Dr Peach Biology Practicals

BIOLOGY PRACTICALS BY DR W.D.
J PEACH
DICHOTOMOUS KEY
 This is the key used to identify and group organisms.

 When using this key, organisms are identified by using Variation principle, where
organisms are identified by using their observable differences between or among organisms
Types of dichotomous key
1. Animal dichotomous key 2.

Plant dichotomous key
ANIMAL DICHOTOMOUS KEY
In this dichotomous key, the animals are grouped by observing their differential features.
Features observed in animals are;
 Presence of legs, some animals do not have legs

 Presence of feathers or wings
 Presence of beaks
 Presence of segmented body(divided body)
 Presence of fins
 Presence of scales
 Presence of tails(some animals may have short or long tails)
 Presence of ears
 Presence of antennae
MORE TIPS WHEN CONSTRUCTING A DICHOTOMOUS KEY
The organism are mostly given five, and the points are supposed to be exactly 4 points.
The points are always two, they should be opposing each other, for example when one statement
says, animals with legs, and the other statement should be, animal without legs.
Mostly, the fourth point should not contain the statement like …..See 5.
An example of a dichotomous key Construct

the dichotomous key for the following organism
Page 1 of 33 DR W.D.J PEACH (DOMASI COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 2017)

THE SIMPLE DICHOTOMOUS KEY
Construct a simple dichotomous key for the following organisms
1. Animals with legs ………………………………..see 2 An

animal without legs………………………….P
2. Animals without wings……………………………see 3

An animal with wings……………………………..Z
3. Animals with segmented body……………………see 4

An animal without segmented body……………...Y
4. An animal with long antennae……………………..V An

animal with short antennae ……………………X
Example 2.
1. Animals with legs ……………………………………………see 2

animals without legs…………………………………….Tilapia

2. Animals without feathers……………………………………see 3 animal with
feathers……………………………………..Egret
3. Animals with tails ……………………………………………see 4 animal without a

tail……………………………………..Tree Frog
4. An animal with a short tail…………………………………..Giraffe

An animal with a long tail…………………………………...Gecko
1. Animals with legs ……………………………………………..see 2 An

animal without legs………………………………………..B
2. Animals without a beak……………………………………….see 3 An

animal with a beak…………………………………………C
3. Animals with wings ……………………………………………see 4

An animal without wings………………………………………E
4. An animal with antennae………………………………………D

An animal without antennae…………………………………..A

1. Animals with legs…………..see 2 An
animal without legs……..P
2. Animals without a beak…….see 3 An

animal with a beak………O
3. Animals without feathers………..see

4 An animal with feathers…………N
4. An animal a tail……………………Q
An animal without a tail………….. M
3. PLANT DICHOTOMOUS KEY
In this type of dichotomous key, plants are identified based on the following observable
features;
 Arrangement of vein(Venation)
 Presence of even or rough margins
 Presence of flat or broad leaves
 Presence of different leaf shapes; circular, triangular and oval.
 Presence of different leaf arrangements A. Arrangements of veins venation
In this there are two types of veins; parallel veins and netted or branched veins

Parallel veins Network(branched) veins
B. Presence of even or rough margins
Rough (serrated) margin smooth margin
C. Presence of different leaf shapes
D. Different leaf Arrangements
digitate form

CONSTRUCT A SIMPLE DICHOTOMOUS KEY FOR THE ABOVE PLANTS
3. Leaves in simple form ………………………………………See 4 Leaves in

a compound(not in simple) form ………………Bougainvillea
4. Leaves in digitate arrangement……………………………Chorisia

Leaves not inn digitate(in bi-pinnate) arrangement……Acacia
DICHOTOMOUS KEY FOR PLANTS
1. Leaves with netted(branched) veins……………………….See 2

Leaves with parallel vein(not with netted veins)…………Maize
2. Leaves with smooth margins ……………………………..See 3 Leaves

with serrated(rough) margin……………………….Hibiscus
PRACTICAL PART 2- FOOD TESTS
In food tests, there are five food tests that are mostly discussed and asked during final exams these are
1) Testing for the presents of starch

2) Testing of presents of reducing sugars
3) Testing for the presents of non-reducing sugars
4) Testing for the presents of proteins
5) Testing for the Presents of Oil and Lipids
TESTING FOR PRESENTS OF STARCH
The following are the steps for testing for presents of starch;
 Crush the food sample into smaller pieces, then dissolve it into water
 Add iodine solution to the dissolved food sample and allow the iodine solution to get mixed well 
Observe the colour change

OBSERVATION
If the food sample contains starch, then the colour changes (turns) to blue black or dark blue If the
food sample does not contain starch, the colour of the food sample changes (turns) to brown.
NB; the conclusion is taken from the results of the colour change observed from the food sample.
TESTING FOR PRESENTS OF REDUCING SUGARS (GLUCOSE)
The following re the steps;

 Crush the food sample into smaller pieces and dissolve it into water
 Add 2-4 drops of benedict solution to the dissolved food sample
 Heat the mixture gently for 5-10 minutes
 Observe colour change of the precipitate
OBSERVATION
If the food sample contents reducing sugars, e.g Glucose, then the colour changes into brick red.
NB; a very good example of the reducing sugar is glucose.
TESTING FOR THE PRESENTS OF NON-REDUCING SUGARS (SUCROSE)
The following are the steps;

 Crush the food sample into smaller pieces
 Dissolve the smaller pieces into water
 Add 2-4 drops of Hydrochloric Acid (HCL) in order to hydrolysis the disaccharides
 Heat the mixture for 2 minutes in order to facilitate the hydrolysis process
 After 2 minutes, add Sodium Hydrochloric in order to neutralize the acids
 Add 3-4 drops of benedict solution to the mixture
 Heat the mixture for 5 minutes
 Observe colour change
OBSERVATION
If the food sample contains non reducing sugars then the colour changes into brick red
If the colour changes to any other colour, apart from brick red, then the food sample does not contain
nonreducing sugars.
TESTING FOR THE PRESENTS OF PROTEINS

 Dissolve the food sample into water

 Add Sodium Hydroxide solution into the food sample
 Observe the colour change
OBSERVATION
If the food sample contains proteins, the colour changes into purple or violet.
If the food sample does not contain the proteins, then the purple or violet colour does not appear.
TESTING FOR THE PRESENTS OF LIPIDS AND OILS (GROUNDNUTS)

 Do not dissolve food sample into water
 Apply all the smaller pieces onto the clean white plane paper
 Rub the smaller pieces of food sample against the plane paper for 10 minutes
 Put the rubbed plane paper on the sun for 20 minutes and allow it to dry
 Observe the changes on the plane paper
OBSERVATION
If the food sample contains oils and lipids, then a permanent translucent spot appears on the plane paper.
DIGESTIVE ENZYMES
Chemical digestion is the type f digestion where large particles of food are broken down into smaller pieces
by using the chemicals called enzyme.
Enzymes are biological catalysts, they speed up the chemical reaction
A catalyst is a substances which speed up the chemical reaction but the catalyst remain unchanged at the end
of the reaction
PROPERTIES OF ENZYMES
 All enzymes are proteins in nature

 They are catalysts, they speed up the chemical reaction
 They are specific, they digest only one type of food
 They are affected by temperature, they work best under optimum temperature(370) HOW 1.
TOMATO FRUIT
Draw the longitudinal and the cross section of tomato and label 4 parts

Functions of the parts
a. Seeds- used for regeneration

b. Endocarp- used as the storage organ for food
c. Placenta- supplies food to the seeds and support the seeds
d. Pericarp(outer sheet)- protect the internal parts of the tomato
MORE POINTS ABOUT TOMATO FRUIT

 The fruit is full of vitamin A and B
 It has dicots seeds- this is because it has branched veins
 It resists itself from high temperature by using hairs which are all over the tomato body The leaves
has rough margins
AN ONION BULB
This contains carbohydrates and vitamins

Draw the longitudinal and the cross section of the onion and label any 3 parts
2. THE BEEN SEED

The structure and its parts

FUNCTIONS OF SOME SEED PARTS
Cotyledon – stores food nutrients
Testa- controls the internal parts from damage
SOME PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
Name mineral elements that are found in fish
 Proteins and calcium
Describe the shape of the fish
 It has the streamlined
What is the advantages of the shape of the fish?
 The streamlined shape reduces the drag in water

4. THE POTATO
Draw the potato and label any three parts
 The potato stores food in its tuber inform of starch, this is because this is in insoluble state where it cannot easily
dissolve in water.
 The tuber like any other stem has nodes that produce buds. The eyes of a potato are actually the nodes on the
stem.
5. MAIZE SEED

MORE PRACTICAL AREAS
OSMOSIS IN POTATO
Peal the outer cover and cut into slices with specific length and width, then place it into water
Take 2 beakers with different concentrations one with distilled salt solution.

Put the potato slices into the 2 beakers as shown below and then make observation
Beaker with potato Beaker with potato

in a distilled Water In a salt
and no salts Concentrated water
OBSERVATION AFTER 15 MINUTES
The potato within the pure water (distilled water), water will be entering into he potato, this is because inside the potato
there is less water concentration as such more water will enter into it through osmosis.
The potato within the salt solution, the potato will be losing water into the beaker, this is because the solution is
concentrated with salts as compared to the inside the potato
EXPECTED RESULTS
Potato slice within the distilled water will gain water and the width will increase and the potato within the salt solution
will lose water and the width will decrease.
FEATHERS
Two types of feathers are;
I. Down feather -used for warming the body or body insulation II. Flight feather-
used for flying
Draw a flight feather then identify their original names. A fight feather
Draw a fish and label locomotory structures

MAGNIFICATION
Magnification = 𝑳𝒆𝒏 𝑫𝒓𝒂𝒘𝒊𝒏 Length of
specimen
How magnification is calculated

Draw the diagram, then use the ruler to measure the distance and measure the length of the specimen given (the original
given object), after this then calculate the magnification using the above formula.
MORE POINTS ABOUT MAGNIFICATION

PART D ESSAY QUESTIONS
1. Describe the process of photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis occurs in two stages, that is, light stage and dark stage. During light stage, light
energy is trapped by chlorophyll in the chloroplast and converted into chemical energy. The
chemical energy is used to split water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen atoms. The
hydrogen is used in the dark stage, while oxygen molecules are released into the atmosphere as
oxygen gas or used for aerobic respiration. Some of the chemical energy is used to combine a
molecule called adenosine diphosphate with a phosphate group to form the rich energy
molecule called adenosine tri-phosphate.
During dark stage, the hydrogen atoms formed in light stage are combined with carbon dioxide
to form glucose using energy from ATP.
2. Describe any five ways in which a plant leaf is adapted to its function. Your answer should
be in essay form.
Firstly, the leaf has broad and flattened surface. This increases the surface area for absorption
of carbon dioxide and sunlight.
Secondly, the leaf is supported by a stem and a petiole. This exposes as much of the leaf as
possible to sunlight and air.
Thirdly, the leaf has thin lamina. This reduces the distance across which carbon dioxide diffuses
from stomata to photosynthetic cells.
Fourthly, the leaf has network of veins. This provides a good water supply to the
photosynthesing mesophyll cells.
Lastly, the leaf has stomata on its surface. These allow carbon dioxide to enter the leaf.
3. Explain five ways in which glucose is used by the plant after photosynthesis. (2004)
Firstly, glucose is used for respiration which produces energy for growth and active transport of
substances across membranes.
Secondly, glucose is converted to cellulose which is used to form cell walls that protect the cell
from bursting due to osmosis.
Glucose is combined with nitrogen to form proteins which is used to form enzymes.
Fourthly, glucose is converted to fats which are used to form cell membrane that controls
substances getting into the cell.
Lastly, glucose is transported to storage organs where it is converted to starch for storage.

4. Describe an experiment that could be carried out to show that fresh green leaves contain
three types of pigments. Your answer should include procedures, results and conclusion in
an essay form. (2008)
In this as a method, one would collect green leaves from plants in a school garden. The leaves
should then be grinded using a pestle and mortar. The grinded leaves should then be squeezed
to obtain an extract. Cut a 2 cm by 10 cm strip of filter paper. Put a drop of the extract on the
strip about 4 cm from the bottom edge. Dip the bottom edge of the filter paper with a drop of
extract in alcohol in a beaker about 2 cm from the spot of the extract.
After some few minutes, the alcohol rises up the strip of filter paper dissolving the leaf extract.
As alcohol passes the spot of extract, the different pigments in the extract move up at different rates, smaller ones will move faster than the
bigger ones. This will separate the pigments in the extract into three different coloured spots.
The three different coloured spots indicate that leaves have three different types of pigments.
5. Describe briefly the process by which water enters the root hairs and escapes from the
leaves at the top of a tall tree. (1995)
Because of the higher solute (sugar and salts) concentration of the root hair cell sap than soil
solution, water is drawn from the soil into the root hair. This dilutes root hair cell sap. So water
moves further into neighbouring cells of cortex. The process will continue so that water travels
through cortex into the xylem vessels.
Xylem vessels are long tubes made of elongated cells. The vessels extent from the root into
stem to leaves. When the absorbed water enters the xylem it moves through the stem,
branches, leaf petioles and finally into leaves.
The movement of water through the plant is also assisted by transpiration stream, the pulling
(suction) force exerted due to loss of water from leaves.
In the leaves water would be distributed to all leaf cells by the network of veins. Since air spaces
in the leaf are connected to atmospheric air through stomata, water diffuses from leaf cells
where it is more concentrated into the air spaces and out into the atmosphere where it is less
concentrated.
Describe an experiment you would do to show that transpiration from leaves affects uptake of
water. Your answer should be in essay form. (2005)
Prepare a shoot and fix it in a potometer. Fill the potometer with water of known volume.
Leave the plant on the ground where air is circulating and where there is enough light. As water
transpires from the aerial surface of the shoot, it draws it from the potometer tube. The
potometer will measure the amount of water taken up the plant as a result of transpiration.
This then shows that transpiration affects water uptake in plants.
6. Describe the five conditions in the environment that speed up the rate of transpiration in
plants. (1997)

Low humidity is one condition that speeds up the rate of transpiration in plants. When there is
low humidity is low humidity there is a bigger difference in concentration of water vapour
between leaf and atmosphere, such that more water diffuses from the leaf into the atmosphere
so increasing transpiration.
High light intensity causes the opening of stomata. The more the stomata are open the more
water will be lost from the leaf.
Wind is another condition. Wind carries away water vapour from around the leaves so reducing
the concentration of water in the air around the leaves. This encourages more water loss from
the leaves through diffusion.
High temperature is the fourth condition. High temperature increases kinetic energy of water
vapour so that the water vapour escapes faster from the leaves hence increasing transpiration
rate.
High water supply is the last condition that speeds up the rate of transpiration in plants. High
water supply makes the leaves not close their stomata to allow carbon dioxide to diffuse from
the surrounding air into the leaf for photosynthesis even if the temperatures are very high. This
increases rate of transpiration since transpiration mostly occur through stomata.
7. Describe an experiment that could be carried out to show that light intensity affects rate of
transpiration in leafy shoots. Your answer should include procedure, expected results and
conclusion. (2011)
In this as method, two leafy shoots of similar stages of growth should be prepared and each
should be fixed into a potometer. The potometers should then be filled with water of known
volumes. One leafy shoot should be placed on the ground where there is enough light and the
other should be placed in a room where there is dark.
After eight hours, the two leafy should be removed from the photometers and then the
transpiration rates from each leafy should be calculated by measuring the amount of water lost
from each potometer for eight hours and then divide the amount of water lost by eight hours.
After calculating the transpiration rates per hour for the leafy shoots placed on light and in
dark, the transpiration rates should be compared. The results would show that the
transpiration rate for the shoot that was placed on light is greater than the transpiration rate
for the shoot that was placed in dark. This give
8. Describe any five ways in which a phloem is adapted to its function. Your answer should be
in essay form.
Firstly, the phloem has companion cell with numerous mitochondria which provide energy for
translocation.
The phloem has sieve plate which provides support to the phloem tissue.

The phloem has sieve pores which act as a pathway for movement of materials.
The sieve elements lack other components of cell such us nucleus, in order to create space for
transportation.
Lastly, the phloem has cytoplasmic filaments which aid in the flow of food along the sieve tube.
9. Describe five problems associated with human digestive system and state how each
problem can be controlled. Your answer should be in essay form. (2007)
The first problem associated with human digestive system is constipation. Constipation occurs
when one faces difficulties in expelling undigested waste matter from the body. It is caused by
lack of roughage in the diet and not drinking enough water. It can be controlled by drinking
enough water after meals and doing physical exercises. It can also be controlled by using drugs
such as laxatives.
Another problem is the heartburn. This is a burning feeling in the chest followed by a sour or
bitter taste in the mouth. It develops when the acid contents of the stomach flows back into the
oesophagus. It can be controlled by taking anti-acid medication.
Ulcers are another problem of human digestive system. An ulcer is an area of damage to the
lining of the stomach, oesophagus and duodenum. It is caused by over production of acids in
the stomach so that the acid corrodes the stomach walls. It can be prevented by eating diets
with less acids and spices.
The fourth problem is appendicitis. This is inflammation of the appendix. This can be cured by
removing the appendix in an operation.
The last problem is diarrhoea. This is a situation where by the large intestine fail to absorb
water leading to production of watery faeces. It is caused by micro-organisms like bacteria
taken together with food or water. Diarrhoea can be prevented by drinking treated water and
observing food hygiene rules.
10. Describe an experiment that could be conducted to show that germinating bean seeds
contain an enzyme that digests starch. Your answer should include procedure expected
results and conclusions. (2009)
In the procedure for this experiment, crush germinating bean seeds in a mortar. Then add
water to obtain the (enzyme) extract. After that put starch solution in test tubes A and B and in
test tube A add the extract, but leave test tube B intact. Leave both test tubes to stand for
some time. Later, add drops of iodine solution to both test tubes and observe colour changes.
You will observe that in test tube A there will be brown colour. This shows there is no starch in
test tube A. In test tube B a blue black colour will be observed showing that starch is present.
This gives a conclusion that germinating bean seeds contain an enzyme that digests starch.
11. Describe how cooked starch and proteins are chemically digested in the human gut. (1997)

In the mouth, salivary glands produce saliva which contains an enzyme called salivary amylase.
Salivary amylase digests cooked starch to maltose.
When the food reaches the stomach, gastric glands produces gastric juice which contains an
enzyme called pepsin. Pepsin digests proteins to polypeptides.
When the food reaches the duodenum, pancreatic amylase in pancreatic juice produced by
pancreas will continue digestion of starch to maltose.
Finally in the ileum, the ileum lining secrete intestinal juice which contains enzymes that
completes digestion of starch and proteins. Maltase digests maltose to glucose and peptidase
digests peptides to amino acids.
12. Explain five functions of the liver related to digestion.
The liver controls glucose concentration in the blood. The liver converts excess glucose in the
blood to glycogen for storage. If there is insufficient glucose in the glucose in the blood, the
liver converts glycogen to glucose for immediate use.
The liver breaks down excess amino acids. If too much protein is eaten, the excess amino acids
are broken down in the liver into urea and carbohydrate.
The liver acts as a storage organ. The liver stores vitamins A, D, E, K and B12 together with some
mineral elements such as iron, copper and potassium until they are required by the body.
The liver regulates the level of lipids circulating in the blood. The liver converts fatty acids and
glycerol into fats for storage under the skin. The liver also converts fatty acids and glycerol into
glucose which can be used for respiration to release energy.
The liver produces bile which emulsifies fats and regulates pH in the intestines for proper action
of pancreatic enzymes.
13. State any five vitamins and their respective functions. Your answer should be in answer
form. (2013)
The first vitamin is retinol. This vitamin is needed for seeing in dim light.
Another vitamin is vitamin B1. This vitamin is needed for normal functioning of the heart and
the nervous system.
The third vitamin is niacin. This helps in the release of energy in cells.
Another vitamin is ascorbic acid. This vitamin makes the blood vessel walls strong.
The last vitamin is vitamin K. This helps in making an enzyme called thrombin that is involved in
blood clotting process.
Human Circulatory System

14. Write an essay describing problems associated with circulatory system and ways of
preventing them.
High blood pressure is one of the problems associated with circulatory system. The onset of
high blood pressure is accumulation of yellow fats inside arteries called cholesterol. This
cholesterol causes narrowing and hardening of arteries. Due to the narrowing of arteries
pressure rises up. High blood pressure may damage the kidneys heart and arteries.
Heart attack is another problem associated with circulatory system. This is a condition in which
heart muscles are not contracting due to insufficient energy. Heart attack occurs when a coronary
artery is blocked. The part the heart which the coronary artery serves is deprived of oxygen and
nutrients. If only a small area of the heart is affected the person may recover, otherwise a large area
implies a fatal result.
These problems can be prevented by taking exercises, keeping the body weight at reasonable
level and avoid smoking. Exercises increase the flow of blood through the muscles which may
stop the fatty substance from settling down in the inner lining arteries. Keeping the body
weight at reasonable level by avoid overeating helps to prevent cholesterol from accumulating
in the lining of arteries. Avoid smoking removes the possibility of blood clotting caused by
nicotine and carbon monoxide in the coronary artery.
15. Write an essay describing the process of blood clotting.
When a blood vessel is damaged platelets releases a chemical called thromboplastin.

Thromboplastin converts a blood protein called prothrombin to an enzyme called thrombin.
Both calcium ions and vitamin K are necessary for this to occur.
The enzyme thrombin catalyses the conversion of soluble plasma protein called fibrinogen into
insoluble protein fibrin. Fibrin consists of fibrous strands which form thread – like network over
the damaged blood vessel. Blood cells get caught in the meshwork of fibrin fibres, forming a
blood clot.
16. Explain how the blood circulatory system is adapted to transpiration of oxygen from the
air to cell in a mammal. Your answer should be in essay form. (1998)
In the lungs there are numerous blood capillaries surrounding every alveolus. This increase the
surface area for diffusion and so more oxygen is absorbed. The red blood cells are adapted to
oxygen transportation in two ways. They contain an oxygen carrying compound called
haemoglobin. Their biconcave shape provides more surface area for more haemoglobin and
hence more oxygen is carried.
In addition, the red blood cells are large in numbers. This also increases the amount of oxygen
transported to cells.
The tireless and constantly beating cardiac muscles enable oxygen to be transported
continuously to cells.

The extensive network of arteries and arterioles enables all corners of the body to be supplied with
oxygen.
Another adaptation of circulatory system is the capillaries. Every tissue of the body is
surrounded by a dense network of capillaries. This increases the surface area for more diffusion
of oxygen from blood to tissue cells. Finally the capillaries are one – cell thick. This enables fast
and easy movement of oxygen from blood to tissue cells.
17. Write an essay stating five components of human blood and explain their functions. (2005)
Plasma is one of the components of the human blood. Plasma is the liquid part of blood. It
transports food substance from the alimentary canal to all parts of the body. It contains
antibodies that fight against infections.
Another component of human blood is white blood cells. There are two types of white blood
cells i.e. phagocytes and lymphocytes. Phagocytes engulf and digest bacteria; lymphocytes
produce antibodies.
Red blood cells form another component of the human blood. Red blood cells determine the blood group of individuals since they have
antigens.
Haemoglobin which transports oxygen throughout the body tissues is another important
component of the human blood.
Another component of human blood comprises of platelets. Platelets prevent entry of germs
into the body by forming clots.
18. A heartbeat is made up of three stages. State the three stages of a heartbeat and describe what
happens during each stage.
Atria systole is the first stage of heartbeat. During this stage the atria contracts thereby opening
the bicuspid and tricuspid valves. Blood is then forced into the ventricles. The ventricles are
relaxed to receive blood. The semi-lunar valves are closed, preventing blood from flowing back
into the ventricles from pulmonary artery and aorta. The pulmonary vein and venacava
contracts to prevent blood from being squeezed out of the atria back into the veins.
The second stage is the ventricular systole. During the stage the ventricles contracts thereby
creating blood pressure in the ventricles which opens the semi-lunar valves and closes bicuspid
and tricuspid valves. Blood is forced into aorta and pulmonary artery. The atria are relaxed to
receive blood from venacava and pulmonary vein.
The last stage is diastole. During this stage the atrial and ventricles walls relax briefly. The
semilunar valves close. More blood flows into the atria which are dilated. When they are fill up
a new heart cycle begin.
19. Describe an experiment that could be carried out to investigate the effect of exercise on
breathing rate in human beings. Your essay should include procedure, expected results and
conclusion. (2010)

In this as a method one would need a stop watch, a rope and a student. The student should be
allowed to breathe for five minutes while seating. The number of breaths taken in five minutes
should be recorded and then breathing rate per minute should be calculated by dividing the
number of breaths taken by time taken.
Secondly the same student should skip twenty times the rope and immediately count the
number of breaths taken in five minutes and then record. The breathing rate per minute after
exercise should be calculated by dividing the number of breaths taken by time taken.
After calculating the breathing rates per minute before and after exercise, the breathing rate
should be compared. The result would show that the breathing rate made before exercise is
lower than after exercise. This gives a conclusion that exercises the rate of breathing.
20. Explain the mechanism of breathing in fish (2004)
For inhalation, a fish opens its mouth while muscular contractions lower the floor of the buccal
cavity and pharynx. This increases the volume of, and decreases the water pressure in, the
buccal cavity and pharynx. Water flows into the mouth from the outside because the internal
water pressure is lower than external water pressure.
Operculum muscles bulge. This increases the volume and decreases the pressure in the gill
region. Water flows from the mouth cavity over the gills. As water pass the gill filament, oxygen
diffuses out of the water into the blood and carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood into the
water.
For inhalation, a fish closes couth while the muscles raise the floor of buccal cavity and pharynx.
This decreases the volume of, and increases the water pressure in the buccal cavity. The
internal water pressure exceeds external water pressure and the flexible edge of the operculum
is forced open. The remaining water is forced out over the gills and through operculum.
21. Describe the breathing mechanism in human beings. Your answer should be in essay form.
(2006)
Breathing involves two phases that is inspiration and expiration. During inspiration the muscles
of the diaphragm contract. This pulls the diaphragm downwards causing it to flatten hence
increasing the volume of the thorax. At the same time, the external intercostal muscles contract
and internal intercostal muscles relax. This pulls the ribcage upwards and outwards. Together,
these movement increases the volume of the thorax. As the volume of the thorax increases, the
pressure inside it falls below atmospheric pressure hence air rushes into the lungs.
During expiration the muscles of the diaphragm relax. This allows the diaphragm to return to its
dome shape, which decreases volume in the thorax. The external intercostal muscles relax and
internal intercostal muscles contract. This pulls the rib cage downwards and inwards. This also
decreases the volume of the thorax. As the volume of the thorax decreases, the pressure inside
it rises above atmospheric pressure so that air is forced out of the lungs.
22. Explain how breathing rate is controlled in human beings.

Breathing rate is controlled by part of the brain called medulla oblongata. The main factor that
affects breathing rate is carbon dioxide concentration. When the concentration of carbon
dioxide in the blood increases during exercises, the receptors in the aorta and carotid arteries
detect this. As a result, receptors send the nerve impulses to the medulla oblongata. The
medulla oblongata sends impulses to the intercostal muscles and diaphragm to increase the
rate and depth of breathing. More air is forced in and out of the lungs and finally, the level of
carbon dioxide falls and breathing rate goes back to normal.
23. During winter, a farmer decided to light a charcoal burner to warm calves in a modern
cattle khola. Before the charcoal completely got burnt, it was taken into the khola which
had the windows closed. The following morning the calves were found dead. In an essay
form, explain the steps that lead to the death of the calves. (2011)
The charcoal burner produced carbon monoxide which was inhaled by the calves. The carbon
monoxide then diffused into the red blood cells where it combined with haemoglobin to form
carboxyhaemoglobin. Carboxyhaemoglobin does not split easily hence it lowered the capacity
of red blood cells to take up oxygen. Lack of oxygen resulted into no respiration in the living
cells hence the calves lacked energy. Due to lack of energy, the body processes stopped taking
place and the calves died.
24. Flight in bird involves downward beat and upward beat. Write an essay describing what
happens during downward beat and upward beat.
During downward beat the pectoralis major muscles contract, pulling the wing down and the
pectoralis minor muscle relax. The flight feathers overlap in a way as to trap much air so that
there is more resistance below the wing to generate lift.
During up ward beat, the pectoralis minor muscles contracts and pectoralis major muscles
relax, thus raising the wing up. The flight feathers overlap in a way as to let air pass between
them so that air resistance is reduced below the wing. As a result there is no up thrust below
the wing and the force of gravity pull down the bird so that it losses height.
25. Describe five ways in which a bird is adapted to overcoming gravity and effect of drag in
flight your answers should be in an essay form. (2007)
Birds have streamlined body which reduces the effect of drag.

Birds have large and power pectoral muscles that provide power to flap wings in flight. This
helps to overcome gravity.
Thirdly birds contain air sacs attached to the lungs and these make them lighter hence
overcoming gravity.
Fourthly, birds have bones lighter hence overcoming gravity.
Lastly the feathers of a bird provide an aerofoil which generates light hence overcoming gravity.

26. Describe five ways in which a fish is adapted for swimming. Your answer should be in
essay form.
Fish has streamlined body which reduces drag as it moves through the water.
Fish has mucus glands which secrete slimy substance which moisten the scales.
Fish has flexible vertebral column which allows the fish’s body to curve.
Fish has swim bladder which controls buoyancy and depth at which the fish swims in water.
The scales of fish overlap facing backwards. This reduces drag as the fish moves through water.
Reproduction
27. State any five contraceptive methods and explain how each one works your answer
should be in an essay form.(2003, 2009)
The first contraceptive method is contraceptive pills. Contraceptive pills contain oestrogen and progesterone-like
hormones. These hormones prevent ovulation.
Another contraceptive method is vasectomy. This is an operation that is carried out on a man
where the sperm ducts are cut. This prevents fertilization as sperms from testis cannot pass to
vagina.
The third type of contraceptive methods is the use of the diaphragm. This is a dome-shaped
rubber cap with an elastic rim inserted on the top of the vagina and placed over the cervix in
this way the diaphragm prevents sperms from entry into uterus hence prevents fertilization.
Another contraceptive method is the use of the condom. A condom is a thin rubber which is
used to cover erect before intercourse so that fertilization should not take place as the sperms
cannot enter the vagina.
The last contraceptive method is the rhythm method. Rhythm method prevents fertilization as
sexual intercourse occurs in safe days only.
28. Explain any five ways in which breast feeding is important. (2012)
Breastfeeding acts as a birth control. Breastfeeding delays the onset of menstruation for the
mother hence delaying pregnancy.
Breast milk provides passive natural immunity to an infant ensuring that the infant is able to
resist disease infections in its early stages as its body develops.
The baby develops sense of closeness to the mother while feeding and this helps in baby’s
emotional development.

Breast milk contains substances that cleans and activates the alimentary canal of an infant to
enable it to carry out digestion.
Breast milk reduces infant mortality by ensuring that the infants grow without any nutritional
deficiency diseases.
29. Describe any five adaptations of the human male reproductive system. Your answer
should be in essay form.
The human male reproductive system has testis that have highly coiled tubules called
seminiferous tubules. These tubules produce spermatozoa.
Secondly, the testis lies outside the abdominal cavity in the scrotum. This keeps them at lower
temperature than the body which is conducive for the sperm production.
Thirdly, the male reproductive system has epididymis which is highly coiled and lie next to the
testis. In the epididymis is where the sperms are store.
Fourthly, the male reproductive system has sperm duct which transfer the sperms from
epididymis to the urethra.
Lastly, the male reproductive system has seminal vesicle that secretes an alkaline secretion that
forms semen. The secretion helps in nourishment of sperms.
30. Describe five functions of the placenta. Your answer should be in essay form.
The placenta is a place for exchange of substances between the mother’s blood and the
embryo’s blood. The placenta allows dissolved food substances such as glucose, amino acids
and oxygen to diffuse from the mother’s blood into that of the embryo.
The placenta allows antibodies to diffuse from the mother’s blood into that of the embryo.
Antibodies protect the embryo against certain diseases.
The placenta secretes progesterone hormone that maintains pregnancy by ensuring

proliferation of uterine wall.
The placenta secretes human placental lactogenic hormone which stimulates the development of
mammary glands in preparation of lactation.
Lastly, the placenta forms a barrier separating the embryo’s blood system and the mother’s
blood system. This prevents the mother’s high blood pressure from damaging the embryo’s
delicate blood vessels.
Human Diseases

31. Suppose there is an outbreak of diarrhoea in a boarding school. Describe how you would
establish the cause of the outbreak your answer should be in an essay form. (2005)
To establish the cause of diarrhoeal diseases, the following can be done:
Firstly, I would find out about personal hygiene of student because unhygienic conditions
results in breeding of various types of germs.
I would also establish how food is prepared at the cafeteria and surroundings where food is
prepared.
I would also find out about the source of water used by students whether it is from a hygienic
source. If it is from boreholes, then I would advise that the boreholes should be re-located away
from pit latrines.
Knowing whether the students had been vaccinated against diseases like cholera before would
be necessary.
Besides all these, I would find out the methods of waste disposal used at the school. Waste
management is crucial since waste disposal areas are breeding grounds for microbes that cause
diarrhoeal diseases
32. The mode of transmission of a disease determines how people try to prevent it. Discuss
the above statement by referring to sleeping sickness and cholera. (1994)
Sleeping sickness is caused by Trypanosoma rhodesience which is transmitted from one person
to another by tsetse flies. Sleeping sickness can be controlled by killing the tsetse flies and
preventing their multiplication. This can be done by sterilizing the male tsetse flies so that if the
mate the females, the latter should not lay eggs. Tsetse flies can be killed by spraying the bushes
with the pesticides. Another way of preventing sleeping sickness is to avoid making settlements
close to humid conditions along the river banks and thicker vegetation where the tsetse flies live.
This helps to prevent the tsetse flies bites.
Cholera is caused by a bacterium called Vibrio cholerae which is transmitted to humans by

infected water. Cholera can be prevented by chlorinating or boiling drinking water and by
ensuring that human wastes do not contaminate water supplies.
Cholera can also be transmitted by flies from infected faeces to food. This can be prevented by
maintaining proper hygiene such as covering foods and also proper use of latrines. In addition,
keeping the public places clean helps to prevent the flies from finding the breeding places.
33. Describe two diseases of human beings caused by protozoa, and explain how each affects
the body and how it may be controlled. (1999)
Malaria is one of the diseases caused by protozoa. Malaria is caused by plasmodium which is
transmitted by female anopheles mosquito. When the plasmodium enters the body through
mosquito bites, they multiply and enter the bloodstream where they destroy the red blood

cells. The destruction of red blood cells leads to anaemia. Apart from anaemia, the waste
products left by plasmodium lead to fever, headache and high body temperature accompanied
by excessive sweating.
Malaria can be controlled by reducing the population of mosquitoes through spraying the
rooms with insecticides that kill mosquitoes, draining stagnant water to prevent egg laying by
mosquitoes by destroying their breeding grounds, breeding fish and ducks in slow running
water to eat mosquito larvae and spraying oil stagnant on stagnant water that cannot be
drained to prevent the larvae from breathing hence killing them by suffocation.
Another disease caused by protozoa is sleeping sickness. Sleeping sickness is caused by

Trypanosome rhodesience which is transmitted from one person to another by tsetse flies. When the Trypanosoma rhodesience enters the
body through tsetse flies bites, it leads fever, severe headache, swollen lymph nodes and insomnia at night.
Sleeping sickness can be controlled by killing the tsetse flies and preventing their multiplication.
This can be done by sterilizing the male tsetse flies so that if the mate the females, the latter
should not lay eggs. Tsetse flies can be killed by spraying the bushes with the pesticides.
Another way of preventing sleeping sickness is to avoid making settlements close to humid
conditions along the river banks and thicker vegetation where the tsetse flies live. This helps to
prevent the tsetse flies bites.
34. Describe five problems which result from rapid growth of human population and how they be
controlled. You answer should be in essay form.
The first problem from rapid growth of human population is deforestation. This is the clearing
of large areas of natural woodland and forest either for settlement or agriculture. Deforestation
disturbs rainfall pattern which eventually leads to desertification.
Another problem is overgrazing. When people have occupied almost all lands including where
animals would be feeding, the animals are forced to graze on small piece of land for long time.
This leads to soil to soil erosion and therefore loss of fertility.
Scarcity of land forces people and companies to dump waste material some of which can be
toxic into the environment. This pollution can lead to contamination and therefore diseases.
Over population can also lead to food insecurity. This is due to scarcity of land and due to
lowering of quality of agricultural land.
Overpopulation can lead to overcrowdings and this can encourage spread of diseases e.g.
Tuberculosis.
Rapid population growth can be controlled by reducing birth rate, conservation of resources,
improved sanitation and reducing over – consumption of food.
35. Describe an experiment that would be used to find out the effect of unequal distribution
of light on growing shoot. In your answer include method, expected results and
conclusion. (2004)

In this as a method, one would need two potted bean seedlings of similar stages of growth, one
of which is placed in cardboard box with a window cut in one side to allow light to penetrate
from one direction. The other should be in a similar situation but placed on a rotating clinostat.
This exposes each side of the shoot to light equally. This is a control.
After two days, the two plants should be removed from boxes and compared. The results would
show that the stem of the plant with one-sided illumination has changed direction of growth
and is growing towards the light. The one in clinostat does not bend.
This gives a conclusion that unequal distribution of light affects a growing shoot since it has
responded to one-sided lighting by growing towards it.
36. Explain an experiment that you would conduct to find out the region that responds to
stimulus of gravity in bean seedlings. Your answer should be in essay form. (2006)
In this as a method, one would need two newly germinated bean seedlings with straight
radicles, one of which is pinned to a cork which is then placed in the mouth of a jar. The jar is
then left on its side. The radicle being horizontal will be subjected to gravitational force
perpendicular to its length. The other should be in similar situation but placed on rotating
clinostat. This ensures that gravity acts equally on all sides of the radicle. In both cases, put
moist cotton wool so as to keep the seedlings moist. The apparatus should then be left in
darkness to eliminate the possibility of phototropic response.
After two days, the bean seedlings should be removed from the jars and compared. The results
would show that the radicle (root) of seedlings in the stationary jar has changed its direction of
growth and is growing towards gravity. The one on the clinostat does not bend.
This gives a conclusion that roots responds to gravity by growing towards it.
37. One of the forms of treatment for people who have lost both their kidneys is through the use of
dialysis machine. Write an essay describing how a dialysis machine works.
A dialysis machine receives blood through tube connected to an artery. Inside the machine,
blood flows through dialysis tubing. The tubing has partly permeable walls and is bathed in
dialysis fluid, which has the same concentration of substances found in blood plasma but does
not contain any waste substances. This means that waste products such as area are more
concentrated in the blood than dialysis fluid so they diffuse out of blood into dialysis. Useful
substances such as glucose and salts do not diffuse out of blood because the concentration of
these substances in dialysis fluid and blood are the same. Large molecules, such as blood
proteins and red blood cells, are too large to pass through the dialysis tube wall.
After the blood has circulated through the dialysis machine, most of waste substances are
removed from it. The purified blood is re-introduced into the patient’s body via a vein of the
arm.
38. Describe how nitrogen atoms eaten in a bean meal can eventually be excreted in urine. (2002)

When one has taken a bean meal, the proteins in the meal are digested into polypeptides by
pepsin in the stomach. Polypeptides are digested to peptides by trypsin in the duodenum which
are later digested into amino acid by peptidase in the ileum.
Amino acids are then absorbed into the small intestine where they are transported together
with blood to the liver by the hepatic vein. Here excess amino acids are deaminated by the
liver, where nitrogen is removed from the amino acid. The nitrogenous compounds combine
with carbon dioxide to form urea. Urea is transported to the kidneys through blood by the renal
artery. The kidney removes urea through ultra-filtration and reabsorption. Urea is then
excreted as urine.
39. Describe how urine is formed in the kidneys of the human body. Write your answer in
essay form. (2010)
Urine is formed in two stages, namely: ultrafiltration and selective reabsorption. Ultrafiltration
is a mechanical process that takes place in the Bowman’s capsule producing glomerular filtrate.
Ultrafiltration occurs due to a combination of high blood pressure in the glomerulus, and the
structure of glomerulus and Bowman’s capsule. The high blood pressure develops in the
glomerulus because the afferent arteriole is wider than the efferent arteriole. The high blood
pressure squeezes the blood against the walls of the capillaries of glomerulus. The walls of
these capillaries are semi-permeable so that substances with small molecules such water,
glucose and urea are forced out of capillaries and Bowman’s capsule into the renal tubule while
blood cells and blood proteins remain in the blood in the glomerulus since they have large
molecules.
As glomerular filtrate passes along the renal tubule, some substances that are useful to the
body are selectively reabsorbed into the blood capillary network surrounding the nephron.
These substances are reabsorbed either reabsorbed by osmosis (for water) or diffusion or
active transport leaving behind substances in the renal tubule called urine.
40. Nitrogen’s an important element in synthesis of proteins which are essential for growth.
Starting with atmospheric nitrogen, describe how this element is recycled in nature. (1990)
Atmospheric nitrogen converted to nitrates by free–living bacteria in the soil and by nitrogen–
fixing bacteria in the root nodules of legumes. The nitrates are then absorbed by plants and
later the plants convert them into organic material. These organic materials form tissues of
plants. Animals feed on plants and obtain these organic materials. When both plants and
animals die, the organic materials forming the tissues are broken down through decay and
decomposition to release ammonium compounds into the soil. The ammonium compounds in
the soil are in turn converted back into nitrates which are usually available to the existing
plants. Some of these nitrates are lost by leaching process or converted to nitrogen of the air
through the process called denitrification.
41. Describe how the population of a plant in an open field can be estimated. Your answer
should be in essay from. (2007)

Firstly choose one type of weed from the field. Use a 0.25 square metre quadrat to estimate
the population size of the weed by dropping it anywhere in the field. Then count and record the
number of chosen plants inside the quadrat. Drop the quadrat at random in different parts of
the field so that you have ten readings altogether. Use your ten readings to work out the
average number of plants in a quadrat.
Secondly measure and calculate the total area of the field in square metre. The population of a
plant is then estimated by multiplying the area of the field by average numbers of plants in a
quadrat divided by the area of the quadrat.
42. Explain an experiment that would be used to estimate the density of grasshoppers in a school
garden (2003)
In this as a method, one would use the sweep net to capture the grasshoppers in 15 minutes
from the garden. The captured grasshoppers should then be kept in well ventilated containers
and they should not be harmed in any way. Carefully mark each grasshopper with a nail varnish
and then count the total number of grasshopper marked. Then release the grasshoppers into
the garden.
After two hours, repeat the capturing exercise in which one should collect both marked and
unmarked grasshoppers. The recapturing exercise should also take 15 minutes in the same
garden. One should then count the marked and unmarked grasshoppers in the second sample.
The population of grasshoppers will then be estimated by multiplying the number of
grasshoppers in the first catch by number of grasshoppers in the second catch divided by
numbers of marked grasshoppers recaptured.
After estimating the population of grasshoppers, measure and calculate the total area of school
garden in square metre and then calculate the population density of grasshoppers by dividing
the total population to grasshoppers by total area of the school garden.
43. Suppose you are an environmental officer in an area where people are not aware of the
cause of environmental degradation. Explain any five causes and effects of
environmental degradation you would include in your advice. Your answer should be in
an essay form (2009)
Overgrazing is an environmental degradation that results from feeding large herd of animals on
a small piece of land continuously. It causes depletion of plant species or may lead to
desertification or siltation of rivers siltation can cause floods.
Deforestation results from wanton cutting down of trees. It leaves the soil bare. When there is
heavy wind or rain, top soil is lost through soil erosion. Loss of top soil can lead to siltation in
river and also loss of soil fertility.
Another environmental degradation arises from pollution. This is when humans or industries
dump waste toxic materials in the environment. Pollution can cause death of organisms or loss
of habitat or acid rains.

Introduction of alien species to a habit or community may lead to new species feeding on
indigenous species or competing for food and light with indigenous spices. This may lead to
extinction of indigenous species.
Bush fires are environmental degradation which destroys the ecosystem. This may also reduce
total number of species in the environment or cause soil erosion or siltation of rivers or air
pollution. These may lead to global warming or loss of habitat.
44. Explain the ways in which Shire River could become polluted by human activities. (1991) Agricultural, industrial and domestic
activities are some of the human activities which can cause pollution to Shire River.
When fertilizers are used on agriculture land, rain water may carry nitrates and phosphates into
the river. This may result into rapid increase in algae population and cause reduction in the
amount of dissolved oxygen in the water. The oxygen is depleted by bacteria which decompose
the dead algae.
Pesticides used in farming may also be washed into the river by rain water. These may poison
the organisms at higher trophic levels in the food chain. This effect is caused by pesticides such
as DDT which do not compose and become more concentrated along the food chain.
Industrial activities which could cause pollution include discharging of chemicals into the water.
These may poison the living organisms in the river. Heated water from industrial processes may
affect river organisms by, for example, increasing algae growth.
Domestic activities like disposal of human wastes into the river may result into rapid increase in
algae population and cause reduction in the amount of dissolved oxygen in the water.
45. Describe five problems associated with the nervous system and state how each problem can be
controlled. Your answer should be in essay form.
The first problem is poliomyelitis. This is a situation where there is a permanent damage of the
motor neurons to the legs, arms so that there is no response of these organs. This leads to poor
development of bones and limbs wither. Polio is caused by a virus which multiplies in the spinal
cord. Polio can be prevented by vaccinating the children.
Tetanus is another problem. This is a situation whereby there is a permanent contraction of

muscles. Tetanus is caused by Clostridium tetani which multiplies in deep wounds. Injections of
antitoxins and muscle relaxing drugs help to cure tetanus
Leprosy is another problem. The infection attacks the skin and the sensory neurons so that the sensation
is lost in some parts of the skin. Leprosy is caused by Mycobacteriumleprae. It can be controlled by drugs.
Meningitis is another problem. Meningitis is the inflammation of the meninges. It may be

caused by physical injury, a reaction to certain drugs or infection by certain viruses, bacteria,
fungi or parasites. Use of antibiotics such as benzyl penicillin helps to cure meningitis.
The last problem is stroke. Stroke is brain damage caused by lack of blood flow to any part of
the brain. It occurs when blood flow to a part of brain is interrupted because of blockage of an

artery in the brain or bursting of capillary in the brain leading to a blood clot. The brain cells
starve to death due to lack of oxygen. Stroke can be managed by prompt medical attention to
remove the blood clot.
46. Describe five barriers which the body uses to prevent entry of disease causing organism into it.
Explain how each works. (2003)
The first barrier is the skin. The skin secretes an oily substance called sebum which kills
bacteria.
In case the skin is cut, the mechanism of blood clotting act as another barrier. Blood clotting
prevents the entry of germs into the bloodstream through cuts in the skin.
Tears also act as a barrier. Tears contain an enzyme called lysozyme which digests and break
down harmful micro-organisms into harmless substances. Therefore, harmful micro-organisms
cannot enter the body through the openings around the eye.
Another barrier is mucus. Mucus is a sticky liquid in certain body openings like the nose and
throat. It traps micro-organisms entering through these openings hence preventing the entry of
micro-organisms into the body.
The last barrier is cilia. Cilia are tiny hair like structures that line the inside of some parts of the
body such as trachea. Cilia move back and forth to sweep micro-organisms in the trachea and
prevent them from entering the lungs
47. Describe how one can acquire natural and artificial immunity. (1998)
Natural immunity occurs when lymphocytes produces the antibodies in response to arrival of
foreign antigens (pathogens). When the lymphocytes come in contact with the foreign antigen
they produce plasma cell clones and memory cells. Plasma cell clones produce antibodies which
destroy the pathogens. Memory cells remain inactive and remain in the blood for a very long
time after the infection. If the same pathogen gets into the body again, the memory cells
recognise it at the same time. The immune response is immediate to the pathogen, killing it
before it has any chance of breeding.
Natural immunity also occurs when antibodies are passed from mother to child through
placenta and also breast milk. These antibodies protect the baby against certain infections.
Artificial immunity is established by injecting a small quantity of antigens, the vaccine, into the
body. This stimulates the body to recognize antigens and to respond to them.
Artificial immunity is also acquired when serum containing antibodies is extracted from one
organism and injected into another organism, protecting it from a specific disease.
48. Using Darwin’s theory evolution, describe how a population of fast running Zebras would
involve from slow running ancestor in an environment where lions are predators. Your
answer should be in an essay form. (2007 Leaked Paper)

At first, there were slow running zebras that reproduced to increase chances of survival.
Offsprings varied from each other due to mutation such that slow and fast running zebras were
born.
. In such environment where Lions are predators, the fast running Zebras will be able to survive
and produce young ones. Slow running Zebras will be caught and slowly be eliminated from the
population. The gene for fast running in the fast running zebras will therefore be preserved and
extended to successive generations and the gene slow running will be eliminated from the
population.
After a long period of time the population will be left with only the species of fast running
Zebras. Fast running zebras reproduced successfully and pass there genes of fast running to their
offsprings.
49. Explain any five evidence of evolution. Your answer should be in essay form.
The first evidence is fossil records. Fossils are the remains of dead organisms that have been
preserved in sedimentary rocks. The records from fossils show the gradual change in animals
over a period of time. Fossil records also reveal the extinction of organisms due to presence of
fossils of organisms that do not exist today.
Another evidence is comparative anatomy. Comparative anatomy looks for structures, though
may serve different functions in adult, and is similar, suggesting a common ancestral origin. For
example the forelimbs for different vertebrates have similar bones built on the same plan
which suggest that they share a common ancestor.
Geographical distribution is another evidence. The mammals that are found on all continents
are similar. The similarities support the idea that they arose from a common ancestor many
millions years ago and have evolved differently due to geographical isolation.
Comparative embryology is the fourth evidence. This refers to comparison of embryos in

different organisms. When the development patterns in embryos of vertebrates are compared,
many similarities are noted in the early stages of embryonic development. The similarities
suggest a common ancestral origin.
Cell biology is the last evidence of evolution. Study of cells making up living organisms show that they have similar cell organelles e.g.
nucleus and cell membrane. Presences of similar organelles suggest that those organisms have common ancestral origin
END OF PRACTICALS BY DR W.D.J PEACH 0997 280 681

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BIOLOGY PRACTICALS BY DR W.D.

 This is the key used to identify and group organisms.

Types of dichotomous key

1. Animal dichotomous key 2.

ANIMAL DICHOTOMOUS KEY

Features observed in animals are;

 Presence of legs, some animals do not have legs

MORE TIPS WHEN CONSTRUCTING A DICHOTOMOUS KEY

An example of a dichotomous key Construct

Page 1 of 33 DR W.D.J PEACH (DOMASI COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 2017)

1. Animals with legs ………………………………..see 2 An

2. Animals without wings……………………………see 3

3. Animals with segmented body……………………see 4

4. An animal with long antennae……………………..V An

1. Animals with legs ……………………………………………see 2

Page 2 of 33 DR W.D.J PEACH (DOMASI COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 2017)

3. Animals with tails ……………………………………………see 4 animal without a

4. An animal with a short tail…………………………………..Giraffe

1. Animals with legs ……………………………………………..see 2 An

2. Animals without a beak……………………………………….see 3 An

3. Animals with wings ……………………………………………see 4

4. An animal with antennae………………………………………D

Page 3 of 33 DR W.D.J PEACH (DOMASI COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 2017)

2. Animals without a beak…….see 3 An

3. Animals without feathers………..see

3. PLANT DICHOTOMOUS KEY

Page 4 of 33 DR W.D.J PEACH (DOMASI COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 2017)

B. Presence of even or rough margins

Rough (serrated) margin smooth margin

C. Presence of different leaf shapes

D. Different leaf Arrangements

Page 5 of 33 DR W.D.J PEACH (DOMASI COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 2017)

3. Leaves in simple form ………………………………………See 4 Leaves in

4. Leaves in digitate arrangement……………………………Chorisia

DICHOTOMOUS KEY FOR PLANTS

1. Leaves with netted(branched) veins……………………….See 2

2. Leaves with smooth margins ……………………………..See 3 Leaves

PRACTICAL PART 2- FOOD TESTS

1) Testing for the presents of starch

TESTING FOR PRESENTS OF STARCH

Page 6 of 33 DR W.D.J PEACH (DOMASI COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 2017)

TESTING FOR PRESENTS OF REDUCING SUGARS (GLUCOSE)

The following re the steps;

NB; a very good example of the reducing sugar is glucose.

TESTING FOR THE PRESENTS OF NON-REDUCING SUGARS (SUCROSE)

The following are the steps;

TESTING FOR THE PRESENTS OF PROTEINS

The following are the steps;

 Crush the food sample into smaller pieces

Page 7 of 33 DR W.D.J PEACH (DOMASI COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 2017)

TESTING FOR THE PRESENTS OF LIPIDS AND OILS (GROUNDNUTS)

The following are the steps;

 Crush the food sample into smaller pieces

Enzymes are biological catalysts, they speed up the chemical reaction

 All enzymes are proteins in nature

Page 8 of 33 DR W.D.J PEACH (DOMASI COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 2017)

a. Seeds- used for regeneration

MORE POINTS ABOUT TOMATO FRUIT

Page 9 of 33 DR W.D.J PEACH (DOMASI COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 2017)

2. THE BEEN SEED