151. Single-phase rectifiers.

https://www.monolithicpower.com/en/power-electronics/ac-dc-converters/
controlled-rectifiers#:~:text=Single%2DPhase%20Controlled
%20Rectifier&text=These%20devices%20are%20used%20to,capable%20of
%20switching%20large%20currents.

What is Rectifier?

A rectifier is an electronic device that converts an alternating current into a

direct current by using one or more P-N junction diodes. A diode behaves as
a one-way valve that allows current to flow in a single direction. This process
is known as rectification.

A rectifier can take the shape of several physical forms such as solid-state
diodes, vacuum tube diodes, mercury-arc valves, silicon-controlled rectifiers,
and various other silicon-based semiconductors switches.

Different Types of Rectifier

Rectifiers are mainly classified into two types as:

1. Uncontrolled Rectifier
2. Controlled Rectifier

Some common applications of rectifiers are:

 Rectifiers are used in electric welding to provide polarized voltage

 Half-wave rectifiers are used as a mosquito repellent
 Half-wave rectifiers are used as a signal peak detector in AM radio
 Rectifiers are used in modulation, demodulation and voltage
multipliers

A rectifier converts ac to dc. The purpose of a rectifier may be to produce an

output that is purely dc, or the purpose may be to produce a voltage or
current waveform that has a specified dc component.

According to Input Supply

 Single Phase Rectifiers (fed from single phase source.)

 Three Phase Rectifiers (fed from three phase source and convert three
phase AC

voltage to DC voltage.)
Single-phase rectifiers are a fundamental component in power
electronics, primarily designed to convert alternating current (AC) into direct
current (DC). This process, known as rectification, is essential for many
electronic devices and systems that require a stable DC power supply.

Principles of Rectification

Rectification is the process of converting AC, which periodically reverses

direction, to DC, which flows in only one direction. Single-phase rectifiers
accomplish this using semiconductor diodes, which allow current to pass in
only one direction.

Types of Single-Phase Rectifiers

1. Half-Wave Rectifier:
2. Full-Wave Rectifier:
 Center-Tapped Full-Wave Rectifier
 Bridge Rectifier

Diger suallarda da melumat var

152. Structural scheme of single-phase rectifiers.

153. Basic parameters of single-phase rectifiers.

154. What parameters are taken into account when designing rectifiers.
Designing rectifiers involves considering a variety of parameters to ensure
that the rectifier meets the specific requirements of the application. Here are
the key parameters and considerations:

1. Input Parameters
Input Voltage (V_in): The RMS voltage of the AC supply that will be rectified.
This affects the peak voltage that the rectifier components must handle.

Frequency (f): The frequency of the AC input, usually 50 Hz or 60 Hz,

depending on the region.

2. Output Parameters

Output Voltage (V_out): The desired average or DC output voltage. This is

influenced by the type of rectifier and the input voltage.

Output Current (I_out): The maximum current that the rectifier needs to
supply to the load.

Ripple Voltage (V_ripple): The allowable amount of AC fluctuation (ripple)

superimposed on the DC output. Lower ripple is usually required for sensitive
electronic applications.

Load Regulation: The ability of the rectifier to maintain a constant output

voltage despite changes in the load current.

3. Rectifier Type

Half-Wave or Full-Wave: Full-wave rectifiers are preferred for most

applications due to their higher efficiency and lower ripple.

Bridge Rectifier: Common for full-wave rectification without needing a

center-tapped transformer.

4. Component Specifications

 Diodes:

Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV): The maximum reverse voltage a diode can
withstand. For half-wave rectifiers, it should be at least the peak AC voltage.
For full-wave and bridge rectifiers, it should be higher due to the voltage
stresses.

Forward Current Rating (I_F): The maximum current the diode can conduct in
the forward direction.

Surge Current Rating: The diode’s ability to handle short-term overcurrent

conditions.

 Capacitors (for filtering):

Capacitance (C): Determines the amount of ripple reduction. Higher

capacitance generally means better ripple suppression.
Voltage Rating: Should be higher than the peak output voltage to ensure
reliability.

 Inductors (optional for filtering):

Inductance (L): Used to smooth out current variations and reduce ripple.

Current Rating: Should handle the maximum load current without saturation.

5. Thermal Management

Heat Dissipation: Rectifiers generate heat, especially at high currents.

Adequate heat sinking or cooling mechanisms must be provided to ensure
reliable operation.

Thermal Resistance: The ability of the rectifier components to dissipate heat.

Components should be selected based on their thermal resistance and
ambient operating conditions.

6. Efficiency

Conduction Losses: Losses occurring due to the forward voltage drop across
diodes.

Switching Losses: Relevant for controlled rectifiers using components like

thyristors or transistors.

155. Classification of single-phase one-half diode rectifiers.

A. Half Wave Circuit. The simple half-wave circuit minimizes rectifier cost,
but suffers from poor transformer utilization, which results in a need for more
copper to keep heating reasonable, and also requires ema filtering to keep
ripples down. The halfwave circuit is primarily useful for low-current, high-
voltage applications where rectifier cost is an important factor and filtering is
easy because of the small load current.

B. Full-Wave Circuit. The dull-wave circuit may be regarded as two parallelled

half-wave circuits operating on alternate half cycles. This circuit provides
same what less than haIf the ripple voltage of the half-wave circuit. The
transformer heating current is half that of the half-wave rectifier, but, if the
winding is confined to the same space, the resistance through which this
current pass is approximately four times that of the half-save case, so the
transformer heating is not much changed. The greater number of films of
finer wire can be expected to make for a more expensive winding. The use of
two rectifiers doubles the available dc output current over the halfwave case
insofar as rectifier ratings are concerned. This circuit is attractive when
rectifier and filter costs are more important than optimum transformer
utilization.

C. Full-Wave Doubler Circuit. The full-wave doubler circuit may be regarded

as two series connected half-wave circuits operating on alternate half cycles.
Because the same winding is used in both half cycles, the transformer
utilization is improved so that transformer heating is approximately one-half
of that for the halfwave case, providing the same window area was occupied
by the two secondary windings. This circuit also requires only half the peak
inverse voltage rating of the half-wave or full-wave rectifier circuits. It does
require twice the number of filter capacitors for the same ripple as the half-
wave circuit, each capacitor being of the same due as for the half-wave case
but rated at half the voltage, and requires the low side of one of the
capacitors to be hot to ground.

D. Bridge Circuit. The bridge circuit may be regarded as taro parallel

connected half-wave circuits operating on alternate half cycles. The
transformer winding is used on both half cycles, resulting in the same
efficient utilization as for the full-wave doubler. As with the full-wave doubler,
the peak inverse voltage rating is half of that for the half-wave or full-wave
case. Filtering is efficient, with somewhat less than half the ripple output of
the half-wave case. The price to be paid is, of course, the need for four
rectifiers as compared with two for the full-wave doubler. The transformer
will have the same number of turns as for the halfwave case.

156. General information about single-phase single-phase rectifiers.

All single phase rectifiers use solid state devices as their primary AC-to-DC
converting device. Single phase uncontrolled half-wave rectifiers are the
simplest and possibly the most widely used rectification circuit for small
power levels as their output is heavily affected by the reactance of the
connected load.

For uncontrolled rectifier circuits, semiconductor diodes are the most

commonly used device and are so arranged to create either a half-wave or a
full-wave rectifier circuit. The advantage of using diodes as the rectification
device is that by design they are unidirectional devices having an inbuilt one-
way pn-junction.

This pn-junction converts the bi-directional alternating supply into a one-way

unidirectional current by eliminating one-half of the supply. Depending upon
the connection of the diode, it could for example pass the positive half of the
AC waveform when forward-biased, while eliminating the negative half-cycle
when the diode becomes reverse-biased.

The reverse is also true by eliminate the positive half or the waveform and
passing the negative half. Either way, the output from a single diode rectifier
consists of only one half of the 360o waveform as shown.

Half-wave Rectification

The single-phase half-wave rectifier configuration above passes the positive

half of the AC supply waveform with the negative half being eliminated. By
reversing the direction of the diode we can pass negative halves and
eliminate the positive halves of the AC waveform. Therefore the output will
be a series of positive or negative pulses.

Thus there is no voltage or current applied to the connected load, RL for half
of each cycle. In other words, the voltage across the load resistance, RL
consists of only half waveforms, either positive or negative, as it operates
during only one-half of the input cycle, hence the name of half-wave rectifier.

Single Phase Full-wave Bridge Rectifier

This bridge configuration of diodes provides full-wave rectification because at

any time two of the four diodes are forward biased while the other two are
reverse biased. Thus there are two diodes in the conduction path instead of
the single one for the half-wave rectifier.

Therefore there will be a difference in voltage amplitude between VIN and

VOUT due to the two forward voltage drops of the serially connected diodes.
Here as before, for simplicity of the maths we will assume ideal diodes.

157. Zero-point two-half-period single-phase rectifiers.

Burda sadəcə single-phase rectifiers haqqında yazmaq daha
məsləhəlidir,sual haqqında məlumat yoxdu.

A "zero-point two-half-period single-phase rectifier" appears to be a specific

type of rectifier circuit designed for particular characteristics, possibly
involving controlled or specialized rectification. While this exact term is not
standard in traditional power electronics literature, it could refer to a
specialized or controlled rectification approach. Here's an interpretation
based on what might be meant by such a term:

Interpretation of "Zero-Point Two-Half-Period Single-Phase Rectifier"

This term might describe a rectifier circuit that operates over a specific
segment of the AC cycle, possibly focusing on precise control or modulation
during the rectification process. Let's break it down:
Zero-Point: This might indicate a reference point or baseline in the AC
waveform, possibly related to when the waveform crosses zero voltage.

Two-Half-Period: This could refer to rectification involving both halves of the

AC cycle (positive and negative), which is characteristic of full-wave
rectification.

Single-Phase Rectifier: This simply indicates that the rectifier operates with
single-phase AC input.

158. Electrical scheme of single-phase rectifiers.

Single phase full-wave rectifier(1)

Single Phase Half Wave Controlled Rectifier with RL Load(2)

159. The principle of operation of single-phase rectifiers.

Single-Phase Controlled Rectifier
Single-phase controlled rectifiers, also known as phase-controlled rectifiers,
play a crucial role in power electronics applications. These devices are used
to convert alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC) with the ability to
control the output voltage. This is achieved by adjusting the firing angle (or
phase angle) of thyristors, which are semiconductor devices capable of
switching large currents.

Operation of Phase Controlled Rectifier

The basic working principle of a PCR circuit is explained using a single phase
half wave PCR circuit with a RL load resistive shown in the following circuit.

A single phase half wave Thyristor converter circuit is used to convert AC to

DC power conversion. The i/p AC supply is attained from a transformer to
offer the required AC supply voltage to the Thyristor converter based on the
o/p DC voltage required. In the above circuit, the primary and secondary AC
supply voltages are denoted with VP and VS

During the +ve half cycle of i/p supply when the upper end of the
transformer secondary winding is at a + ve potential with respect to the
lower end, the Thyristor is in a forward biased state.

The thyristor is activated at a delay angle of ωt =α, by applying an

appropriate gate trigger pulse to the gate terminal of thyristor. When the
thyristor is activated at a delay angle of ωt =α, the thyristor behaviors and
assuming a perfect thyristor. The thyristor acts as a closed switch and the i/p
supply voltage acts across the load when it conducts from ωt =α to π radians
For a purely resistive load, the load current io that flows when the thyristor
T1 is on, is given by the expression.

Working principle
A single-phase thyristor rectifier converts an AC voltage to a DC voltage at
the output. The power flow is bidirectional between the AC and the DC side.
The circuit operation depends on the state of the AC source and the firing
angle α of the 2-pulse generator. The source inductance Ls is neglected for
simplicity.

160. General information about zero-point two-half-period single-phase

rectifiers.

161. Classification of zero-point two-half-period single-phase rectifiers.

162. Electrical scheme of zero-point two-half-period single-phase rectifiers.

163. The principle of operation of two half-period single-phase rectifiers with

a zero point.

164. Single-phase bridge rectifier.

Rectifiers are categorized into two types depending on the operation-

1. Half Wave Rectifiers

2. Full Wave Rectifiers

To make the process of rectification more efficient, Full Wave Rectifiers

have proven to be effective. Full Wave Rectifiers utilize both positive and
negative half cycles of the input voltage to produce an output voltage.

There are two types of full wave rectifiers–

1. Bridge Full Wave Rectifier

2. Centre Tap Full Wave Rectifier

Bridge Rectifier
Bridge Rectifier is a type of Full Wave Rectifier that uses four diodes to
form a close-loop bridge. The diodes conduct in pairs through each positive
and negative half cycle, leading to no wastage of power.

Bridge Rectifier does not require a center tap over the secondary winding of
the transformer. The input is fed through a transformer to the diagonal of the
diode bridge. The transformer of this circuit is always busy because it
supplies power all the time in both cycles of input AC, unlike the center tap
rectifier that uses 50% of the transformer.

Bridge Rectifier comes in various types-

1. Single Phase and Three Phase Bridge Rectifier

2. Uncontrolled Bridge Rectifier
3. Controlled Bridge Rectifier

Single Phase Uncontrolled Bridge Rectifier

Construction:

A single Phase Bridge Rectifier is constructed using four Diodes D1, D2, D3,
and D4, connected in a closed loop configuration that forms a bridge. The
diodes are arranged in a manner that they conduct in pairs during positive
half cycles.

The input AC voltage is applied through a transformer across the Diagonal C

of the bridge. The load resistor RL is connected between Diagonal C and D.

The output rectified DC voltage is obtained across the load from Diagonal D.

Three-Phase Uncontrolled Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

The 3-phase uncontrolled bridge rectifier is a network of 6 diodes that

conduct in pairs for each cycle. A network of four diodes with two phases
operates as a single-phase uncontrolled bridge rectifier.
The Diodes conduct in matching pairs as they form a series connections with
current flowing through them. The two diodes belonging to the different
phases conduct themselves together. This is because a single phase has
positive and negative peak values at the same time.

165. General information about single-phase bridge rectifiers.

We can define bridge rectifiers as a type of full-wave rectifier that uses four
or more diodes in a bridge circuit configuration to efficiently convert
alternating (AC) current to a direct (DC) current. In the next few sections, let
us learn more about its construction, working, and more.

Construction

The construction of a bridge rectifier is shown in the figure below. The bridge
rectifier circuit is made of four diodes D1, D2, D3, D4, and a load resistor RL.
The four diodes are connected in a closed-loop configuration to efficiently
convert the alternating current (AC) into Direct Current (DC). The main
advantage of this configuration is the absence of the expensive centre-
tapped transformer. Therefore, the size and cost are reduced.

The input signal is applied across terminals A and B, and the output DC
signal is obtained across the load resistor RL connected between terminals C
and D. The four diodes are arranged in such a way that only two diodes
conduct electricity during each half cycle. D1 and D3 are pairs that conduct
electric current during the positive half cycle/. Likewise, diodes D2 and D4
conduct electric current during a negative half cycle.
166. Classification of single-phase bridge rectifier.
Types of Bridge Rectifiers

Bride rectifiers are classified into several types based on these factors: type
of supply, controlling capability, bride circuit configurations, etc. Bridge
rectifiers are mainly classified into single and three-phase rectifiers. Both
these types are further classified into uncontrolled, half controlled, and full
controlled rectifiers. Some of these types of rectifiers are described below.

1. Single Phase and Three Phase Rectifiers

The nature of supply, i.e., a single-phase or three-phase supply decides

these rectifiers. The Single phase bridge rectifier consists of four diodes for
converting AC into DC, whereas a three-phase rectifier uses six diodes, as
shown in the figure. These can be again uncontrolled or controlled rectifiers
depending on the circuit components such as diodes, thyristors, and so on.

2. Uncontrolled Bridge Rectifiers

This bridge rectifier uses diodes for rectifying the input as shown in the
figure. Since the diode is a unidirectional device that allows the current flow
in one direction only. With this configuration of diodes in the rectifier, it
doesn’t allow the power to vary depending on the load requirement. So this
type of rectifier is used in constant or fixed power supplies.
 3. Controlled Bridge Rectifier

In this type of rectifier, AC/DC converter or rectifier – instead of uncontrolled

diodes, controlled solid-state devices like SCR’s, MOSFET’s, IGBT’s, etc. are
used to vary the output power at different voltages. By triggering these
devices at various instants, the output power at the load is appropriately
changed.

167. Electrical scheme of a single-phase bridge rectifier.

Bridge Rectifier Circuit Diagram

The main advantage of the bridge rectifier is that it produces almost double
the output voltage as with the case of a full-wave rectifier using a center-
tapped transformer. But this circuit doesn’t need a center-tapped
transformer so it resembles a low-cost rectifier.

The bridge rectifier circuit diagram consists of various stages of devices like
a transformer, Diode Bridge, filtering, and regulators. Generally, all these
blocks combination is called a regulated DC power supply that powers
various electronic appliances.

The first stage of the circuit is a transformer which is a step-down type that
changes the amplitude of the input voltage. Most of the electronic projects
use a 230/12V transformer to step-down the AC mains 230V to 12V AC
supply.
The next stage is a diode-bridge rectifier which uses four or more diodes
depending on the type of bridge rectifier. Choosing a particular diode or any
other switching device for a corresponding rectifier needs some
considerations of the device like Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV), forward current
If, voltage ratings, etc. It is responsible for producing unidirectional or DC
current at the load by conducting a set of diodes for every half cycle of the
input signal.

Since the output after the diode bridge rectifiers is of pulsating nature, and
for producing it as a pure DC, filtering is necessary. Filtering is normally
performed with one or more capacitors attached across the load, as you can
observe in the below figure wherein smoothing of the wave is performed.
This capacitor rating also depends on the output voltage.

The last stage of this regulated DC supply is a voltage regulator that

maintains the output voltage to a constant level. Suppose the microcontroller
works at 5V DC, but the output after the bridge rectifier is around 16V, so to
reduce this voltage, and to maintain a constant level – no matter voltage
changes in the input side – a voltage regulator is necessary.

168. The principle of operation of a single-phase bridge rectifier.

Bridge Rectifier Operation

As we discussed above, a single-phase bridge rectifier consists of four diodes

and this configuration is connected across the load. For understanding the
bridge rectifier’s working principle, we have to consider the below circuit for
demonstration purposes.

During the Positive half cycle of the input AC waveform diodes, D1 and D2
are forward biased and D3 and D4 are reverse biased. When the voltage,
more than the threshold level of the diodes D1 and D2, starts conducting –
the load current starts flowing through it, as shown in the path of the red line
in the diagram below.

During the negative half cycle of the input AC waveform, the diodes D3 and
D4 are forward biassed, and D1 and D2 are reverse biased. Load current
starts flowing through the D3 and D4 diodes when these diodes start
conducting as shown in the figure.

We can observe that in both cases, the load current direction is the same,
i.e., up to down as shown in the figure – so unidirectional, which means DC
current. Thus, by the usage of a bridge rectifier, the input AC current is
converted into a DC current. The output at the load with this bridge wave
rectifier is pulsating in nature, but producing a pure DC requires an
additional filter like a capacitor. The same operation is applicable for
different bridge rectifiers, but in the case of controlled rectifiers thyristors
triggering is necessary to drive the current to load.

169. General information about filters.

A circuit designed to perform this frequency selection is called a filter circuit,
or simply a filter.

A common need for filter circuits is in high-performance stereo systems,

where certain ranges of audio frequencies need to be amplified or
suppressed for best sound quality and power efficiency.
What Is a Filter?

A filter is a circuit capable of passing (or amplifying) certain frequencies

while attenuating other frequencies. Thus, a filter can extract important
frequencies from signals that also contain undesirable or irrelevant
frequencies.

In the field of electronics, there are many practical applications for filters.
Examples include:

Radio communications: Filters enable radio receivers to only "see" the

desired signal while rejecting all other signals (assuming that the other
signals have different frequency content).

DC power supplies: Filters are used to eliminate undesired high frequencies

(i.e., noise) that are present on AC input lines. Additionally, filters are used
on a power supply's output to reduce ripple.

Audio electronics: A crossover network is a network of filters used to channel

low-frequency audio to woofers, mid-range frequencies to midrange
speakers, and high-frequency sounds to tweeters.

Analog-to-digital conversion: Filters are placed in front of an ADC input to

minimize aliasing.

Four Major Types of Filters

The four primary types of filters include the low-pass filter, the high-pass
filter, the band-pass filter, and the notch filter (or the band-reject or band-
stop filter). Take note, however, that the terms "low" and "high" do not refer
to any absolute values of frequency, but rather, they are relative values with
respect to the cutoff frequency.

Figure 1 below gives a general idea of how each of these four filters works:

Passive and Active Filters

Filters can be placed in one of two categories: passive or active.

Passive filters include only passive components—resistors, capacitors, and

inductors. In contrast, active filters use active components, such as op-amps,
in addition to resistors and capacitors, but not inductors.

Passive filters are most responsive to a frequency range from roughly 100
Hz to 300 MHz. The limitation on the lower end results from the fact that the
inductance or capacitance would have to be quite large at low frequencies.
The upper-frequency limit is due to the effect of parasitic capacitances and
inductances. Careful design practices can extend the use of passive circuits
well into the gigahertz range.

Active filters are capable of dealing with very low frequencies (approaching
0 Hz), and they can provide voltage gain (passive filters cannot). Active
filters can be used to design high-order filters without the use of inductors;
this is important because inductors are problematic in the context of
integrated-circuit manufacturing techniques. However, active filters are less
suitable for very high-frequency applications because of amplifier bandwidth
limitations. Radio-frequency circuits must often utilize passive filters.

Response curves are used to describe how a filter behaves. A response

curve is simply a graph showing an attenuation ratio (VOUT / VIN) versus
frequency (see Figure 2 below). Attenuation is commonly expressed in units
of decibels (dB). Frequency can be expressed in two forms: either the
angular form ω (units are rad/s) or the more common form of f (units of Hz,
i.e., cycles per second). These two forms are related by ω = 2πf. Finally, filter
response curves may be plotted in linear-linear, log-linear, or log-log form.
The most common approach is to have decibels on the y-axis and logarithmic
frequency on the x-axis.

170. Beating coefficient of filters.

The "beating coefficient of filters" is not a standard term in electronics or
signal processing literature. However, it's possible that this phrase could
relate to a concept involving the interaction or interference between
different frequency components in the context of filter design or analysis.

The beating effect in filters might refer to the phenomenon where two or
more frequencies interact, leading to interference patterns or modulation
effects. This can occur when filters are not perfectly designed or when
multiple signals are present in the system.

Beating Phenomenon in Signals

The beating phenomenon itself is an interference pattern between two

frequencies that are close together, resulting in a new signal with a
frequency that is the difference between the two original frequencies. This
concept is crucial in understanding how closely spaced frequencies interact
in a filter.
Key Concepts Related to Filtering and Beating Effects

Ripple Factor: In power supply filters, the ripple factor is an important

parameter. It quantifies the amount of AC ripple voltage present in the
output DC voltage. Filters are designed to minimize this ripple, but if not
properly designed, multiple frequency components can interact and affect
the ripple.

Cutoff Frequency and Bandwidth: In filter design, the cutoff frequency

determines the frequency at which the filter begins to attenuate the input
signal. Bandwidth is the range of frequencies that the filter allows to pass
with minimal attenuation. Improperly designed filters can cause unwanted
interactions between frequencies within and outside the passband.

Quality Factor (Q Factor): This parameter measures the sharpness of the

filter’s resonance. A high Q factor indicates a narrow bandwidth with sharp
filtering characteristics, which can also lead to more pronounced beating
effects if not properly managed.

Harmonic Distortion: When filters are used in rectifiers, harmonic

distortion can occur due to nonlinearities. This can introduce additional
frequencies (harmonics) that interact with the main signal, potentially
causing beating effects.

Saytdan:

 -3 dB frequency (f3dB). This term, pronounced "minus 3dB

frequency", corresponds to the input frequency that causes the output
signal to drop by -3dB relative to the input signal. The -3 dB frequency
is also referred to as the cutoff frequency. It is the frequency at which
the output power is reduced by one-half (which is why this frequency is
also called the "half-power frequency"), or the output voltage is the
input voltage multiplied by 1/√2. For low-pass and high-pass filters,
there is only one -3 dB frequency. However, there are two -3 dB
frequencies for band-pass and notch filters—normally referred to as f1
and f2.

 Center frequency (f0). The center frequency, a term used for band-
pass and notch filters, is a central frequency between the upper and
 lower cutoff frequencies. The center frequency is commonly defined as
the arithmetic mean (see equation below) or the geometric mean of
the lower and upper cutoff frequency.
 Bandwidth (β or B.W.). The bandwidth is the width of the passband,
and the passband is the band of frequencies that do not experience
significant attenuation when moving from the input of the filter to the
output of the filter.
 Stopband frequency (fs). This is a particular frequency at which the
attenuation reaches a specified value.

For low-pass and high-pass filters, frequencies beyond the stopband

frequency are referred to as the stopband.

For band-pass and notch filters, two stopband frequencies exist. The
frequencies between these two stopband frequencies are referred to as the
stopband.

 Quality factor (Q): The quality factor of a filter conveys its damping
characteristics. In the time domain, damping corresponds to the
amount of oscillation in the system’s step response. In the frequency
domain, higher Q corresponds to more (positive or negative) peaking
in the system’s magnitude response. For a bandpass or notch filter, Q
represents the ratio between the center frequency and the -3dB
bandwidth (i.e., the distance between f1 and f2).

For both band-pass and notch filters:

171. Smoothing coefficient of filters.

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Alternating current cannot be perfectly rectified, so The output of any
rectifier contains pulsations with frequency 50 Hz or 100 Hz. Pulsations
reflect harmfully on the operation of the powered device, and therefore their
level needs to be reduced. This task is performed smoothing filters.

An anti-aliasing filter is a device that allows reduce voltage ripple received at

the output rectifier Filters are considered smoothing transmitting with low
attenuation constant component and with a large attenuation variable
component.

The main parameters of anti-aliasing filters is the smoothing (filtering)

coefficient, which is determined by the ratio of the coefficient ripple at the
filter input to the ripple factor at its output (Fig. 1):

Quality of filter smoothing properties (smoothing coefficient) can be

estimated by following formula:

where ,

 S is the smoothing coefficient,

 Kp.in - input ripple coefficient,
 Kp.out - output ripple coefficient.

To satisfy the filtering properties it is necessary fulfillment of the following

conditions: U12<<u11, U02 is approximately equal to U01.</u

The smoothing factor takes into account ripple suppression and transmission
of the DC component U. For devices seamlessly transmitting the constant
component, smoothing coefficient is the division of ripples between load and
filter (it is assumed that Uin is approximately equals Un).

172. Smoothing filters.

Rusca- https://studfile.net/preview/9696214/page:11/

Alternating current cannot be perfectly rectified, so The output of any

rectifier contains pulsations with frequency 50 Hz or 100 Hz. Pulsations
reflect harmfully on the operation of the powered device, and therefore their
level needs to be reduced. This task is performed smoothing filters.

Smoothing filters are designed to reduce rectified voltage ripple to the

required level. The ripple coefficients for the circuits discussed in the
previous paragraph exceed unity, and for voltages used to power radio-
electronic circuits, the ripple coefficient kp should be from 10–2 to 10–7.
Thus, the rectified voltage cannot be used directly; first it is necessary to
filter the variable components so that their value does not exceed the
permissible value.

The main circuits of smoothing filters are shown in Figure 9, and the input
voltage for them is the pulsating output voltage uv of a rectifier with internal
resistance r. The effectiveness of using a particular filter is usually assessed
by the smoothing coefficient kc, which determines the degree of suppression
of the first harmonic of the ripple voltage (the contribution of higher
harmonics to the voltage ripple in this case is negligible). The smoothing
coefficient is defined as the ratio of the amplitude of the first harmonic of the
input voltage of the filter Uв1 to the amplitude of the first harmonic of the
output voltage U21:

Obviously, the smoothing coefficient is inversely proportional to the value of

the frequency response of the filter at the pulsation frequency  = 2/T, that
is

Let's find the values of the smoothing coefficient of each of the filters shown
in Figure 9. The frequency response of a capacitive filter (Fig. 9, a) is
determined by the expression

Thus, the smoothing coefficient of this filter is equal to

173. Working principle of smoothing filters.

The principle of operation is simple - during the action of a half-wave voltage,
the reactive elements (capacitor, inductor) are charged from a source - a
diode rectifier, and discharged to the load during the absence or low
amplitude voltage.

The simplest method of smoothing out ripples is to use a filter in the form of
a capacitor of a sufficiently large capacity that shunts the load (load
resistance). A capacitor smooths out ripples well if its capacitance is such
that the following condition is met:

1 / (ωС) << Rн
During the action of a sinusoidal signal, when the voltage on the rectifier
diode is direct, a current passes through the diode, charging the capacitor to
a voltage close to the maximum. When the voltage at the output of the diode
rectifier is less than the capacitor charge voltage, the capacitor is discharged
through the load Rн and creates a voltage across it, which gradually
decreases as the capacitor is discharged through the load. In each
subsequent half-cycle, the capacitor is recharged and its voltage increases
again.

The greater the capacitance C and the load resistance Rн, the slower the
capacitor discharges, the less ripple and the closer the average value of the
output voltage Uav to the maximum value of the sinusoid Umax. If the load
is turned off altogether, then in idle mode the capacitor will receive a
constant voltage equal to Umax, without any ripple.

The operation of the simplest smoothing filter on a capacitor in the circuit of

a half-wave rectifier is illustrated by drawings and diagrams:

Red color shows the voltage at the output of the rectifier without a
smoothing capacitor, and blue color - if it is present.

If the ripples must be small, or the load resistance Rн is small, then an

excessively large capacitor capacitance is required, i.e. It is practically
impossible to smooth out ripples with a single capacitor. You have to use a
more complex anti-aliasing filter.
174. Electric scheme of smoothing filters.

175. Capacitance filter.

A filter circuit is in general a combination of inductor (L) and Capacitor (C)
called an LC filter circuit. A capacitor allows A.C only and an inductor allows
D.C only to pass. So a suitable L and C network can effectively filter out the
A.C component from the rectified wave.

In this filter a capacitor is connected across the load during the rise of the
voltage cycle it gets charged and this charge is supplied to the load during
the fall in the voltage cycle. This process is repeated for each cycle and thus
the repel is reduced across the load. It is shown in the above Figure. It is
popular, because of its low cost, small size, less weight, and good
characteristics. Useful for loading up to 50mA as in transistor radio battery
eliminators.

Capacitor filters, also known as capacitor-input filters or simply RC filters, are

electronic circuits used to filter and smooth electrical signals. They consist of
a capacitor (C) and a resistor (R) connected in series or parallel. Here are
some of the pros and cons of using capacitor filters:

Pros:

High-Pass Filtering: Capacitor filters are effective at blocking low-

frequency signals while allowing high-frequency signals to pass through.
They are commonly used to eliminate ripple and provide DC voltage in power
supply applications.

Compact and Lightweight: Capacitors are typically smaller and lighter

than inductors, making them suitable for applications where space and
weight constraints are critical.

Low Cost: Capacitors are relatively inexpensive and readily available, which
makes them a cost-effective choice for filtering applications.

Simple Design: The basic design of a capacitor filter is straightforward,

with only two passive components (a capacitor and a resistor). This simplicity
facilitates easy integration into electronic circuits.

176. Inductive filter.

This type of filter is also called a choke filter. It consists of an inductor L

which is inserted between the rectifier and the load resistance RL. The
rectifier contains A.C. components as well as D.C components. When the
output passes through the inductor, it offers a high resistance to the A.C
component and no resistance to D.C components. Therefore, A.C
components of the rectified output are blocked and only D.C components are
reached at the load.

Inductor filters, also known as inductor-input filters or simply LC filters, are

electronic circuits used to filter and smooth electrical signals. They consist of
an inductor (L) and a capacitor (C) connected in series or parallel.
Working Principle of Inductive Filters

Inductive filters work on the principle of electromagnetic induction.

Inductors, the essential components of these filters, are often made up of a
coil of wire around a magnetic core. When an electric current passes through
the coil, it creates a magnetic field. The strength and direction of this
magnetic field change as the current changes, inducing a voltage in the coil.
This induced voltage opposes the change in the original current, effectively
filtering out high-frequency signals while allowing low-frequency signals to
pass through, which forms the basic functioning of inductive filters.

Types of Inductive Filters

Low-pass Inductive Filters: These types of filters allow signals with a
frequency lower than a certain cutoff frequency to pass through while
attenuating frequencies higher than the cutoff frequency.

High-pass Inductive Filters: Contrary to low-pass filters, high-pass filters

allow frequencies higher than a certain cutoff frequency to pass and
attenuate frequencies lower than the cutoff frequency.

Band-pass Inductive Filters: These filters allow frequencies within a

certain range to pass through, effectively attenuating signals outside of this
frequency range.

Band-stop Inductive Filters: Also known as band-reject or notch filters,

these filters attenuate frequencies within a certain range and allow signals
outside of this range to pass through.

177. G-shaped filter.

The term "G-shaped filter" is not a standard or commonly recognized term in
electronics or signal processing. However, it's possible that it could refer to a
specific configuration or a nickname for a filter design that resembles the
shape of the letter "G" in some way, either in its circuit layout or its response
characteristics.

178. П - shaped filter.

179. The most widely used filters.

Types of Filter Circuits

1. Low-Pass Filter (LPF)

2. High- Pass Filter (HPF)
3. Band-Pass Filter (BPF)
4. Band -Stop Filter (BSF) or Notch filter

Low-Pass Filter (LPF)

An electronic circuit known as a low-pass filter (LPF) attenuates signals

higher than the cutoff frequency while permitting signals lower than the
cutoff frequency to pass through. LPFs are frequently employed in electrical
systems to ensure that only the intended low-frequency components reach
the output by removing or reducing high-frequency noise, undesired
harmonics, and interference.

Cutoff Frequency (fc): The cutoff frequency, often known as f c, is an

important parameter that indicates when the filter starts to attenuate the
input signal. While frequencies over the cutoff are gradually muted,
frequencies below it are permitted to pass through with little attenuation.
The cutoff frequency is measured in hertz (Hz) and is commonly represented
as f c.

Filter Slope/Roll-off: The filter’s roll-off, or how quickly it attenuates

frequencies above the cutoff, is measured. Decibels per decade (dB/decade)
or decibels per octave (dB/octave) are the units of measurement. The rate at
which higher frequencies lose amplitude as they approach the cutoff
frequency is determined by the slope.

High-Pass Filter (HPF)

An electronic circuit known as a high-pass filter (HPF) attenuates signals with

frequencies lower than the cutoff frequency while permitting signals with
frequencies greater than the cutoff frequency to pass through. High-pass
filters (HPFs) are used in many electronic applications to emphasize a
signal’s high-frequency content and to remove or decrease undesired DC
offsets and low-frequency components. The main elements and features of a
high-pass filter are as follows:

Cutoff Frequency (fc): The frequency at which the filter starts to attenuate
the input signal in an HPF is known as the cutoff frequency, just like in a Low-
Pass Filter. While frequencies over the cutoff frequency pass through with
little attenuation, those below it are gradually muted. The unit of
measurement for the cutoff frequency (f c) is commonly hertz (Hz).
Filter Slope/Roll-off: The filter slope, sometimes referred to as roll-off, is
the speed at which frequencies below the cutoff are attenuated. Decibels per
decade (dB/decade) or decibels per octave (dB/octave) are the units of
measurement. The slope controls the rate at which lower frequencies lose
amplitude as they approach the cutoff frequency.

Band-Pass Filter (BPF)

A Band-Pass Filter (BPF) is an electrical circuit that attenuates signals outside

of the passband while permitting signals inside the passband to pass
through. Two cutoff frequencies define the band-pass filter: a lower cutoff
frequency (low f low ) as well as a higher cutoff frequency (high f high). The
passband is formed by the frequencies that are passed with the least amount
of attenuation between these two cutoff points. The main elements and
features of a band-pass filter are as follows:

Center frequency: The geometric mean of the lower and higher cutoff
frequencies determines the center frequency, which is the midway of the
passband. Determining the core frequency at which the filter responds best
is a critical parameter.

The bandwidth : The band-pass filter’s bandwidth is the width of the

frequency range within which signals can flow through with the least amount
of attenuation. The difference between the upper and lower cutoff
frequencies is how it is defined.
Band -Stop Filter (BSF) or Notch filter

Let some frequencies pass through while blocking others. It’s helpful in
removing interference from a particular frequency. Since power is the
primary quantity of concern, the transfer function of a circuit is typically
stated on a logarithmic scale in dB. A filter is characterized by :

Center frequency (f c): The midpoint of the lower and upper notch
frequencies is the center frequency of a notch filter, just like in a band-pass
filter. Determining the core frequency at which the filter responds best is a
critical parameter.

Bandwidth (BW): The width of the frequency range in which signals are
rejected or muted is the band-stop filter’s bandwidth. It is described as the
difference between the frequencies of the upper and lower notch:
180. Connection diagram of single-phase two half-period rectifiers.
The half-wave rectifier circuit consists of the transformer’s primary and
secondary windings, a p-n junction diode, and the load resistance RL. Half-
wave rectifiers convert alternating current voltage to direct current voltage.
A halfwave rectifier circuit transforms using only one diode.

Below we have a diagram of half wave rectifier

The half wave rectifier receives alternating current as an input (Alternating

Current). The output voltage is measured using the load resistor RL. The half
wave rectifier, as the name suggests, produces the half-cycle of the input
wave. It is due to the presence of a p-n junction diode, which conducts
current in only one direction. It means that the output pulse only produces
output for the positive input cycle.

The efficiency of a half wave rectifier is relatively low, typically around 40-
60%, as only half of the AC input voltage is used.