld conditions such as soil
typesand moisture levels.

What is Precision Farming Used For?

Farmers use precision farming in many aspects of their farming practices to make resourcemanagement decisions based upon on-site and
real-time data collected in their felds. The earliest, and most commonly used, precision ag technique is for variable rate applications ofnputs.

Variable rate technology (VRT) is installed on seeders, and fertilizers and is now beingadded to irrigation systems like center pivotsystems.
Variable rate technology (VRT) allowsfarmers to precisely vary how much and where they apply inputs (seed, fertilizer or water) basedon
overlaying data sources, like soil maps, prior harvest yield maps or imagery collected from drones, and airplanes or satellites.

Prior to seeding or applying an input, a farmer will run a “prescription,” aka “script,” that gives the machine being used a precise GIS-enabled
map withinstructions of how much input to apply at what point in the feld.

The farmer enables auto-steerand their GPS program in their tractor and then lets the variable rate program automaticallyfollow the script, with
no further input needed from them.

How Does Precision Farming Increase Farm Sustainability:

The benefts of precision farming include better sustainability and less of an environmentalimpact.By making more precise decisions, farmers
are able to manage their inputs and nutrients morecarefully. This results in less wasted fertilizer and nutrient runoff.

By using remote sensing,farmers can hone in exactly where disease and pests pressures are high, applying chemicalsonly where they are
needed rather than the entire feld, reducing the volume of herbicides andfungicides they use. By monitoring equipment and drivers, farm
managers can hone in andreduce fuel consumption, resulting in fewer emissions.
Precision ag technologies like machine learning and AI can help to reduce on-farm feld waste byincreasing crop quality, a big win for food
production sustainability. By collecting and attaching data to crop production, starting at the seed production stage and following a crop all the
wayun til it reaches a consumer’s table, agribusinesses can create traceability and accountability that reveal further insights they can manage
for even more efcient production.

What Are the Components of Precision Farming?

The main components of precision farming are information, technology and management.As technology has advanced, agtech startups have
created specifc applications using thesefundament principles and brought increasingly more effective, technically-advanced solutionstoward
improving farmers’ yields and proftability while reducingtheir pesticides, herbicides,fertilizer and other inputs used.

Here is a list of specifc precision agriculture technologies commonly being used by precisionagriculture farmers.

GIS & GPS:

The use of GPS and GIS together gives farmers the ability to orient their equipment and datacollection in real-time for accurate positioning
and feld management.

Auto-Steer:

Auto-steer uses GIS and GPS to guide tractors and other farm machinery in uniformly straightlines across farm felds. This allows
farmers to till, seed, fertilize and harvest their felds withprecision accuracy.

Variable Rate Technology (VRT)

 Variable rate technology lets farmers apply seeds, fertilizer and other inputs at different ratesacross a feld

Remote SensinG

The use of highly sensitive satellite imagery or images collected by drones or planes to identifyareas of crop growth and stress and then
geo-locating those specifc points in a feld using GPS.

Artifcial Intelligence (AI):

The use of machine learning to identify and respond to real-time input in farming practices. AI ismostly being developed in farm robotic
applications, such as robotic harvesters or roboticweeding machines.

Data Collection and Analytics:

Collecting data generated during all farm actions and then analyzing that data to reveal deeper
insights guiding smart farm management decisions.

AGRIVI’s farm management software is adata collection and analytics platform, giving real-time insights in feld data and enabling data-driven
decisions.

Yield Monitors:

Yield monitors on combines generate yield maps during the harvest period by measuring theamount of harvest collected at precise points geo-
located across a feld using GPS and GIStechnology. Yield maps are layered with other precision ag technology such as soil maps andVRT
maps to refne farm management decisions for better outcomes.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Precision Agriculture:

There are advantages and disadvantages to precision agriculture farming should consider.

Advantages of Precision Ag Technology:

Precision management technology gives farmers more precise information to enable betterdecision-making and enables real-time action on
that information. The end results are a betteruse of resources enabling more sustainable practices and saving time and money while
notsacrifcing proftability.

Disadvantages of Precision Ag Technology and How FarmManagement Platform Helps:

The disadvantages of precision farming include buying new tech-enabled equipment or enrollingin tech platforms which can be a daunting
additional expense on a lean farm budget. Farmershave to carefully weigh their potential gains of precision farming technology against the
addedexpense.

Many farmers complain they have more data than they know what to do with through their precision equipment. And they don’t have the time or
knowledge to understand or analyze it.

Precision agriculture is a farming management approach that uses technology to improve efciency, reduce waste, and increase productivity. It
involves the use of varioustechnologies, such as GPS, GIS, remote sensing, and sensor-based systems, to collect andanalyze data about soil,
crops, weather, and other factors that infuence crop growth and yield. This data is then used to make more informed decisions about crop
management, resourceallocation, and precision application of inputs.

Concepts

Here are some of the key concepts of precision agriculture:

1.Site-specifc management:

Precision agriculture involves the use of site-specifc managementtechniques, where the feld is divided into smaller management zones based
on soil type,nutrient availability, topography, and other factors.This allows farmers to apply inputs, suchas fertilizers and pesticides, only where
they are needed, reducing waste and improving efciency.

2.Yield monitoring:

Yield monitoring involves the use of sensors and other technologies to collect data on crop yield and quality. This data can be used to create
yield maps, which can helpfarmers identify areas of the feld that are performing well and areas that need improvement.

3.Variable rate application:

Precision agriculture also involves the use of variable rate applicationof inputs, where the application rates of fertilizers and pesticides are
adjusted based on theneeds of different areas of the feld. This allows farmers to optimize the use of inputs and reducewaste.

4.Remote sensing:
Remote sensing involves the use of satellite and aerial imagery to collect dataon crop growth, nutrient levels, and other factors that infuence
yield. This data can be used tocreate maps of crop health and yield potential, which can help farmers make more informeddecisions about crop
management.

5.GPS and GIS:

GPS and GIS technologies are used in precision agriculture to collect andanalyze data on soil type, topography, and other factors that infuence
crop growthand yield. This data can be used to create maps of management zones and guide the precisionapplication of inputs.

6.Automated systems:

Precision agriculture also involves the use of automated systems, such as robotic harvesters and autonomous tractors , to reduce labour costs
and improve efciency.Overall, precision agriculture is a promising approach to farming that can help farmers improveefciency, reduce waste,
and increase productivity. By using technology to collect and analyzedata about soil, crops, and weather, farmers can make more informed
decisions about cropmanagement, resource allocation, and precision application of inputs, leading to moresustainable and proftable farming
practices.

Techniques:

Precision agriculture involves the use of various techniques and technologies to improve cropmanagement, reduce waste, and increase
productivity.

Here are some of the key precisionagriculture techniques:

1.GIS:

GIS (Geographic Information System) is asoftware tool that enables farmers to store,analyze, and display spatial data, such as feld maps, soil
samples, and weather data. GIS canbe used to identify patterns and relationships between different variables, such as soil type andcrop yield,
enabling farmers to make data-driven decisions about input application and other management practices.

2.GPS:

GPS (Global Positioning System) is a satellite-based navigation system that enablesfarmers to map and measure their felds with high
precision.
This data can be used to createdetailed feld maps, which can help farmers to identify variations in soil type, moisture content,and other factors
that can affect crop growth and yield. GPS can also be used to guide precisionequipment such as tractors, sprayers, and harvesters, enabling
farmers to apply inputs at preciselocations in the feld.

3.Soil mapping and analysis:

Precision agriculture starts with accurate soil mapping andanalysis. This involves collecting data on soil properties such as texture, pH, nutrient
content,and water-holding capacity. The data can be collected using various technologies, such aselectromagnetic induction sensors, soil
coring, or gamma-ray spectrometry. Once the data iscollected, it can be used to create soil maps and develop site-specifc management plans.

4.Variable rate technology (VRT):

Variable rate technology involves the use of sensors andsoftware to vary the application of inputs such as fertilizers, pesticides, and seeds
based on theneeds of different areas of the feld. This helps to reduce waste and improve yields by applyinginputs only where they are needed.
VRT can be used for both dryland and irrigated farmingsystems.
5.Precision irrigation:

Precision irrigation involves the use of sensors and software to optimizeirrigation scheduling and water application rates. This helps to reduce
water waste and increaseyields by applying water only where and when it is needed. Precision irrigation can be achievedusing techniques such
as drip irrigation, centre pivot irrigation, or subsurface dripirrigation.

6.Crop monitoring and management:

Crop monitoring and management involves the use of sensors, drones, and satellite imagery to monitor crop health, growth, and yield.
This datacan be used to make informed decisions about crop management, such as adjusting nutrientapplication rates or applying pesticides
only where needed. Crop monitoring can also involveusing GPS-enabled tractors or automated robots for planting, harvesting, and other tasks.

7.Precision livestock farming:

Precision agriculture can also be applied to livestock farming. This involves the use of sensors and other technologies to monitor animal health,
growth, and behaviour. This data can be used to improve animal management and welfare, optimize feedingand breeding programs, and reduce
environmental impacts.

8.Data analysis and decision-making:

All precision agriculture techniques require data collectionand analysis, which can be done using various software and analytical tools. This
data can beused to make informed decisions about crop management, resource allocation, and precision application of inputs.
Decision-making can also involve using predictive models or artifcialintelligence algorithms to forecast crop yields or optimize management
plans.Overall, precision agriculture techniques are constantly evolving as new technologies aredeveloped and tested. The goal of precision
agriculture is to improve efciency, reduce waste,and increase productivity by using data-driven approaches to crop and livestock management.

Their issues and concerns for Indian agriculture. There are several issues and concerns related to the adoption of precision agriculture in
Indianagriculture. Here are some of them:

1.Lack of infrastructure:

The adoption of precision agriculture techniques requires signifcantinvestment in infrastructure such as sensors, software, and data analysis
tools. This can be achallenge for small-scale farmers who may not have the fnancial resources to invest in such technology.

2.Limited access to information:

In India, there is a significant digital divide, with many farmerslacking access to information and communication technology. This limits their
ability to adoptprecision agriculture techniques and benefit from the potential improvements in productivity andefficiency.

3.The complexity of technology:

Many precision agriculture techniques require specializedknowledge and training to operate and interpret data. This can be a challenge for
farmers whomay not have the necessary skills or education to fully utilize the technology.

4.Cost-benefit analysis:
While precision agriculture has the potential to increase yields andreduce waste, the cost of adopting these techniques must be carefully
evaluated against thepotential benefits. Some farmers may be reluctant to invest in precision agriculture if they do notsee a clear return on
investment.

5.Policy and regulatory framework :

The Indian government has taken steps to promote theadoption of precision agriculture, such as launching programs to provide financial
assistance andtraining to farmers. However, there is a need for a clear policy and regulatory framework tosupport the adoption and use of
precision agriculture technology.

6.Environmental concerns:

Precision agriculture techniques such as precision irrigation andprecision application of inputs can reduce waste and improve efficiency.
However, there is also aconcern that the increased use of technology could lead to environmental problems such aspollution and soil
degradation.Overall, the adoption of precision agriculture in India requires a concerted effort from thegovernment, the private sector, and
farmers to address the issues and concerns related to thetechnology. With careful planning and implementation, precision agriculture has the
potential tosignificantly improve the productivity and sustainability of Indian agriculture.

Uses of GIS, GPS &VRA in precision agriculture:

GIS (Geographic Information System):

GIS (Geographic Information System) technology is widely used in precision agriculture forcollecting, analyzing, and visualizing spatial data.

Here are some of the specific uses of GIS inprecision agriculture:

1.Crop management:

GIS can be used to collect data on soil characteristics, weather conditions,topography, and other factors that affect crop growth. This
information can be used to makeinformed decisions about planting, fertilizing, and harvesting crops.

2.Precision irrigation:

GIS can be used to map soil moisture levels and create irrigation zonesbased on the specific water requirements of different areas of the field.
This helps to minimizewater waste and reduce irrigation costs.

3.Soil analysis:

GIS can be used to analyze soil samples and create maps of soil characteristicssuch as pH, nutrient levels, and texture. This information can be
used to create customizedfertilizer plans for specific areas of the field.

4. Yield mapping:

GIS can be used to collect data on crop yield and create maps of the yieldvariability across a field. This information can be used to identify
areas of the field that mayrequire different management practices.

5.Pest and disease management:

GIS can be used to track the spread of pests and diseasesacross a field and identify areas that require targeted treatment. This can help to
reduce the useof pesticides and minimize the risk of resistance developing.Overall, GIS technology can help farmers to make more informed
decisions about cropmanagement, reduce waste, and increase yields. By using GIS to collect and analyze spatial data, farmers can tailor their
management practices to the specific needs of their crops andmaximize their productivity.

GPS (Global Positioning System):

GPS (Global Positioning System) technology is widely used in precision agriculture for mappingand navigating fields, tracking machinery and
equipment, and collecting data on crop growth andyield.

Here are some specific uses of GPS in precision agriculture:

1.Mapping and navigation:

GPS can be used to create maps of field boundaries, drainagepatterns, and other important features. Farmers can use GPS-enabled devices to
navigate fieldsand ensure that they are applying inputs (such as fertilizer and pesticides) to the correctlocations.

2.Guidance systems:

GPS can be used to guide tractors, harvesters, and other machinery acrossthe field with precision, reducing overlap and minimizing soil
compaction. This can help toincrease efficiency and reduce input costs.

3.Yield monitoring:
GPS can be used to collect data on crop yield as the harvest takes place. This information can be used to create yield maps and identify areas
of the field that requiredifferent management practices.

4.Variable rate application (VRA):

GPS can be used in conjunction with VRA technology to applyinputs (such as fertilizer, pesticides, and seed) at varying rates across the field.
This can help tooptimize inputs, reduce waste, and increase yields.

5.Field scouting:

GPS can be used to track and record observations about crop growth andpest/disease pressure in specific areas of the field. This information
can be used to createmanagement plans that are tailored to the needs of each area.Overall, GPS technology can help farmers to improve the
accuracy and efficiency of theirmanagement practices, reduce waste, and increase yields. By using GPS-enabled devices tomap and navigate
fields, track equipment and inputs, and collect data on crop growth and yield,farmers can make more informed decisions and optimize their
operations for maximumproductivity.

VRA

VRA (Variable Rate Application) is a precision agriculture technology that enables farmers toapply inputs (such as fertilizer, pesticides, and
seed) at different rates across a field.

Here aresome specific uses of VRA in precision agriculture:

1.Precision fertilization:
VRA technology can be used to vary the rate of fertilizer applicationbased on soil nutrient levels, topography, and other factors. This can help to
reduce waste,improve crop quality and yield, and minimize environmental impacts.

2.Precision pesticide application:

VRA can be used to apply pesticides only where they areneeded, reducing the number of chemicals used and minimizing the risk of off-target
effects.

3.Seeding rate optimization:

VRA can be used to adjust seeding rates based on soil conditionsand other factors, helping to optimize plant populations and improve crop
yields.

4.Irrigation optimization:

VRA can be used to adjust irrigation rates based on soil moisture levels,weather conditions, and other factors. This can help to conserve water
and reduce input costswhile maintaining crop quality and yield.

5.Soil pH management:

VRA can be used to adjust the rate of lime application to manage soil pHlevels. This can help to improve soil health and nutrient availability,
leading to better crop yields.Overall, VRA technology enables farmers to tailor their management practices to the specificneeds of each area of
the field, optimizing inputs, reducing waste, and increasing yields. Byusing VRA to apply inputs at different rates across the field, farmers can
improve the efficiencyand sustainability of their operations, while also maximizing profits.

Crop Simulation Models:

Crop simulation models are computer-based tools used to simulate the growth, development,and yield of crops under different environmental
and management scenarios. They integratevarious biological, physical, and chemical processes that govern crop growth and
development,including photosynthesis, respiration, transpiration, nutrient uptake, and allocation. The modelsalso take into account the effects
of environmental factors such as temperature, rainfall, solarradiation, soil moisture, and nutrient availability.

Crop simulation models are useful for predicting crop performance under different growingconditions, optimizing crop management strategies,
and assessing the potential impacts ofclimate change on crop production. They can also be used to evaluate the effects of differentagricultural
practices such as irrigation, fertilization, and pest control on crop yields, and tooptimize the use of resources such as water, fertilizer, and
pesticides. There are different types of crop simulation models, including empirical, statistical, and process-based models. Empirical models
are based on observed relationships between yield andenvironmental variables, while statistical models use mathematical algorithms to
identifyrelationships between yield and environmental variables. Process-based models, on the otherhand, simulate the underlying biological,
physical, and chemical processes of crop growth anddevelopment.

Crop simulation models have been developed for a wide range of crops, including cereals,vegetables, fruits, and forages. They are also used for
various purposes, such as crop yieldforecasting, crop management optimization, and policy analysis. The models have the potentialto improve
agricultural productivity, increase food security, and mitigate the impacts of climatechange on crop production.

Their uses:

Crop simulation models are useful tools for optimizing agricultural inputs, such as water, fertilizer,and pesticides. These models allow farmers
to simulate crop growth and development underdifferent environmental and management conditions. By inputting data such as soil type,
weatherpatterns, and crop variety, farmers can predict how their crops will grow and respond to differentinputs.
The use of crop simulation models can help farmers make informed decisions about how tomanage their crops for maximum yield and quality.
For example, a farmer could use a simulationmodel to determine the optimal time to apply fertilizer, based on the growth stage of the crop
andthe nutrient requirements at that stage.

This can help to avoid over- or under-application offertilizer, which can be wasteful and potentially harmful to the environment.In addition to
optimizing inputs, crop simulation models can also be used to evaluate the potentialimpact of climate change on crop yields. By simulating
different climate scenarios, farmers cananticipate how changes in temperature, rainfall, and other factors may affect crop growth and
production. This can help farmers to plan for potential impacts and adapt their managementstrategies accordingly.

Crop simulation models are increasingly being used to optimize agricultural inputs in order toachieve higher yields while minimizing costs and
environmental impact. These models arecomplex computer programs that simulate the growth and development of crops under
differentenvironmental conditions, such as weather, soil, and management practices.

The models are based on mathematical equations that describe the physiological processes ofthe crop, such as photosynthesis, respiration,
and transpiration. They use input data such asclimate data, soil properties, and crop management practices to simulate the growth
anddevelopment of crops over time. The output of these models can be used to optimize cropmanagement practices and predict crop yields
under different environmental scenarios.One of the main uses of crop simulation models is for crop management decision-making.

By using the models to simulate different crop management scenarios, farmers can determine themost efficient and effective crop
management practices to achieve their desired outcomes. Thiscan include determining the optimal planting time, fertilizer rates, irrigation
scheduling, and pestmanagement strategies.

Furthermore, crop simulation models can help farmers to optimize their use of resources, suchas water and fertilizer. By simulating different
irrigation and fertilizer scenarios, farmers candetermine the most efficient use of these inputs to maximize yield and minimize
environmentalimpact. This can help to reduce the cost of inputs and improve the sustainability of agriculturalproduction.
Some other points:

CSMs are particularly useful for precision agriculture, where input applications can be tailored tospecific areas of the field based on soil and
crop conditions.
CSMs can also aid in decision-making for crop insurance, as they can predict the potential yieldloss due to weather-related events.
Fertilizer management: Crop simulation models can help in determining the amount, type, andtiming of fertilizer application to maximize
crop growth and minimize the risk of nutrient losses tothe environment. By simulating crop growth under different fertilizer regimes, farmers
can identifythe most cost-effective and environmentally sustainable fertilizer practices.
Irrigation management: Crop simulation models can help in determining the optimal amount andtiming of irrigation water application to
maximize crop yield and water use efficiency. Bysimulating crop growth under different irrigation scenarios, farmers can determine the
mostefficient irrigation schedule and reduce water wastage.
Crop rotation planning: Crop simulation models can help in planning crop rotation to improve soilhealth, reduce disease incidence, and
increase crop yield. By simulating the impact of differentcrop rotations on soil properties and crop growth, farmers can determine the best
crop rotationsequence to optimize yield and reduce the risk of crop failure.
Pesticide management: Crop simulation models can help in determining the optimal timing andamount of pesticide application to minimize
pest damage while reducing pesticide use and its negative impact on the environment.

By simulating the impact of different pesticide applicationscenarios on crop growth and pest incidence, farmers can identify the most effective
andsustainable pest management practices.Overall, crop simulation models are powerful tools that can help farmers optimize their use
ofagricultural inputs, make informed decisions, and adapt to changing environmental conditions.

STCR approach for precision agriculture:

The STCR (Soil Test Crop Response) approach is a precision agriculture technique that helps tooptimize nutrient management and crop yields
by using information about soil fertility and plantnutrient requirements. It involves three main components:

1.Soil testing:

Soil testing is the first step in the STCR approach. It provides information about thenutrient status of the soil, which is critical for determining
the appropriate amount and type offertilizers to apply. Soil testing can be done using a variety of methods, such as laboratoryanalysis, portable
soil testing kits, or remote sensing techniques.

2.Crop response:
Crop response is the second component of the STCR approach. It involvesmeasuring the response of crops to different levels of nutrients. This
can be done through fieldexperiments, where different levels of fertilizers are applied to different plots of land, and theresulting crop yields are
measured.

3.Nutrient management:
The final component of the STCR approach is nutrient management.Based on the soil test results and crop response data, nutrient
management recommendationsare made to optimize crop yields. This may involve adjusting the amount or type of fertilizersapplied or using
precision agriculture technologies such as variable rate application to apply theright amount of nutrients to different areas of the field.

The STCR approach can help farmers to reduce fertilizer use and minimize environmentalpollution by applying only the amount of nutrients that
the crops need. It can also increase cropyields and profitability by optimizing nutrient management and reducing nutrient deficiencies
orexcesses. Additionally, the use of precision agriculture technologies such as variable rateapplication can further improve the accuracy and
efficiency of nutrient management.

Yield Mapping Concept:

Yield mapping refers to the process of collecting georeferenced data on crop yield andcharacteristics, such as moisture content, while the crop
is being harvested. Various methods,using a range of sensors, have been developed for mapping crop yields.

The basic components of a grain yield mappingsystem include:

Grain flow sensor - determines grain volume harvested..

 Grain moisture sensor - compensates for grain moisture variability.
Clean grain elevator speed sensor - used by some mapping sytems to improve accuracyof grain flow measurements.
GPS antenna - receives satellite signal.
Yield monitor display with a GPS receiver - georeference and record data.
Header position sensor - distinguishes measurements logged during turns.
Travel speed sensor - determines the distance the combine travels during a certainlogging interval (Sometimes travel speed is measured
with a GPS receiver or a radar orultrasonic sensor.)

Each sensor has to be properly calibrated according to the operator’s manual. Calibrationconverts the sensor’s signal to physical parameters. A
proprietary binary log file is created during harvest to record the output of all sensors as a function of time. This file can be converted to a text
format or displayed as a map using the yield monitor vendor’s software.

Processing Yield Maps:

The yield calculated at each field location can be displayed on a map using a GeographicInformation System (GIS) software package. The raw
log file, however, contains points recordedduring turns and the sensor measurements do not correspond to the exact harvest locationsbecause
grain flow through a combine is a delayed process (unless real-time correction isapplied). To eliminate these obvious errors, the raw data is
shifted to compensate for thecombining delay, and the points corresponding to the header up position are removed. Settingsfor grain flow delay
are combine- and sometimes even crop-specific, but typical values for graincrops range from about 10 to 12 seconds.Usually a few points at
the beginning and at the end of a pass should be removed as well. Theseare referred to as start-and end-pass delays. Start-pass delays occur
when the combine startsharvesting the crop, but grain flow has not stabilized because the elevator is gradually filling up.Similarly, end-pass
delays occur when the combine moves out of the crop and grain flowgradually declines to zero when the elevator is completely emptied.
Consult the manufacturer ofyour yield monitor for the most appropriate settings to use with your combine.Shifting of raw data to correct for
grain flow delay as well as deletion of points that representheader status up and start-and end-pass delays is the primary data filtering
procedure built intosoftware supplied with yield mapping systems.

Yield History Evaluation:

Evaluating the temporal (year-to-year) variation of yield distribution within the field is an essentialstep in defining field areas with potentially high
and low yields. Several approaches can be usedto evaluate temporal effects on yield. One approach is to calculate the relative (normalized)
yieldfor each point or grid cell. Normalized yield can be defined as the ratio of the actual yield to thefield average:When growing conditions in a
field vary considerably, such as irrigated and dryland areas ordifferent crops or varieties grown in different areas, normalization should be done
separately forthose areas, with the resulting relative yields recombined into one data file for the whole field. The following figure shows a
relative yield history for a field with corn (soybean in the southernhalf in 2000) grown using furrow-irrigation (until 2001) and center-pivot
irrigation (in 2002).

Potential Applications:

Yield maps represent the output of crop production. On one hand this information can be used toinvestigate the existence of spatially variable
yield limiting factors. On the other hand, the yieldhistory can be used to define spatially variable yield goals that may allow varying
inputsaccording to expected field productivity. The following flowchart illustrates the process one might follow in deciding whether to invest
insite-specific crop management, based on analysis of yield maps. If yield variability across thefield cannot be explained by any spatially
inconsistent field property, uniform management maybe appropriate. Site-specific management becomes a promising strategy if yield patterns
areconsistent from year to year and can be correlated to one or more field properties (e.g. nutrientsupply, topography, past management, etc.).If
the causes for yield variation are known and can be eliminated permanently, the entire areacould be brought to similar growing conditions and
managed uniformly thereafter. This conceptwas one of the earliest philosophies behind precision agriculture, but is likely only feasible
forcertain field properties. For example, variable rate liming can be used to correct acidic areas in afield. In this case, the yield map is used only
to investigate whether low soil pH is a yield-limitingfactor, and the soil map is used to prescribe variable application rates. Another example
wouldbe localized deep soil tillage to alleviate compaction in selected field areas.Most yield limiting factors cannot be modified permanently
through single measures because ofeconomic or practical constraints. Consequently, site-specific crop management may be used
toappropriately account for the existing spatial variability in attainable yield and/or soil properties.